1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
What are the influencing risk factors for gang membership among youth? The
researcher is interested in understanding the perceptions of service providers on the risk
factors that influence gang membership. First and foremost, it is important to understand
the prevalence of gangs in the United States. Gangs have been a prevalent issue in the
United States for several decades. In particular, since the 1970s decade leading up to the
mid-1990s the proliferation of gangs have become a main concern. During the mid-1990s
there was a sharp increase in gangs and also youth violence including homicides. Many
have attributed the increase of reported youth violence incidents to the propagation of
youth gangs, while others have attributed it to the increase of the illegal drug trade
involving crack cocaine (Thomas, 2005).
Particularly this researcher hopes to gain a better understanding of the influencing
risk factors that lead to gang membership among youth and what are the best strategies in
addressing the issue. Throughout gang research there are five commonly identified
domains in addressing risk factors. The five domains discussed are individual, peer,
family, school, and community. Each domain contains several risk factors that are likely
to influence gang membership. This research study will elicit service provider’s
perceptions as to how gang membership is influenced by risk factors in each identified
domain.
2
Background of the Problem
In this section, we will briefly discuss the problem of gangs; however, a more in
depth historical background of gangs will be discussed in Chapter 2. Since 1996, the
National Gang Center has implemented a survey to study the prevalence of gang activity.
Results from the National Youth Gang Survey establish that gang formation remains a
pervasive problem in the United States. The most notorious gangs developed in
economically and resourcefully challenged cities including cities, like New York,
Chicago, and Los Angeles. Studies show that the highest levels of gang prevalence are
consistently exhibited in the larger cities, followed by suburban, then smaller cities, and
lastly rural counties. Between 2000 and 2001, the prevalence of gangs declined, but these
numbers showed an increase by more than 20 percent between 2002 and 2009 before
leveling off (Howell, Egley, Tita, & Griffiths, 2011). Current figures illustrate that there
are over 750,000 gang members in the nation (Akiyama, 2012). Nevertheless, the
expansion of youth gangs is not a secluded issue in the United States. On the contrary
youth gang and gang culture has grown exponentially globally. Most recently, an increase
of gang culture has been observed in North and South America (O’Brien, Daffern, Chu,
& Thomas, 2013).
The exponential global growth of the gang culture is known to have adverse
impact on communities. This has crated issues such as the expansion of transnational
gangs that engage in criminal activity and transcend borders. Transnational gangs have
adapted to new areas such as prisons and across countries by engaging in sophisticated
crime such as, drug and arms trafficking, extortion, and murder for hire amongst several
3
others. Two widely recognized transnational gangs are Mara Salvatrucha 13 and 18th
Street Gang. U.S. government figures estimate that there are approximately 38,000 gang
members from Mara Salvatrucha 13 and 18th Street Gang in the United States. In addition
it is reported that approximately 20,000 active gang members are buoyant along the
Mexico’s border. It is expressed that the high number of gang membership among
transnational gangs are a result risk factors such as dire social and economic
circumstances (Howell & Moore, 2010), yet evidence suggest that the gang culture
strengthens a vicious cycle of poor opportunities and outcomes.
According to Beare and Hogg (2013), gangs seldom provide youth positive
advantages. On the other hand, gang membership is often characterized by violence and
betrayal. Hence, it is important to consider why youth would enter an environment in
which they are often victimized. There is an abundance of evidence that supports multiple
risk factors can cause a set of problem behaviors and negative outcomes for youth.
Behavior problems range from school failure, familial problems, delinquent behavior, to
gang membership. The accumulation of risk factors in each domain represents a higher
threat for negative outcomes for the youth as well as for society as a whole (Howell,
2010). Negative outcomes for gang involved youth listed in the research include but are
not limited to poor educational attainment, teen parenthood, and unemployment rates.
Most importantly one main negative outcome experienced by gang involved
youth is a significant increase in delinquent activity. Youth that are gang affiliated
commit a disproportionate amount of violent crime when compared to non-gang involved
youth. Moreover, gangs affiliated youth are three times more likely to be victims of
4
violent crimes when compared to non-gang affiliated youth (Bouchard & Spindler, 2010).
While, violent crime has declined dramatically nationally research shows overwhelming
evidence that gang violence rates have remained at high levels during the past decade
(Howell, et al., 2011). As a response to violence rates and gang activity the United States
has enacted legislation to impose higher penalties for those who identified as a gang
member solely based on their identity. Conversely, “street gang members targeted by
anti-gang laws are typically young men of color born into communities with few options
for economic survival, protection, or role models’ (Kizer, 2012, p. 335).Therefore,
compounding to the poor outcomes of youth.
Notwithstanding, the occurrence of gang membership and risk factors there is
little knowledge on what are the best strategies in dealing with this issue (Howell, 2010).
It is important to consider strategies to decrease gang membership as well as deal with
the aftermath of traumatic events experienced as a result of gang membership. How can
we address the phenomenon of youth gang membership to develop positive outcomes for
at risk youth and youth that are attempting to leave the lifestyle? Strategies range from
prevention, intervention, and suppression.
Historically, the social phenomena of gangs have been addressed by the criminal
justice system providing few options for reintegration into society and a lack of positive
outcomes. The population of youth who identify gang member engulfs many issues.
These youth are often against socially unjust barriers such as poverty, racism,
discrimination, oppression and marginalization. The multiple and distinctive set of
circumstances youth in gangs face are pertinent to issues the field of social work. The
5
bases of the social work profession are to enhance the wellbeing of individuals,
communities, and society especially of those that are vulnerable and oppressed (National
Association of Social Workers, 2012). By addressing risk factors from a perspective of a
helping profession such as social work; it can help develop solutions to address the issue
of youth gangs.
With this in mind identifying the probable risk factors that influence gang
membership will aid service providers in successfully establishing prevention and
intervention strategies for the population most at need. Melde, Gavazzi, McGarrell &,
Bynum (2011) state that,
by employing prevention and intervention services at these individual before the
onset of their gang careers it can produce a positive impact for both the individual
and society. Potential benefits to such an approach are numerous; including
reduced financial costs to both individual and society through decreased losses
associated with victimization, decreased public spending on incarceration and
correctional supervision, as well as increased physical and psychological wellbeing for members of the community (p. 280).
To exemplify, prevention and intervention strategies are more likely to target a large
group of individuals to, address potential risk factors contained in the five domains.
Statement of the Research Problem
In an effort to address and reduce the issue of gang membership it is important to
understand the underling contributing factors. Being able to identify youth that are most
at risk for gang membership can help implement early preventative strategies. Moreover,
6
it is important to understand what risk factors have propel youth to become gang
involved in order to lessen the negative impacts and reduce sustained gang involvement.
Despite, ample gang research, it is fairly unclear as to what the driving forces for gang
membership are and how to reduce the numbers of gang membership (Howell, 2010).
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to obtain service providers perceptions on
what are the risk factors that influence gang membership among youth. Results from this
study might improve a better understating of the motives behind gang membership.
Subsequently, this knowledge might contribute to the development of effective
prevention and intervention policies and programs geared towards gang involved youth.
Research Question
This study is focused on investigating the following research question: What are
the perceptions of service providers on the factors influencing gang membership?
Theoretical Framework
This study utilizes the ecological systems theory. The ecological systems theory
will be described in the following section. Subsequently, the theory will be applied to
describe the research problem.
Ecological Theory
Primarily, the ecological systems theory examines the co-existence of the person
and the environment. The concept of “person-environment” is a fundamental delineation
of the theory. This theory emphasizes all aspects of a person’s life. With special attention
to the role the environment has in individuals’ development (Miley, O’Melia, & Dubois,
7
2011) in which “human behavior is thought to be transactional and subject to the
dynamics of social exchange” (Fraser, 2004, p. 5). In more detail, Fraser suggests that a
person’s development is strongly influenced by the context in which they live including
family, peers, school, and the community. Contrary to the deficit based model the
ecological systems model places a greater focus on how systems might influence one
another. The interdependent systems described by the model suggest that each of these
systems has a social and physical boundary that is thought to produce behavior that is
reciprocal amongst the systems (Fraser). In addition, the ecological perspective can help
identify barriers systems are creating, but may also help develop resources from various
systems (Miley, et al.). Lastly, the ecological and systems theory provide a framework
that can help the process of understanding risk factors that promote the potential for
youth to become gang affiliated.
Without a doubt, services can and must better address the various systems that
youth interact with to identify predictors of problems (Fraser, 2004). The existence of
risk factors that predispose youth to engage in risky behaviors are in present in the
individual, peer, family, school, and community developmental domains, and multiple
risk factors that produce problems for youth.
