Introduction to Academic Writing:
Language and Style
Dr Alex Adams
Writing Development Centre
Based on materials developed by Alicia Cresswell
How to write your doctoral thesis
 Gather and organise your materials:
 Data
 Literature and other evidence
 Notes
 Plan the structure of the thesis, with
wordcount
 Plan the content of each chapter
 Write up each chapter as you go
 Edit each chapter in response to
feedback from peers and supervisors
 Revise the thesis as a whole
 Ensure it conforms to required
presentation
 Submit on time
Why isn’t it that easy?
 It’s unpredictable, complicated and
difficult by nature
 Lack of clarity about aims, content,
process or standard
 Writer’s block – lack of effective writing
strategies
 Perfectionism or anxiety about what
supervisor / examiner thinks
 Procrastination or ineffective time
management
 Not knowing when to stop or when is
enough
 Binge-writing and exhaustion
This Session: Good Academic Practice
Developing good academic practice is one of the
ways you can solve the wider dilemma of how to
address the thesis and manage the workload.
Your work habits are personal, but developing a
healthy and productive way of working (and of
taking time away from the project when you need to
refresh) is really important.
This Session: Good Academic Practice
 Study habits
 Structure and paragraphing
 Concision, style, tone, presentation, grammar
 Drafting, editing and proofreading
 A few words about publishing
What is involved in the writing process?
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Reading
Thinking and clarifying your ideas
Structuring your argument
Producing a first draft to give you something to work with
Giving someone (your supervisor or peers) an indication of
your work for feedback
 Editing and refining your writing for content and style
 Formatting your writing
 Reviewing your work for overall consistency, cohesion and
direction
Don’t attempt all of these at once – ‘layer’ the process of
writing
Your writing preferences
Reflect honestly on your writing practice.
 Do you prefer to write in large blocks (time or words)
or a little at a time?
 Where do you prefer to write? What are the
conditions which help you write?
 When do you prefer to write? What time of day?
 What motivates you to write – rewards and rituals?
 Are these strategies reliably working for you?
Unconstructive beliefs
 I can’t write unless I know what I’m going to say.
 That’s not the way I work. I can’t work like that.
 What’s the point of producing bad writing? Why
bother if it’s no good?
 I can’t start writing unless I’m in the mood/inspired.
 I can’t write until I’ve done.....
 I don’t have time to....!
 It’s not good enough!
Why do we put off or get stuck with
writing?
1. Habit, beliefs, too risk-averse to challenge
these
2. Aversion to discomfort
3. Resentment or lack of clarity about extrinsic
goals
4. Anxiety that others won’t be satisfied with our
work
5. Reluctance to be satisfied with our own work,
due to unrealistically high standards
Possible solutions
 Start writing an ‘easy’ section, or something you feel
comfortable approaching.
 Set short-term goals, and provide rewards.
 Practise freewriting – get something written without
thinking too much about the finished product.
 Seek feedback – perhaps find a writing buddy or
mentor, or set up a writing group.
Possible solutions
 If you don’t feel like writing, there are other activities
that are worthwhile, such as compiling references or
bibliography (but try to ensure this doesn’t become
procrastination).
 Break it down into bearable chunks – tell yourself to
write for only 20 minutes, or only 500 words (you can
continue if you want to) but promise yourself you can
stop or discard work.
 Pick the section you find most approachable – work
backwards from the end if you have to.
Planning
Writing, in any discipline, is an organic process.
 Planning
 Drafting
 Rewriting and editing
 Proofreading
Planning
Planning involves various academic skills.
 Reading, collecting, organising, and selecting
materials.
 Drawing up a plan that organises ideas and
material into a rough sequence. This can be any
form of plan that makes sense to you, and could
take the form of a linear plan, a mindmap, or a
collection of colour-coded post-it notes.
 Writing, rewriting and revising.
Planning
Planning involves various academic skills.
 Reorganising, changing, or adapting parts of the
project is not unusual and can be an important
part of planning.
 Remain fluid and adaptable with the material as
far as possible.
Structure: Overall
 Theses usually contain most of these sections:
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Title page
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Contents page
Introduction
Literature review
Materials and methods (or this can be part of every main chapter if you using
different materials and methods in each main chapter)
Results
Discussion
Themed main chapters (if not following a Results – Discussion structure)
Conclusions
References
Appendices
 What structure would work for you?
Subsections
The thesis will require you to produce several
different kinds of academic writing in the course of
one project. Each section of the dissertation requires
you to demonstrate different academic skills.
 Results and methodology sections can be more
descriptive, as they require you to present data in a
detailed and precise way.
 Literature reviews and discussions of findings should
be more analytical and critical, and they require you
to undertake independent research and reading.