Application of Ecological Theory
The application of the Ecological Systems Theory will provide insight on how the
domains/systems of individual, peers, family, school, and community influence the
youth. It will address how systems potentially influence one another and might influence
youth to become gang involved or not. The ecological systems theory will help consider
8
service providers perceptions even when they differ in their role with working with gang
involved youth and their varying degrees of experience.
In the process of applying the ecological model it is fundamental to understand
the exchange of interactions between humans and the environment. The ecological model
can be of particular importance in understanding the behavior of gang involved youth and
being able to recognize constructive and destructive exchanges in the relationship of
person and environment. In particular, “the notions of the interrelatedness or
interconnectedness of the various components constituting individual behavior and the
parts of the social environments in which individuals interact with each other” (Schriver,
2011, p. 114), these are crucial in understanding behaviors and identifying unmet needs.
For example, when youth live in unstable homes circumstances can compromise youth’s
growth and development. These issues can further bleed into the school system mounting
to a set of problems and risk factors inducing youth to meet their needs in a least
desirable fashion.
Progressively, in the application of the ecological model it is important to identify
how individuals are capable of adapting to their environment in an effort to meet their
needs. A significant understanding is derived from the model is “the accumulative
impact of multiple characteristics and conditions on development” (Schriver, 2011, p.
209). These concepts are utilized to understand the community risk factors for youth.
Research supports that the presence of gangs in communities is and identified source of
risk for youth engaging in gang activity. “The gang on the streets, in prison, and across
neighborhoods and communities become part of a significant but malfunctioning
9
adaptation and network” (Spergel, 1995, p.110). This adaptation is developed in an effort
to have unmet needs met such as the needs of security and survival.
Nevertheless, the ecological model also encompasses weaknesses in the advocacy
for social justice. The emphasis of the ecological model tends to be “less focused on and
offer less direction regarding fundamental social transformation or social change and the
unity of personal and political issues” (Schriver, 2011, p. 114). In the process of
understanding the social phenomena of youth gangs this approach can be applied to
understand the intersecting and interconnecting dimensions of human behavior and social
environment and how person and systems adapt to one another. Together the family,
school, community, peers, and the individual, contribute in a “complex, rapidly changing,
and increasingly fragmented local community and society to the further development and
sustenance of the gang problem” (Spergel, 1995, p. 110). In due course, the ecological
approach aids in the complex notion of what needs to be changed: the person or the
environment? To conclude, it also aids process of creating missing resources to meet the
needs of gang involved youth and their communities by developing legitimate resource
availability.
Definition of Terms
Throughout the research project there are several relevant terms pertinent to the
discussion of youth gangs that are utilized in the following chapters. The terms will be
briefly defined:
10
Gang: Any group of two or more individuals that associate with a particular color/s,
clothing, number, name, signs, or territory (Short & Hughes, 2006).They generally are
involved in violent, illegal, and or criminal activity (National Youth Gang Center, 2006).
Intervention: Intervention strategies implement sanctions and services for youth that are
actively engaged in gangs. The focus of intervention is to divert youth from a lifestyle
free of the gang culture (Howell, 2010).
Prevention: Prevention strategies are utilized to target youth that are at risk to becoming
gang affiliated before they join. These strategies focus on reducing the number of youth
that become gang involved be reducing the number of unmet needs and or risk factors.
Prevention strategies are commonly established in communities that have a significant
amount of crime or gang activity by creating supportive services (Howell, 2010).
Risk Factors: An aspect that increases risk or susceptibility to other a condition or other
issues (Merriam-Webster, 2014).
Service Provider: Describes any individual, group, or company that performs a service
to the welfare of others (Merriam-Webster, 2014)
Suppression: Suppression strategies commonly involve law enforcement. Suppression
entails intensive services that target the violent gangs. These strategies also focus on
targeting older and criminally active gangs with the purpose of providing rehabilitative
services (Howell, 2010).
Transnational Gang: A gang in which members are of multinationality origin.
Members engage in criminal and illicit activity across borders, which often include drug
and arm trafficking (Howell & Moore, 2010).
11
Youth: For the purpose of this research study, youth will encompass any male or female
between the age of adolescents and adulthood (Merriam-Webster, 2014).
Assumptions
The researcher makes the following assumptions; 1) Gang membership among
youth is a prevalent issue in the United States; 2) The participants in this research study
are all service providers from varying fields and positions that have experience working
with gang involved youth; 3) The presence of risk factors influence gang membership; 4)
Gang involved youth engage in illicit activity; and 5) There is a need for services for
gang involved youth.
Justifications
The foundation of the social work profession is grounded on the fundamental core
values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human
relationships, integrity, and competence. It is essential to the field of social work that
these values are integrated in working with complex human issues such as the complexity
involved with youth gangs. Additionally, social work primarily focuses on issues
inflicting distress to the well-being of individuals and families, in particular to individuals
that are vulnerable and oppressed (National Association of Social Workers, 2012).
Therefore, it is necessary to consider the existing implications of youth gangs and social
injustices surrounding the issue. In exploring and understanding the social phenomena of
youth service providers are able to enhance the well-being of communities and society.
Gang membership can create adverse consequences in the lives of youth and those
around them. If it is possible to determine what are some of the contributing risk factors
12
for gang affiliation among youth then there is greater likelihood to address the needs. The
results of this study may guide service provider’s future work with gang affiliated youth.
Service providers might be able to develop an understanding in identifying crucial risk
factors that influence gang membership. It can help develop awareness on the needs of
gang affiliated youth. Ultimately it can help address what type of services are needed in
the community such as: prevention, intervention, or suppression to address the existence
of gangs.
Delimitations
There is an immeasurable amount of information pertinent to the topic which
leads to several limitations to this research study. Primarily, one limitation is that this
research project does not study this topic in depth as qualitative studies do. Instead, the
quantitative approach will be a descriptive study. Therefore, there is a lack of insight
from the respondents’ answers to the survey instrument. Additionally, the response to the
survey instrument may be influence by provider’s personal experiences and biases. Also,
it is relevant to discuss that majority of participants reside within Sacramento County
creating a limitation in representation of the general population. In addition, the survey
instrument was developed by the researcher and has not been tested for reliability or
validity. Risk factors addressed in the survey instrument were broad and open to varying
interpretations. The subject of youth gang encompasses multiple dynamics making it
difficult to address all the factors that contribute to the phenomena. Therefore, this
research study is limited in its scope.
13
Summary
Chapter one included the introduction to the subject of the study. It described the
background of the problem and explained the statement of the research problem.
Additionally, the purpose of the study was explained along with a research question
statement. Next the guiding theoretical framework was addressed, followed by definition
of terms. Moreover, the assumptions of the study were addressed and the chapter was
concluded with the limitations of the study.
Chapter two is a review of relevant literature with sections covering the historical
background of gangs, gang membership and the negative impacts were also discussed.
Also described were the risk factors and strategies to combat gangs. Lastly, the gaps in
literature are described. Chapter three is a description of the methodology. In Chapter
four, the data retrieved for this study is examined and analyzed. In Chapter five, the
summary of the findings is presented as well as recommendations and implications for
social work practice.
14
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The literature review will be organized in the following five sections. The first
section will provide a historical background of gangs. The section of historical
background of gangs will be organized in four sub-sections composed of the Northeast,
Midwest, West, and Southern Regions. The second section will describe gang
membership and the negative effects associated. The third section will entail the risk
factors for gang membership. The risk factors described in the third section will be
organized in six sub-sections in the following order; individual risk factors, peer risk
factors, family risk factors, school risk factors, community risk factors, and multiple risk
factors. The fourth section will explain strategies to combat gangs; and lastly, the fifth
section addresses the gaps in the literature.
Historical Background of Gangs
The existence and expansion of gangs is well documented throughout research
(O’Brien et al., 2013). It is reported that gangs existed in Western civilization as early as
the 17th century. However, it is speculated that active gangs might have been formed as
early as the 12th century. Nevertheless, Howell and Moore (2010) distinguish key
differences in modern-day street gangs than those formed prior to the 19th century. Some
of the key differences addressed are related to the seriousness of illicit activities in which
gang members are engaged; it is believed that modern-day gangs participate in more
serious gang activity. One of the first occurrences of serious street gang activity was
experience during the 1600s by residents of London. It was reported that structured gangs
15
such as the “Mims, Hectors, Bugles, and Dead Boys” engaged in vandalism and violent
acts among rival members causing terror among residents. On the other hand, the
emergence of gangs in the United States is believed to have occurred at the end of the
American Revolution during 1783. Gang formation was particularly organized in four
regions of the United States, including; the Northeast, Midwest, West, and the South
regions. Despite reports of gang formation during the late seventeenth century evidence
suggests that the onset of serious street gangs was not recorded until the nineteenth
century (Howell & Moore).
Northeast Region
The Northeast was one of the first regions in the U.S. to report gang activity.
Upon the culmination of the American Revolution the Northeast experienced a wave of
immigration which would later be connected to gang activity. Immigration was greatly
composed of families that emigrated from in its majority from Europe. These families
often faced economic disadvantages caused by lack of employable skills and difficulty
adjusting to the urban lifestyle (Howell & Moore, 2010). In addition, the living
conditions immigrant families experienced were often less than desirable. These extreme
living conditions were observable in New York City as was evident the emergence of
conflict among developing gangs. The emerging gangs were not recorded as individuals
engaging in criminal activity rather as a battle among youngsters for local turf (Howell et
al., 2011). The reality of youth fighting over local territory soon came to an end after a
large wave of immigration by 1820. It was around the1820s that the growing immigration
and social disorganization allowed for the ideal conditions for structured and dangerous
16
gang formation to occur. Meanwhile, during the 1860s structured Chinese tongs
competed against street gangs by controlling criminal operations including drug dealing
and political patronage. During the preceding decades leading to the 19th century some of
the most well know gangs in history developed in New York City, such as; The Forty
Thieves which is thought to have been one of the most dangerous gangs during the
eighteen century. Additionally, The Five Points Gang encompassed several gangs and “it
is said to be the most significant street gang to form in the United States, ever!”(Howell
& Moore). Between the 1940s and 1960s the Northeast including cities such as South
Bronx and Brooklyn were engulfed by the segregated communities composed in its
majority by Blacks and Puerto Ricans. These segregated communities were in low
income public housing urban areas that provided a secure home base and the ideal
climate for gangs to prevail. From the 1970s to the 1990s Chinatown gangs were well
known for their use of violence and systemic extortion in New York (Howell & Moore).
Midwest Region
In the meantime, the Midwest region gang formation was notable during the
1860s, however, these gangs were not considered to be violent gangs. It was not until the
1900s that Chicago experienced violent street gangs. During the 1920s White gangs and
Black gangs entered into a period or rivalry and battle. Gang members combated over
street supremacy and control for turf. It was not until the 1960s that Black street gangs
dominated the streets of Chicago executing violent acts leading to the explosion of gang
problems in Chicago. Gangs controlled disadvantaged economic public housing
communities by controlling drug dealing operations. These gave Black gangs the ability
17
to dominate Chicago streets for several decades. It was not until the 1990s that Chicago
saw an expansion of Mexican and Latino gangs. In fact, during the 1990s Latin Kings
and Latin Disciples were recognized as two of the four largest gangs in the city. Between
1987 and the early 1990s from forty recognized major gangs in Chicago the Black
Gangster Disciple Nation, the Latin Disciples, the Latin Kings, and the Vice Lords were
responsible for 70 percent of street gang crime and for 50 percent of street gang
motivated homicides. This allowed for Chicago to be known as one of the cities with the
largest gang problems. However, gang proliferation expanded to other cities in the
Midwest region including Kansas City and Detroit amongst others.
West Region
At the same time, the West region gangs were first reported during the 1890s. In
the western region “La Palomilla” gang was recognized as the originators of the gang
culture. Gangs were primarily formed by males socializing as a tradition in the South
Texas area. The emergence of this gang spread after members migrated from Mexico
along the route to El Paso and continuing to emerge across other cities such as
Albuquerque and Los Angeles. It is alleged that western regions incubated street gangs
specifically of Mexican origin after the end of the Mexican-American War and the
Mexican Revolution. After the end of the Mexican-American War and the annexation of
several Mexican states including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and
part of Colorado the Mexican citizens were naturalized, yet alienated from their
homeland. Furthermore, after the end of the Mexican Revolution there was an increase on
the number of Mexican immigrants to the states. Nonetheless, immigrants were affected
18
by marginalization which facilitated the nurturance and propensity of street gangs.
Howell and Moore declare that;
The barrios in which the earliest and most firmly established gangs developed
were well-demarcated settlements of Mexican immigrants. They were located in
geographically isolated areas that other settlers had bypassed as less appropriate
for habitation, and were further isolated by cultural, racial, and socioeconomic
barriers enforced by ingrained prejudices of the Anglo-American community
(2010, p. 9).
The lack of guidance and the bleak circumstances families were challenged with steered
youth until the “Cholo” lifestyle. These gangs were solidified between the 1930s and
1940s which provided a cultural institution for the marginalized youth. The continued
Mexican migration to the West region increased along with Mexican gangs between the
1940s and 1990s. Migration was highly concentrated in the area of Los Angeles causing
the city to be recognized as the Latino capital of the United States. It was during these
five decades that the well-recognized gangs 38th Street Mexican and the Zoot Suit Riots
were fueled. Los Angeles experienced a drastic change in gang formation post-World
War II to 1972. Southern Blacks migrated to the Western region to seize employment
opportunities. Nevertheless, they encountered racial violence in return. Extreme
marginalization and segregation gave birth to the development of Black gangs. Black
youth formed social clubs to resist against White violence towards their community and
to resist intimidation. Blacks were able to experience a positive Black identity after the
civil rights movement. However, the movement aid a resurgence of street groups from
19
which Crips and Bloods emerged (Howell & Moore). By the 1970s, the state of
California had reported the prevalence of gangs in their most populated areas. Los
Angeles would later be recognized as home to the MS-13 and 18th Street two large
transnational gangs (Howell et al., 2011).
Southern Region
Unlike the prior regions the Southern region did not report gang issues until the
1970s. By the end of the 1970s Miami and San Antonio were recognized as the two cities
in the region that had moderately high gang problems. However, there was an increase in
gang formation between the 1970s and 1990s, but it did not appear to be a concentrated
issue. A sharp increase in gang formation was notable during the mid-1990s. In fact, the
South became the leading region with an increasing number of cities reporting gang
issues by 32 percent (Howell et al., 2011).
By the 20th century all 52 states and the District of Colombia reported street gang
activity. Gang activity was reported in all segments of the states, including; 22 percent of
suburban and 16 percent of rural counties, 15 percent of smaller cities, and 13 percent of
larger cities (Howell, 2010). Gang activity has remained concentrated in the U.S. largest
cities and the prevalence rates remain constant (Howell et al., 2011). Dnes and Garoupa
assert that,
street gangs are an amalgam of racism, of urban underclass poverty of minority
and youth culture, of fatalism in the face of rampant deprivation, of political
insensitivity, and the gross ignorance of…most of us who don’t have to survive
there (2010, p. 519).
20
These bases are also supported by evidence that suggest gangs formed as a result of
severe social disorganization in the Northeast and Midwest regions. On the other hand, in
the West region it is said that Latino gangs were formed as a result of their ethnic history.
In addition, it is notable that gangs were mostly adult-dominated in the Northeast and
Midwest region while the West appeared to be controlled by youth (Howell & Moore,
2010). Along with the proliferation of youth gang membership across the nation also
came an increase in youth violence (Howell). Ultimately, the existence of gang activity
and gang violence led to a magnification of misconceptions and the public’s fear about
youth gangs (Hill, Lui, & Hawkins, 2001).
Gang Membership and the Negative Impacts
The literature suggests individuals join gangs at a very young age. The most at
risk age group for joining a gang are youth between the ages of 12 and 18 (Alleyne &
Wood, 2010). Even though youth face the risk of joining a gang at any age, the youth are
at most risk of joining at the age of 15.The increase in vulnerability at age 15 is attributed
to the transition into high school (Hill et al., 2001). Additionally, gender is a main factor
considered in gang formation. There has been a recent increase in females and gang
affiliation (Esbensen, 2000), but predominantly gangs are composed of males (Wood &
Alleyne, 2010). In fact, males are 1.5 to 2 times more likely than females to join a gang
(Estrada, Gilbreath, Astor, & Benbenishty, 2013). “The United States has approximately
24,500 gangs with a membership of more than 750,000. The ethnic composition of these
gangs is 47% Latino, 31% African American, 13% white, 7% Asian, and 2% mixed
ethnicities” (Akiyama, 2012, p. 568).