Structure
Good writing anticipates the expectations and questions
of the reader.
 State your position clearly and concisely.
 Move from the general to the specific when structuring
your points.
 Use signposting language to guide the reader through
the sections and to link sentences and paragraphs.
Paragraphs
 Topic Sentence
 Evidence
 Discussion
 Signposting
Paragraphs
 Scan the first line of each paragraph. Is it clear what
the paragraph is about, and is there a signpost word to
signal the link or move you’re making?
 Have you included appropriate evidence?
 Have you discussed it in appropriate detail and depth?
 Are you signalling what you will tell the reader and why
it is important? Note next to each paragraph the ‘job’
it’s doing, not what it’s about - is that reflected in the
text?
Paragraphs
Checklist:
 Does each paragraph contain a main idea?
 Is the main idea developed in the sentences that
follow?
 Is there a smooth transition from one paragraph to the
next?
 Are paragraph breaks clearly indicated? For instance,
have you indented new paragraphs or left a blank line
after each paragraph?
 Are paragraphs of the appropriate length?
Editing and Proofreading
Editing and proofreading are fundamental aspects of
good academic practice.
Editing is the process of continually revising and
improving your written work. It is often an activity that
forms a major part of the writing process.
Proofreading is the final check before printing and
submission. It is a process that helps remove errors
and improve presentation.
Attitudes Leading to Effective Revisions
 Editing is a long-term process – have patience.
 Allow plenty of time – take a break before revising. In fact,
take regular breaks, as this well help you avoid burning out.
 Be objective – try to put some critical distance between you
and your work.
 Develop a sense of audience – consider your reader.
 Be critical – assume that a draft will need improving,
however well you write.
Content Revisions: Checklist
 Are your aims/objectives/hypotheses clearly stated? Are they
specific enough?
 Does the background section/literature review include an
appropriate selection of sources? Are there any important
omissions?
 Have you reported other scientists’ work accurately and
fairly?
 Is the methodology explained clearly? Is the information
given accurate? Is it specific and precise enough?
 Are the tables and figures used in the presentation of results
suitable? Are they labelled? Could the data be presented in
a clearer manner?
Content Revisions: Checklist
 Have you explained the key findings in the text?
 Is the link between tables/figures and text clear?
 Are the claims you make about your findings commensurate
with the evidence provided? Are they convincing?
 Have you established links between your findings and the
existing research? Have you emphasised them clearly?
 Have you identified and acknowledged the limitations of your
study?
 Have you made appropriate recommendations for further
research?
 Are your conclusions clearly linked to the aims of the
investigation?
Proofreading
Proofreading is the practice of checking your
completed writing for any final errors. It can be
difficult, particularly when you are still very close to
the work.
 Let the work cool – come back to your work after some time
has passed.
 Seek help – get a colleague or fellow student to check your
writing. Peer review can be very rewarding.
 Read aloud – this can allow you to encounter the work in a
different way.
 Note: The University does not offer a formal
proofreading service.
Proofreading
http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2014/11/11/_crappy_ga
bor_paper_overly_honest_citation_slips_into_peer_reviewed_jou
rnal.html
Style
There are a variety of styles you will be expected to
produce. These can include descriptive, analytical, and
reflective writing, and they each have their demands and
expectations. Overall, however, all good academic
writing is:
 explicit, clear, economical and concise
 formal in language and style
 precise in expression and choice of words
Style
 Read a lot of journals and textbooks in your field, and
practice imitating the style.
 Note key phrases, common ways of presenting ideas, and
common ways of transitioning between paragraphs.
 Visit Academic Phrasebank for recommendations of
appropriate language and for phrases that you can use to
prompt your writing.
 Always bear your reader in mind – anticipate the questions
that an interested reader will want answered.
 Don’t make the reader guess.
“Rogeting”
Avoid “Rogeting”, which is defined as “the creation
of new meaningless phrases through the
thoughtless and ill-considered use of a Roget’s
Thesaurus.”
Sometimes students substitute words in their
sentences with words found in the thesaurus,
which, rather than improving the style, renders the
writing unclear and, sometimes, unintentionally
ridiculous.
Source: http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/sinisterbuttocks-roget-would-blush-at-the-crafty-cheek/2015027.article
“Rogeting”
Example:
“Common mature musicians and recent liturgy
providers are looking to satisfy Herculean
personalised liturgies.”
Original text:
“The current big players and new service providers
are looking to supply more powerful personalised
services.”
“Rogeting”
The lesson: keep it as simple as you can.
The complexity of an idea does not prevent it
being presented clearly and accessibly.
Sentences
Each sentence should contain information
about one guiding idea.
The central principles should be simplicity,
clarity, and economy of expression.
Sentence Structure
Some straightforward questions can help improve the
presentation of your work as you draft it.