21
Moreover, adolescence is particularly a vulnerable age in which the needs for
socializing, family connectedness and financial independence are significant internal
powers to joining a gang (Akiyama, 2012). Youth share several universal needs that
might be fulfilled by joining a gang and in return they perceive their affiliation as having
social power and acceptance by peers (Beare & Hogg, 2013; O’Brien et al., 2013). Gangs
may be perceived as appealing to youth and meet their social needs (Howell, 2010). This
is especially true when there is a lack of alternatives (Beare & Hogg); additionally gangs
can provide a sense of social support for its members (Wood & Alleyne, 2010). They
may provide the opportunity for youth to socialize with peers and the opposite sex during
action-parities and hanging out (Howell), personal identity, companionship, excitement
and share similarities such as racial, cultural, (Akiyama) music, and drug use (Howell;
O’Brien et al.; Wood & Alleyne).Gang affiliation often provides the potential to gain
respect, power, and status (O’Brien et al.,; Wood & Alleyne). In addition, the personal
benefit of protection is a key motivational factor that influences youth to join gangs
(Beare & Hogg; Lachman, Roman, & Cahill, 2013). Youth gang members often have the
perception that they are being marginalized and oppressed ethnically and economically
(Beare & Hogg). This often prompts for youth to take the stance of being a warrior or
soldier and that they must protect their neighborhood. This creates defensiveness among
youth gang members of what they might consider a hostile environment (Akiyama), and a
need to control and protect their turf from rivals (Wood & Alleyne). Overall, the most
pervasive factor for which a youth might be attracted to joining a gang is the need to
22
fulfill the sense of loyalty and “belonging to a group that respects them” (Akiyama, p.
569).
In addition, youth might be attracted to join gangs to gain a sense of family. In
general youth have the need and sense of belonging, safety, and identity. At risk youth
may experience these needs at a greater rate and this experience might be so emotionally
powerful that youth may be drawn into joining a gang at any cost (Akiyama, 2012). A
gang might provide youth with a sense of social controls that can translate into the
needed familial environment youth crave (Wood & Alleyne, 2010). Gang membership
might also manifest itself in as an intergenerational membership. There is an increase in
the likelihood of youth to join a gang if they have family members such as siblings and
cousins that are part of a gang (Howell, 2010). Intergenerational gang membership is
particularly influential for Mexican American youth (Howell). On the other hand, youth
may also be influenced to join a gang in order to avoid conflict with family members in
their household (Lachman et al., 2013), and escaping an abusive home environment. In
the meantime, a gang may replace a non-existent family for the youth joining the gang
(Beare & Hogg, 2013).
Further, economic gain is often cited as an influencing factor for gang
membership (Beare &Hogg, 2013; Howell, 2010). The need or desire to gain money is
often fulfilled by illegal activities; such as, selling drugs and distributing narcotics
(Akiyama, 2012; Lachman et al., 2013). Youth gang members might feel a desire to
distribute narcotics and make money (O’Brien et al., 2013), but some sell drugs out of
necessity (Akiyama).
23
Negative Impacts
Furthermore, gang membership entails a variety of negative effects for the joining
gang members. Gang membership impacts individuals not only on a short term basis, but
also creates severe implications in the development and transitional stages for adolescents
(Thornberry, Huizinga, & Loeber, 2004). Some disorderly transitions illustrated in the
literature include; becoming teenage parents for females and males, school suspension,
lower educational attainment, arrest, unemployment, and or job instability. These
disorderly transitions often result in financial stressors and family problems in adulthood
(Fleisher, 2009; O’Brien et al., 2013).
A negative effect that has been well established by multiple studies is that youth gang
members commit a disproportionate amount of delinquent behavior when compared to
non-gang youth (Bouchard & Splindler, 2010). In more detail, gang affiliated youth are at
a higher likelihood to commit a higher number of crimes related to violence, drug related,
property, assault, and are more likely to poses and commit weapon related offenses (Hill
et al., 2001; O’Brien et al., 2013). In fact,
Gang members are 20 times more likely than at-risk youth to participate in a
drive-by shooting, ten times more likely to commit a homicide, eight times more
likely to commit robbery, and three times more likely to commit assault in public
(Wood & Alleyne, 2010, p. 101).
These numbers exemplify the magnitude of delinquent behavior gang members are
involved in and their overrepresentation in violent offenses.
24
Similarly, to the disproportionate amount of violent offenses gang members
commit, gang members are also disproportionately represented as victims of violent
offenses. What is more, gang members are three times more likely to be victims of
violence when compared to non-gang members (Loeber et al. 2001; Thomas, 2005).
During the early 1990’s along with the growing number of gang memberships there was
an increase in youth violence and homicide rates. Some studies have attributed the
increase in youth violence and homicide to the proliferation of gangs during the stated
decade (Thomas). Furthermore, during the timeframe of 1980 to 2004 approximately
25,000 young people died as a result of gang wars in America (Hayden, 2004). Gang
members are exposed to the risk of victimization as a direct correlation to their identity as
a gang member (Bouchard & Spindler, 2010).
Risk Factors for Gang Membership
The complexities of gang formation have attracted the attention of multiple
disciplines including psychologists, sociologists, and criminologists (Howell, 2010). It is
apparent that youth join gangs for a variety of reasons. Gangs are not present in all
communities, thus they might be initiated to fulfill the needs youth have. The
development and establishment of new forming gangs may be particularly pervasive
communities that face extremes conditions (Howell). Communities become highly
vulnerable for the formation of gangs in which youth are alienated from fundamental
social institutions such as family and school (Howell). When youth lack the support of
key social institutions and have developed a sense of alienation from their environments
this might result in antisocial tendencies and gang affiliation (Hill et al, 2001). This tends
25
to create a cycle of problem behaviors in school, family, and with peers. The cycle of
behavior problems and the early onset of risk factors are key determining factors for the
length of time a youth remains in the gang. Youth that have experienced a greater
difficulty of adjusting to their environments behaviorally and socially are more likely to
be part of a gang for several years. This is particularly evident among youth that have a
history of violent behaviors and relationships with antisocial peers (Hill et al.). The
attempt to understand the various dynamics in gang formation has led to an establishment
of five common domains in which several risk factors for gang membership are explored.
The five identified domains discussed next are individual, peer, family, school, and
community (O’Brien et al., 2013). To conclude the impact of the aggregation of multiple
risks is discussed.
Individual Risk Factors
There are a number of individual risk factors that contribute to the influence of a
youth joining a gang. One common theme in the individual domain is that youth that join
gangs are likely to exhibit antisocial behaviors. It is also likely for antisocial behaviors to
consistently increase and aggravate over time posing a greater threat for gang affiliation.
Examples of antisocial behaviors that might be exhibited include; alcohol and drug use
commonly marijuana (Howell, 2010; O’Brien et al., 2013). In fact, youth that have a
history of early marijuana use during the ages of 10-12 are an increase rate to join a gang.
These youth are four times as likely to become member of a gang between the ages of 13
and18 (Estrada et al., 2013). Also, violent behavior with or without a weapon, and
engaging in intimate and sexual relationships at an early age are high influencing factors
26
for gang membership (Howell). Antisocial behaviors might be exhibited in the youth’s
supportive attitudes towards gang culture and delinquent behavior. This can develop into
youth engaging in delinquent activities and a greater tolerance for deviant antisocial
behavior such as violent offenses (Howell; O’Brien et al.). In common, youth that are
gang involved in criminal activity and gangs commonly hold negative views of law
enforcing agents (Melde et al., 2011).
It is also suggested that mental health concerns play a major role in the risk for
gang affiliation. Depression and low self-esteem are often reported concerns among gang
affiliated youth and that it may also increase the risk for non-gang affiliated youth to
become part of a gang (Howell, 2010; Thomas, 2005). Hyperactivity, externalizing
behaviors, psychiatric disturbances, cognitive deficits (Howell) and conduct disorder
have all been associated as strong predictors for gang membership among youth (Wyrick
& Howell, 2004). Demonstrations of low empathy, anxiety, poor impulse control, and
social withdrawal have been identified as psychological factors at the individual level that
increase the likelihood that youth will join gangs (O’Brien et al., 2013).
Along with mental health concerns youth that are gang affiliated commonly have
experienced victimization and trauma. Therefore, it is thought that victimization and
trauma are risk factors in the individual domain that might create strain in coping
mechanisms and increase the risk for youth to resource to a gang as a coping strategy
(Wood & Alleyne, 2010). The factor of victimization is commonly connected to youth
experiencing violence in the home and out of the home environment as well. Violent acts
are ordinarily manifested in physical and sexual child abuse or neglect, and violent
27
assaults out of the home environment (Howell, 2010). Furthermore, negative life events
that are experienced as traumatic experiences are also strong predictors for gang
membership. Other events such as failing a course, suspension, and or expulsion from
school often increase the probability for gang affiliation (Melde et al., 2011). This is
particularly relevant among males (Howell). Moreover, negative life events such as
ending a relationship with a significant other, having a fight in social relationships
(Howell; Thomas, 2005) and death of a loved one are strong predictors for gang
membership (Melde et al.,).
Peer Risk Factors
Association with delinquent and gang involved peers is one of the strongest
correlation for individual gang membership (Esbensen, 2000; Melde et al., 2011; O’Brien
et al., 2013; Wood & Alleyne, 2010; Wyrick & Howell, 2004). Adolescence is a
vulnerable age group at which the formations of allegiances with peers are
developmentally significant (Lachman et al., 2013; Howell, 2010). Youth are forming a
sense of identity and forming social networks. Youth are typically attracted to join a
group based on shared similarities related to norms, values, and activities. Furthermore,
after the youth has integrated to a peer group he or she is likely to find a sense of status in
their reference group (Bouchard & Spindler, 2010). This can in turn allow youth to adopt
and conform to the behaviors of their established group identity (Lachman et al).
Nevertheless, the formation of social networks and peer groups can either have a negative
or positive influence in the development of youth. Youth may be influenced negatively
engaging in drug use and by joining ‘starter gangs’ during adolescence. ‘Starter gangs’
28
are not considered to be serious violent gangs, but they do often engage in delinquent
activity and introduce youth to the gang culture. Starter gangs consider its members
“wannabes” they engage in minor delinquent activities. However, starter gangs facilitate
the opportunity for youth to become involved in serious violent offenses in the future
(Howell; Wood & Alleyne).
On the other hand, youth may also be coerced into joining a gang and
participating in delinquent activities. Tactics individuals employ for forcing a youth to
join a gang range in level of severity. Tactics can be as simple as peer pressure (Alleyne
& Wood, 2010), to extorting money, beatings, and can be as extreme as murder
(Akiyama, 2012).
Adolescence for females has many similarities to that of males. However, there
are certain differences for females in regards to formation of a peer group and gang
affiliation. The involvement of female youth in gangs is often initiated by forming close
peer relationships with male gang members. Many young females are also attracted to the
gang life style because their boyfriends identify as gang members. Frequently they are
not recognized as an integrated member of the gang, but associate by participating in
delinquent activity. It is common for male gang members to associate with females by
having them hold and sell drugs. In addition, females often serve as weapon holders for
male gang members (Howell, 2010). Involvement with delinquent peers and gang
affiliated peers is associated with youth becoming involved in antisocial behaviors,
delinquent activity, youth violence, and gang affiliation (Melde et al., 2011; O’Brien et
al., 2013).
29
Importantly, association with gang involved youth limits opportunities for the
development of relationships with pro-social non-gang involved youth. This in turn limits
the youth’s opportunities to progress and desist from gang and delinquent behavior
(O’Brien et al., 2013; Wood & Alleyne, 2010). Non gang involved youth are more likely
to capitalize on opportunities of informal social controls, which gang involved youth are
often unable to attain due to their affiliation (Wood & Alleyne).
Family Risk Factors
The importance of family involvement in a young’s person’s life is crucial. There
are several risk factors associated with the family environment that may propel an
individual to join a gang. Weakness in a family’s environment such as a disadvantaged
socio economic status has a major impact. In particular economic disadvantages and
poverty creates financial stressors. This contributes to a disturbance in parental
management skills and supervision. It also diminishes the family’s ability to bond
(Howell, 2010; Melde et al., 2011; O’Brien et al., 2013). Moreover, the family structure
such as multiple transitions in caretaker, single parent households, (Howell; O’Brien et
al.), and loss of a parent or role model through traumatic experiences including, death or
separation are key risk factors (Wood & Alleyne, 2010). Nevertheless, not all youth that
experience circumstances as the abovementioned join gangs. Yet, gang involved youth
has often reported the lack of communication and attachment in their family
environment, (Esbense, 2000) allegedly this has led to a brittle relationship with their
parents (Thornberry et al., 2004). In turn, youth may search for the sense of cohesiveness
30
and camaraderie by joining a gang to replace their broken or nonexistent family
(Akiyama, 2012).
Another key risk factor present in the family domain that has shown to be a strong
predictor of gang membership is attitudes that condone violence. Violence can be
manifested in the form of child abuse or neglect in the home (Howell, 2010; Wyrick &
Howell, 2004). What seems to be most influential for gang membership is the family’s
involvement in criminal activity and association in gang membership. This tends to
reinforce and support the youth’s interest in gang affiliation (Alleyne & Wood, 2010;
Howell; O’Brien et al., 2013; Wyrick & Howell).
School Risk Factors
School related risk factors impact gang membership from two different
standpoints; individual and environmental. First, on the individual level, academic
achievement has been identified a strong predictor for gang and delinquent involvement.
Poor school performance in the early educational years of elementary school is strongly
referred to as a potential risk factor for future gang membership. Under the circumstances
of academic failure individuals are likely to experience a low degree of school
commitment and poor development of relationships with teachers (Howell, 2010); this
results in a disinterest in academic aspirations (Wyrick & Howell, 2004). Truancy levels
are experienced at higher rates among gang affiliated youth than non-gang affiliated
youth. Overall poor academic achievement increases the probability for youth to be
victims or perpetrators of violence at school settings (Estrada et al., 2013). The
31
summation of the abovementioned risk factors experienced by youth often result in a
diminished expectation for a positive future (Wood & Alleyne, 2010).
Secondly, the environment at schools may expose youth to adverse risk factors
leading to gang membership. The formation of new gangs and an increase in the number
of youth that join gangs are common occurrences in poor functioning schools. Dynamics
associated with this range from unmanageable student-teacher ratios to poor educational
quality. School climate is adversely affected and pose the threat of facing high levels of
victimization for students and staff. An increase rate in the implementation of punitive
social sanctions such as suspensions, expulsions (Howell, 2010) and negative labeling of
students are also common to occur (Wyrick & Howell, 2004). It may also be necessary
for the juvenile court system to intervene in unsafe school climates and this can
potentially create prospects for increased delinquent activity and gang membership
(Melde et al., 2011). Conversely, youth may feel unsafe and vulnerable in their school
settings prompting them to seek protection by joining a gang (Howell; Wyrick &
Howell).
Community Risk Factors
Community conditions are critical in the development of youth. Optimal or
distressed conditions can be the defining factor for gang membership among youth.
When all other social structures such as family and school have failed to provide youth
with the necessary social support disorganized communities may provide a supportive
environment for connectedness in gang membership (Wood & Alleyne, 2010). One of the
strongest community risk factors is the pervasiveness of economic distress in
32
communities. Poverty in communities is a high contributing factor not only to the
presence and emergence of gangs, but also for higher rates of delinquency and social
disorganization (Esbensen, 2000). Subsequently, there is a low level of community
attachment and integration. Distressed communities offer a supportive environment for
the survival of gangs as gangs usually thrive in high crime neighborhoods. This creates a
whole new set of negative conditions such as the ability and use of drugs and firearms
(Howell, 2010).
Moreover, the presence of gangs in communities can create unsafe feelings and
influence youth to join gangs for protection. This is particularly relevant when youth
receive threats from existing gangs in their neighborhoods (Alleyne & Wood, 2010).
Youth might be prime victims for recruitment (Wyrick & Howell, 2004) and for
victimization (Akiyama, 2012). Therefore, youth may feel obligated to join a gang to
avoid victimization and to receive support from others already in the gang lifestyle
(Wood & Alleyne, 2010). Lastly, gang affiliation may provide a supportive environment
for individuals to commit violent and delinquent crimes; therefore, perpetuating the
prevalence of a distressed community (Rizzo, 2003; Short & Hughes, 2006).