 Have you written complete sentences?
 Have you avoided excessively long sentences?
 Are all your sentences clear, in terms of both syntax
and meaning?
 Are the transitions between sentences smooth and
clear?
Vocabulary
 Have you used technical and non-technical vocabulary
accurately and correctly?
 Have you defined terms where necessary?
 Have you used abbreviations and acronyms correctly? Have
you spelled out the abbreviation on its first occurrence, with
the abbreviation in parenthesis?
 Have you avoided slang and colloquialisms?
Formal Vocabulary
 Coming up with clear proof of the decrease in the
number of ladybirds has been difficult.
 Providing clear proof of the decrease in ladybird
population has been difficult.
 Without that information, they can only guess how
many people should be evacuated.
 Without that information, it is not possible to predict
how many people should be evacuated.
Formal Vocabulary
 Although researchers can now accurately predict when a volcanic
eruption will occur, they still have no idea just how big it will be.
 Although researchers can now accurately predict when a volcanic
eruption will occur, they are still unable to predict its magnitude /
its magnitude cannot be predicted.
 Preventing unnecessary evacuations is crucial because local
people quickly lose faith in scientists that cry wolf.
 Preventing unnecessary evacuations is crucial because false
alarms will cause the local population to ignore warnings.
What is the problem here?
The conclusion so far is that for both outputs, most
airports are operating under increasing returns to
scale. Indicating that, to improve relative efficiency,
most airports could increase their scale of operations
to reach MPSS, or have already done so.
Revised Version
The conclusion so far is that for both outputs, most
airports are operating under increasing returns to
scale. This indicates that, to improve relative
efficiency, most airports could increase their scale of
operations to reach MPSS, or have already done so.
Concision
According to the research team headed by Jeeves
(2005), this drug, like other similar compounds, has
several potentially serious side effects – complications
which have long been known to researchers at least
since the initial trials. However, to date absolutely no
measures have been taken to attempt to restrict the
use of this drug, or to at least monitor the severity of
these aforementioned serious side effects.
Concision
More concise alternatives:
Jeeves (2005) concludes that this drug has several potentially
serious side effects known to researchers since the initial trials.
However, nothing has been done to restrict its use or to monitor
the severity of these side effects.
Or:
This drug has several potentially serious side effects known to
researchers since the initial trials. However, nothing has been
done to restrict its use or to monitor the severity of these side
effects (Jeeves, 2005).
Concision
The silica depletion hypothesis formulated by Schelske & Stoermer (1971,
1972) rests on the assumptions that increased nutrient loading causes an
increase in phytoplankton production, and some fraction of the diatoms
produced are permanently lost from the water column and sequestered in
the sediments. The ultimate effect is a depletion of water column DSi
concentrations. There are numerous lines of evidence supporting the
hypothesis that the biogeochemical cycle of silica has been modified in
the North American Laurentian Great Lakes. These include long-term
increases in nutrient loading, changes in algal community composition,
declines in water column DSi concentrations, experiments on the effect of
phosphorous enrichment on natural phytoplankton assemblages, and
paleolimnological evidence of increased accumulation of biogenic silica
and historical changes in diatom species composition.
Revised Version (1)
The silica depletion hypothesis formulated by Schelske & Stoermer (1971,
1972) rests on two assumptions: (1) that increased nutrient loading
causes an increase in phytoplankton production, and (2) that some
fraction of the diatoms produced are permanently lost from the water
column and sequestered in the sediments. The ultimate effect is a
depletion of water column DSi concentrations. There is ample evidence
supporting the hypothesis that the biogeochemical cycle of silica has been
modified in the North American Laurentian Great Lakes, including longterm increases in nutrient loading, changes in algal community
composition, and declines in water column DSi concentrations. Further
support for the hypothesis has been obtained from experiments on the
effect of phosphorous enrichment on natural phytoplankton assemblages,
as well aspaleolimnological evidence of increased accumulation of
biogenic silica and historical changes in diatom species composition.
Revised Version (2)
The silica depletion hypothesis formulated by Schelske & Stoermer (1971, 1972)
rests on two assumptions: (1) that increased nutrient loading causes an increase in
phytoplankton production, and (2) that some fraction of the diatoms produced are
permanently lost from the water column and sequestered in the sediments. The
ultimate effect is a depletion of water column DSi concentrations. There is ample
evidence supporting the hypothesis that the biogeochemical cycle of silica has
been modified in the North American Laurentian Great Lakes. The evidence
includes:
• long-term increases in nutrient loading
• changes in algal community composition
• declines in water column DSi concentrations
• experiments on the effect of phosphorous enrichment on natural phytoplankton
assemblages
• paleolimnological evidence of increased accumulation of biogenic silica and
historical changes in diatom species composition.