Multiple Risk Factors
The gang literature suggests numerous possible influencing risk factors for gang
membership. These findings indicate that gang membership is not the product of one
specific risk factor domain. Rather gang membership is often the result of an
accumulation of risk factors. The collection of multiple risk factors act as predictors in
increasing the propensity for youth to become gang members. Specifically, when
33
compared to other serious violent offenders gang members experience a higher number of
risk factors (Howell, 2010). Likewise, the accumulation of several risk factors can create
an increase in the development of problems or disorders leading to negative outcomes. It
is highlighted in the literature that the presence of risk factors does not cause gang
membership; however, the greater the accumulation of risk factors the greater the
probability of gang membership
Strategies to Combat Gangs
According to Howell (2010), there is limited knowledge of what stimulates the
growth of gang membership and how to address the phenomenon. Three common
strategies identified in the literature to combat gangs are defined in terms of prevention,
intervention, and suppression. First and foremost, prevention strategies are identified as
key components in addressing the issue of gangs. In this strategy the target population
would be youth that are at risk of gang involvement with a focus on multiple risk factors
(Hill et al, 2001; Howell). Example of services proposed in prevention strategies focus
primarily on strengthening families, community involvement, trainings for parents,
teachers and others on identifying and addressing concerning behaviors, addressing and
reducing punitive sanctions implemented in schools (suspensions and expulsions),
support for students struggling with academic achievement, and ultimately reducing the
number of multiple risk factors by strengthening core social institutions (Howell).Unlike
prevention strategies intervention focuses on implementing sanctions for youth that are
actively involved in gangs. The services and sanctions provided through intervention
methods are geared towards the goal of gang involvement cessation. This is created to
34
avoid for the gang involved youth to engage in delinquent activities. Proposed
intervention strategies take place in communities and school settings in order to address
the needs and target gang involved youth (Howell). Lastly, suppression strategies are
often implemented by law enforcement entities. These strategies work on addressing the
rehabilitation long time members and also the most concerning gangs (Howell). It is
suggested that there is a need for a comprehensive approach encompassing all three
levels of strategies in order to ensure success in the communities (Howell; Wyrick &
Howell, 2004).
Gaps in the Literature
Despite the expansive and growing knowledge of youth gangs, there are various
limitations in the literature. It is vital to establish that there is a vast of literature focused
on the issue of youth gang membership. However, most research consists of crosssectional studies which present the challenge of identifying predictors of gang
involvement and its effects. The limited longitudinal studies that have been
accomplished have facilitated the process of disentangling predictors of gang
membership and its effects. Some of the longitudinal studies that have been completed
include the Study of Seattle Youth, Rochester Youth Development Study, and the Denver
Youth Survey. It is difficult to perform longitudinal studies in general; nonetheless, is it
more so to complete these types of studies with individuals that identify as gang members
(Hill et al., 2001; O’Brien, 2013). Gang members might be untrusting in sharing
information for research studies creating the challenge of access to the population. This
distrust could be related to distrust in agencies and institutions. Sharing information about
35
gang members activities could be interpreted as betrayal to the gang which violates
confidentiality rules within the gang culture. In addition, gang members could jeopardize
their safety and status in the gang by subjects of research studies. The difficulties in
research designs and methodological limitations are contributing factors to some of the
limitations in the literature of gangs.
Concomitantly, the lack of a conceptualization of what constitutes the term gang
is a challenge in the process of assessing the scope of the problem. There is little
consensus among experts regarding a standard definition for what constitutes a gang. The
lack of a standard definition presents challenges in several areas. This gap in gang
literature can present challenges in studies measuring the problem of youth gangs. The
validity of studies can be challenged as researchers might not agree on the defining
features of a gang member. In addition, being unable to identify the nature of the problem
may present challenges in addressing predictors of gang involvement. Additional
difficulties arise when there is a lack of a standard definition. This could lead to an
overestimate or underestimate number of individuals that are identified as gang involved;
therefore, presenting a challenge in service allocation. An inaccuracy in the measurement
of the problem can impact where the implementation of resources is viewed as a
necessary. This issue also has the potential of exacerbating the public’s misconceptions
on their view regarding gang members (O’Brien et al., 2013).
Another area experts have not reached consensus in is the area of evidence-based
protective factors. The lack of consensus on protective factors has limited the amount of
research that has been performed in respect to gangs. In part, research in protective
36
factors has been hindered due to conceptual issues creating an imbalance in the amount of
literature of protective when compared to risk factors. Although, research on protective
factors has suggested that high risk behaviors are more likely to be a factor when risk
factors outweigh the protective factors. Research has also indicated that similarly to risk
factors, protective factors could be a main indicator on the effects of the developmental
domains. Nevertheless, research regarding protective factors is still in its infancy as
researchers have shown a greater interest focusing on concurrent factors rather than
predictive protective factors (Howell & Egley, 2005).
Notwithstanding, difficulties the literature and knowledge as it relates to gangs
continues to expand. Diverse disciplines have demonstrated interest in the social
phenomena of gangs, yet the focus of gangs is mostly viewed from a criminal justice
perspective. This is supported by the fact that the vast majority of the literature in the
U.S. pertaining to gangs has been contributed by the U.S. Department of Justice. While
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and other foundations have
contributed to the knowledge of gangs there is insufficient focus from a social work
perspective (Lipsey, Howell, Kelly, Chapman, & Carver, 2010). The insufficient focus
from a social work perspective and other none criminal justice disciplines raise the
challenge of advancing the knowledge based pertaining to the problem. This also creates
challenges in service delivery in prevention and intervention strategies. This gap in the
literature is particularly of interest as it directly affects the delivery of effective services
in the human services sector. This study seeks to address this gap by collecting data from
a variety of service providers working with gang involved youth to gain a better
37
understanding as to what are the most appropriate strategies to address the issue of gang
membership among youth. By obtaining the perceptions from service providers on what
are the risk factors that influence gang membership among youth, it may contribute to
developing strategies for delivering effective services.
Summary
In this chapter the researcher addressed the historical background of gangs, gang
membership, and the negative impacts were also discussed. The literature was followed
by describing the risk factors and the strategies to combat gangs. Lastly the gaps in
literature were described. In the next chapter, the researcher will address the
methodology of the study.
38
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the methodology used during this research will be discussed. The
focus of this chapter will be to address the research question for the study, the study
design, sampling procedures, and data collection procedures. The instrument utilized in
the study will be described as well as plans for data analysis. Lastly, the protection of
human subjects will be reviewed.
Research Question
The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions of service providers on the
factors that influence gang membership among youth. This study is addressing the
following research question: What are the perceptions of services providers on the factors
influencing gang membership among youth?
Study Design
This study consists of a descriptive quantitative survey research design, involving
a quantitative research method. A descriptive research design is favorable when gathering
facts concerning social phenomena (Engel & Schutt, 2009). The study involved gathering
quantifiable descriptive information commonly known as surface attributes (Rubin &
Babbie, 2011). Some of the surface attributes obtained in the study included: age and
years of experience. A questionnaire-survey format was employed to collect numerical
data to consider the abovementioned research question. The data collected was obtained
by distributing and collecting questionnaire-surveys consisting of a Likert scale.
39
Rubin and Babbie (2011) assert that descriptive studies are suitable to fulfill the
purpose of describing observed situations and events. Descriptive studies assist in
proving a summary of observations such as characteristics of a sample or it could also be
utilized to describe the relationship among variables. It is also asserted descriptive studies
facilitate the scientific descriptions which hold a higher level of accuracy when compared
to casual descriptions. Descriptive studies can entail quantitative or qualitative data
(Rubin & Babbie). In this particular case, the descriptive study will be quantitative in
nature. The perceptions of service providers will be analyzed statistically.
According to Engel and Schutt (2009), survey research design is the most
common type of research. Engel and Schutt, contribute that the prevalence use of survey
research to several advantages including: “versatility, efficiency, and generalizability” (p.
302). Survey research is versatile in terms that it can assist to enhance our understanding
of social issues. For example, in self-administered questionnaires, participants might be
keener to respond on controversial issues even if their responses might suggest deviant
attitudes or behaviors (Rubin & Babbie, 2011). Additionally, to its versatility, survey
research is often a preferred data collection method due to its relative low cost and rapid
approach for obtaining information. In this particular study, the strength of efficiency was
a decisive determining factor in selecting a survey research method. Primarily, the selfadministered questionnaire exclusively allowed a fixed number of options to answer the
presented question. Moreover, in the utilized survey instrument a neutral option response
was not provided in order to obtain a response that may be analyzed. Moreover,
generalizability is another aspect that contributes to the attractiveness of survey research.
40
Survey research can help develop a representative depiction of a larger population (Engel
& Schutt), and feasibility (Rubin & Babbie). In due course, survey research is a
productive method for addressing social research questions.
Even though survey research is common in research studies and is effective when
dealing with sensitive issues, there are several errors associated with this approach
(Rubin & Babbie, 2011). Some of the errors associated with survey research include:
nonresponse, poor measurement, inadequate coverage, and sampling error (Engel &
Schutt, 2009). The error of nonresponse is an increasing occurrence in survey research.
Some factors that contribute to nonresponse can be associated to the difficulty of securing
respondents. Engel and Schutt state that the error of nonresponse can be reduced by
making several contact attempts and having an understating of factors that can undermine
the credibility of research. The error of poor measurement is another potential risk when
conducting survey research. Measurement errors associated with this type of error include
the wording of survey questions, respondent characteristics, and the presentation of
questions. Also, a poor sampling frame can contribute to the error of inadequate coverage
of the population. Even though a survey can be well designed, a poor sampling frame
would undermine the survey research. Lastly, sampling error is probable when using
survey research. These are some of the potential errors associated with survey research.
Although some of these errors are unavoidable, there are several measures that can be
taken to reduce them.
41
Variables
The independent variables are composed of the self-reported demographic
information. These variables include: age, gender, ethnicity, level of education, years of
experience, and service provider role. Furthermore, the dependent variables are the
service provider’s perceptions of risk factors that influence gang membership among
youth, which are identified on a Likert-scale. The service provides perceptions are
defined by self-reporting information in their opinion about what’s most important in
dealing with gangs. Moreover, the study involves nominal and ordinal levels of
measurement. First, a nominal level is utilized in gathering information for independent
variables. Secondly, an ordinal level was utilized in the gathering of the dependent
variables by utilizing a Likert-scale.
Study Population
Participants in this study were service providers working with gang affiliated
youth. The participants have experience working with gang affiliated youth in a variety of
settings such as schools and community based organizations. The study population
consisted of 33 service providers working in the realm of youth gang services within the
state of California. This population includes service providers with varying years of
experience, gender, age, educational and ethnic backgrounds.
Sampling Procedures
This study was conducted by utilizing non-probability a snowball sampling
method to obtain a sample population. The sample size was 33 participants. The snowball
sampling method was beneficial in identifying a greater population of service providers
42
otherwise unknown to the researcher. Rubin and Babbie (2011) emphasize that the
strengths of the snowball sampling procedures is that it facilitates the process of locating
hidden populations and/or locating people of a specific population. They assert that this
sampling procedure is particularly beneficial in locating populations when there is no list
or obvious sources such as populations composed of homeless individuals. Nevertheless,
snowball sampling involves several weaknesses. An identified weakness when utilizing
snowball sampling is that it involves a questionable representativeness (Rubin & Babbie).
It is critical that the researcher maintains the research study within the targeted
population as this can help address any issues in the representativeness of the population.
Furthermore, a challenge that might arise in snowball sampling method is the possibility
that participants become reluctant to refer others to the study. In such instances, the
researcher will need to develop new networks to identify further participants.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher identified and contacted one service provider in the population.
The researcher communicated with the service provider the purpose of this study and his
or her willingness to participate. In the provided survey, the researcher asked the service
provider to identify other service providers working with gang affiliated youth that might
be interested in participating in this study. Referred service providers were then
contacted via telephone or e-mail. They were informed of the purpose of the study and
about their interest to participate in completing the survey. Potential participants that did
not express an interest in participating in the study were thanked for their time and no
further attempts to contact them were made.
43
The service providers that expressed an interest in participating in the study were
asked if they would prefer to meet in a public location of their choice and a time
convenient for them. Participants were provided with a consent form (See Appendix B)
and survey in person. They were allowed to complete the necessary time to complete the
survey in privacy. The participants were instructed to place the completed and or
incomplete survey in an envelope with other surveys to ensure more privacy and
confidentiality. Interested participants were also provided with the option of obtaining
and completing the survey via e-mail. The participants who preferred to complete the
survey via email were provided with an electronic consent form. After completion of the
survey, the participants returned the survey to the researchers email address. Upon
receiving the returned survey via e-mail, all identifying information (such as, names and
email address) were removed from the survey.
Instrument
Data was gathered utilizing an eleven question survey developed by the
researcher (See Appendix A). The survey consists of demographic questions, including;
age, gender, ethnic background, role and years of experience working with gang affiliated
youth. The survey also inquired the participants’ perceptions of what is most important in
addressing gang affiliation and the prevalence of the social phenomena. Additionally, the
survey was composed utilizing data from The U.S Department of Justice and The Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). The staff from the Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention has organized multiple risk factors for gang
membership into five common domains. The survey organized the five domains
44
identified by OJJDP which includes; family, community, school, peers, and individual.
Each domain identifies several risk factors for gang membership. The participants were
asked to use a Likert scale to prompt their level of agreement for each risk factor
identified. Participants were also asked to rank each identified domain by level of
importance by identifying the most to least influential domain in gang membership and
most to least important domain for intervention.
Two important characteristics in any measurement procedure involve reliability
and validity. For the particular measurement instrument utilized in this research study,
there were no specific test conducted to assess the instruments reliability and validity.
Rubin and Babbie (2011) assert that one of the techniques that can be used to develop
reliable instruments is by asking questions that are relevant and that respondents are
likely to answer. In this research study, the researcher utilized primarily a Likert scale so
that respondents would have options in their responses. Additionally, as previously
discussed the survey instrument was adapted utilizing information previously identified
as relevant to the area of youth gangs. The adaptation of statements/questions previously
used by professionals in the field assisted in the process of face validity.
Data Analysis
The data collected from the surveys was manually organized by the researcher
utilizing SPSS data analysis program. The researcher conducted a variety of analysis
including: frequency distributions, charts, chi-square tests and cross-tabulation tests.
45
Statistical Analysis Plan
The data collected by the self-administered questionnaire was coded and
transported to SPSS data matrix. SPSS program has the ability to conduct inferential and
descriptive statistics (Rubin & Babbie, 2011). Frequencies of the independent and
dependent variables were analyzed. Descriptive statistics analysis were utilized to
measure the years of experience and responses made regarding the question of what is
most important in dealing with gangs. Likewise, independent variable was utilized to
analyze the perceptions of service providers and their opinions of the prevalence of youth
gang problems. This was achieved by using chi-square tests. Cross tabulation tests were
also used to compare the various independent and dependent variables.
Protection of Human Subjects
Prior to the selection and actual administration of the questionnaire a protection of
Human Subjects application was completed and approved by the Division of Social Work
Research Review Committee, at California State University, Sacramento. The application
was approved as exempt (See Appendix C). All participants were provided with a
consent form informing them of their protection of anonymity and confidentiality. There
was no identifying information asked of study participants in the survey. The subject’s
right to privacy and safety was protected through the confidentiality assurance given to
the study participants in the form of providing envelopes for them to place their surveys.
Furthermore, the participants were informed of the benefits and that there were no known
risks associated with the study. The consent forms also acknowledged the rights of the
participants and their right to withdraw from the survey at any time. This research study
46
is exempt as the information obtained will not be recorded in such a manner that the
human subjects can be identified directly. The participants are identified, but disclosure
of the participants will not reasonably place the participants at risk of criminal or civil
liability or be damaging to the participants in any manner.
Summary
This chapter was designed to present an overview of the research methodology,
purpose and design, sampling and data collection procedures. The instrument for
collecting data and the plan for data analysis were discussed. The discussion of the
procedures for human subjects’ protection concluded this chapter. In the following
chapter, the Data Analysis will be presented.
47
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the results of the data analysis will be discussed. The focus of this
chapter will be to address the research question for the study based on the results of the
data analysis. The software package SPSS will be used to run all the statistical
calculations, including descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests. A summary will
conclude this chapter.
Demographics
Based on the dataset, it is found that 66.7% of the respondents are over 35 years
old (Table 1). Also 63.6% of them are female and 36.4% are male. The highest
ethnic/racial background identified as Hispanic or Latino with 36.4% while the lowest
ethnic/racial population identified as Asian/Pacific Islander with only 3%. In terms of
education, 81.8% are college graduates, and 18.2% have some college. In the experience
sector, 72.2% reported having more than two years of experience working with gang
affiliated youth; and the remaining 27.3% reported having less than two years of
experience. For professional roles of the respondents, 42.4% identified as counselors and
nearly one-quarter reported having one or more roles. Fewer than 10% reported having
an ‘other’ role other than the options provided. In response to the most important strategy
to combat gangs, more than half of the respondents chose prevention. None of the
respondents identified suppression as the most important strategy to combat gangs.
Finally, in terms of the perceived prevalence of gangs in the areas of work for youth
service providers, about two-thirds 63.6% say that it is staying the same.