Grammar and Style
 Avoid contracted forms of auxiliary verbs.
The government said that interest rates won’t increase.
The government said that interest rates will not increase.
The government said that interest rates will remain unchanged.
 Avoid using the second person (‘you’).
As you can see in table 2, …
As table 2 shows, ….
As can be seen in table 2, …. (correct but wordy)
 The first person pronoun “I” is not appropriate for
formal scientific writing.
Grammar and Style
 Inconsistent use of tenses
Each participant was tested separately. They are asked to
indicate whether…
Each participant was tested separately. They were asked
to indicate whether…
 Lack of subject-verb agreement
The instructions in the user’s manual is confusing.
The instructions in the user’s manual are confusing.
 Misuse of the apostrophe
Its or it’s? Whose or who’s? Their, there or they’re?
Spelling: Commonly Confused Words
 lose and loose
 affect and effect
 brake and break
 enquiry and inquiry
 eminent, imminent, and immanent
 ensure and insure
 practise and practice
 stationary and stationery
 then and than
…and many others
For a full list an explanations, see
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/students/wdc/learning/accurate/confused.htm
Citations: Avoiding Plagiarism
Checking your referencing can be laborious and tedious, but
it is very important. Don’t let it be an afterthought!
 Acknowledge your sources.
 Follow citation conventions – take the time to learn these.
 Identify the source of tables, figures, illustrations or diagrams that
are not your own.
 Summarise or paraphrase.
 Use quotations judiciously.
 Include all sources cited in your list of references.
Formatting and Printing
 Don’t underestimate how long this will take!
 Identify what formatting issues you can work with from an
early stage - font and size, margins, line spacing, reference
style.
 Make an estimate of word count for each section and try and
keep to it, approximately, as you write (or at least consider
which bits are expendable if needed).
 Bringing together separate documents is a complex process.
 Try and factor in breaks from it so you can see it clearly
enough to proofread effectively.
 Leave plenty of time for printing and binding. Seriously. Find
out how much notice is needed.
Academic Publishing
 Publishing is an integral part of academic life.
 Consider very carefully where you are going to
publish – esteem is everything. Consult with your
supervisor if you are unsure.
 Draft carefully and submit your best work, but expect
incisive criticism.
Academic Publishing: Prior to Acceptance
The editor receives your paper and sends it to referees,
who are often esteemed experts in the field.
The referees evaluate the paper, noting weaknesses
and problems. They also suggest solutions and
improvements.
The editor evaluates referees’ comments. They will also
consider their own view, and the readership and scope
of the journal. On this basis they decide whether or not
to publish your work.
Possible Outcomes
1) Unconditional acceptance of the paper or proposal
2) Acceptance subject to revisions
3) Rejection, with encouragement to revision and
resubmission
4) Outright rejection
Referee Feedback
Reasons for Rejection
 The issue under investigation is not considered
important/relevant by the editor/reviewers.
 Lack of originality.
 The study does not test the hypothesis.
 Research design is inadequate.
 Statistical analysis is incorrect.
 The conclusions drawn from the data are not justified.
 The paper is badly written/difficult to understand.
Adapted from Murray, 2005: 198
Rejection
 “I have read this paper several times through, and I
have nothing to say in its defense.”
 “You aimed for the bare minimum, and missed!”
 “I stopped reading the subsequent data reports
carefully, because I no longer had confidence that they
would be accurate.”
 “Table 2 stunningly over-interprets some relatively
small signals in the data.”
 “It is shocking to read how statistics are being misused
just for the sake of being able to write something… I
rate this article as very un-scientific…”
http://shitmyreviewerssay.tumblr.com/
Academic Publishing
Don’t be discouraged!
The peer review process can be very demanding, as it
requires you to respond adaptably and in detail to
potentially challenging feedback.
However, publishing is a key part of academia, so
perseverance (and a thick skin) is really important!
This Session: Good Academic Practice
 Study habits
 Structure and paragraphing
 Concision, style, tone, presentation, grammar
 Drafting, editing and proofreading
 A few words about publishing
Useful Resources
Writing Development Centre Online Resources
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/students/wdc/learning/
Macmillan Dictionary Online
http://www.macmillandictionary.com
Academic Phrasebank
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
Learning Support
The WDC run lectures, seminars and workshops.
Generic sessions are open to all students.
Timetable available at:
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/students/wdc/group/generic/
The Writing Development Centre
Address:
Writing Development Centre
Level 2, Room 202
Robinson Library
Web: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/students/wdc
E-mail:
wdc@ncl.ac.uk
Book an appointment online at:
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/students/wdc/support/
Opening times:
Monday to Thursday 9am to 5pm
Friday 9am to 1pm