48
Table 1
Demographics of Study Participants in Percentages (N=33)
Age:
Gender:
Ethnicity or Race:
Under 35 years old
33.3
Over 35 years old
66.7
Female
63.6
Male
36.4
White
15.2
Hispanic or Latino
36.4
Black or African American
15.2
Asian/Pacific Islander
Multi-Racial
3.0
Other
6.1
Two or More
9.1
15.2
Level of Education:
Years of Experience
Service Provider Role::
Some College
18.2
College Graduate
81.8
Less than two years
27.2
More than two years
72.7
Counselor
42.4
Educator
12.1
Mentor
12.1
Other
9.1
One or more roles
24.2
49
Table 1
Demographics of Study Participants in Percentages (Continued) (N=33)
Most important strategy to combat
Prevention
51.5
gangs:
Intervention
9.1
Suppression
0
Other
12.1
Prevention & Intervention
Prevention, Intervention, &
9.1
Other
Prevention, Intervention, &
6.1
Suppression
Intervention & Other
3.0
9.1
Prevalence of gangs in area of work:
Getting worse
18.2
Getting better
18.2
Staying about the same
63.6
What are the perceptions of service providers on the factors influencing gang
membership among youth?
In order to consider the research question, possible relationships between the
perceptions of youth service providers on the factors influencing gang membership, and
demographic variables were analyzed. Out of the 376 possible Chi-Square tests to assess
the effect of the perceptions of service providers on the factors that influence gang
50
membership among youth, only a fraction resulted to have an association. The following
will present Chi-square tests on the relationships between variables.
Service Providers Level of Education in Relationship to the Statement that Life
Stressors such as poverty or Illness Influence Gang Membership
Nearly all (96.3%) of the youth service providers that reported being a college
graduate agreed or strongly agreed that life stressors such as poverty or illness is a risk
factor for gang membership (Table 2). Similarly, two-thirds of all participants with some
college education agreed or strongly agreed with that statement. There is no association
between level of education and life stressors.
Service Providers Level of Education in Relationship to the Statement that
Delinquent/Gang-Involved Siblings Influence Gang Membership
Moreover, 100% of youth service providers that reported being a college graduate
agreed or strongly agreed that delinquent/gang–involved siblings is a risk factor for gang
membership (Table 3). Also, two-thirds of all participants with some college education
agreed or strongly agreed with that statement. In sum, 93.9% of all participants agreed or
strongly agreed with the statement. There is an association between level of education
and delinquent/gang-involved siblings (χ2=9.581; df=1; p=0.002).
51
Table 2
Service Providers Level of Education in Relationship to the Statement that Life
Stressors such as Poverty or Illness Influence Gang Membership
Life Stressors
Such as Poverty or
illness
Some
College
Count
% within Level of
education
% within Life Stressors
Such as Poverty or
illness
% of Total
Level of
education
College
Graduate
Count
% within Level of
education
% within Life Stressors
Such as Poverty or
illness
% of Total
Count
% within Level of
education
Total
% within Life Stressors
Such as Poverty or
illness
% of Total
Agree Disagree
and
and
Strongly Strongly
Agree Disagree
4
2
Total
6
66.7%
33.3% 100.0%
13.3%
66.7%
18.2%
12.1%
6.1%
18.2%
26
1
27
96.3%
3.7% 100.0%
86.7%
33.3%
81.8%
78.8%
3.0%
81.8%
30
3
33
90.9%
9.1% 100.0%
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
90.9%
9.1% 100.0%
52
Table 3
Service Providers Level of Education in Relationship to the Statement that
Delinquent/Gang-Involved Siblings Influence Gang Membership
Delinquent/GangInvolved Siblings
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
Count
Some
College
Level of
education
College
Graduate
% within Level of
education
% within Delinquent/GangInvolved Siblings
Count
% within Level of
education
% within Delinquent/GangInvolved Siblings
Count
Total
% within Level of
education
% within Delinquent/GangInvolved Siblings
4
Total
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
2
6
66.7%
33.3% 100.0%
12.9%
100.0% 18.2%
27
0
27
100.0%
0.0% 100.0%
87.1%
0.0% 81.8%
31
2
33
93.9%
6.1% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
53
Service Providers Professional Role in Relationship to the Statement that
Availability of Drugs in the Neighborhood Influence Gang Membership
The perception that availability of drugs in the neighborhood influence youth
gang membership was agreed or strongly agreed by all youth service providers that
identified their professional role as a counselor (Table 4). Similarly, 84.2% of youth
service providers that identified with all other professional roles agreed or strongly
agreed with the statement. This association between professional role and availability of
drugs in the neighborhood was approaching significance (p=0.119).
Service Providers Professional Role in Relationship to the Statement that the
Availability of Firearms Influence Gang Membership
Another association was observed between youth service provider’s professional
role and the statement that the availability of firearms is risk factor. All of (100%) the
youth service providers that reported having a professional role of a counselor agreed or
strongly agreed with the statement that the availability of firearms influences youth gang
membership (Table 5). At the same time, 78.9% of youth service providers that identified
with all other professional roles agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. This
resulted in 87.9% of all participants agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement. The
association between professional role and availability of firearms was approaching
significance (p=0.067).
54
Table 4
Service Providers Professional Role in Relationship to the Statement that Availability of
Drugs in the Neighborhood Influence Gang Membership
Availability of Drugs in Total
the Neighborhood
Counselor
Professional
Role
Count
% within Professional
Role
% within Availability
of Drugs in the
Neighborhood
Count
All other
Professional
Roles
% within Professional
Role
% within Availability
of Drugs in the
Neighborhood
Count
Total
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
14
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
0
14
100.0%
0.0% 100.0%
46.7%
0.0% 42.4%
16
3
19
84.2%
15.8% 100.0%
53.3%
100.0% 57.6%
30
3
33
% within Professional
Role
90.9%
9.1% 100.0%
% within Availability
of Drugs in the
Neighborhood
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
55
Table 5
Service Providers Professional Role in Relationship to the Statement that the Availability
of Firearms Influence Gang Membership
Availability of
Firearms
Total
Agree Disagree
and
and
Strongly Strongly
Agree Disagree
Count
Counselor
Professional
Role
14
0
14
% within Professional Role 100.0%
% within Availability of
Firearms
48.3%
0.0%
100.0%
0.0%
42.4%
4
21.1%
19
100.0%
51.7% 100.0%
57.6%
Count
% within Professional Role
All other
Professional % within Availability of
Roles
Firearms
Count
Total
% within Professional Role
% within Availability of
Firearms
15
78.9%
29
4
33
87.9%
12.1%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
100.0%
Service Providers Age in Relationship to the Statement that Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent Influence Gang Membership
The statement that the participants perceive that low attachment to
child/adolescent influence gang membership was supported by 100% of the youth service
providers who reported being over 35 years old by agreeing or strongly agreeing with the
statement (Table 6). Two-thirds of youth service providers that identified as being under
56
35 years old agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. In general 87.9% of youth
service providers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. There is an association
between age and low attachment to child/adolescent (χ2=9.103; df=1; p=0.003).
Table 6
Service Providers Age in Relationship to the Statement that Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent Influence Gang Membership
Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
Count
Under 35
years old
Age
Over 35
years old
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
4
11
% within Age
% within Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent
63.6%
36.4% 100.0%
24.1%
100.0% 33.3%
Count
% within Age
% within Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent
22
100.0%
0
22
0.0% 100.0%
75.9%
0.0% 66.7%
Count
Total
7
Total
% within Age
% within Low Attachment to
Child/Adolescent
29
4
33
87.9%
12.1% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
57
Service Providers Age in Relationship to the Statement that Peer Alcohol/Drug Use
Influence Gang Membership
Similarly an association was observed between youth service provider’s age and
the risk factor of peer alcohol/drug use. Almost 91% of youth service providers that
reported being over 35 years old agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that peer
alcohol/drug use is an influencing factor for youth gang membership (Table 7).
Additionally, 72.7% of youth service providers that reported being under 35 years old
agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. The perception that peer alcohol/drug use is
an influencing factor for youth gang membership was agreed or strongly agreed by 84.8%
of all the participants. The association between age and peer alcohol/drug use was
approaching significance (p=0.170).
Service Providers Gender in Relationship to the Statement that Poorly Organized
and Functioning Schools/Inadequate School Climate/Negative Labeling by Teachers
Influence Gang Membership
The independent variable of gender showed a possible relationship with the
dependent variable of poorly organized and functioning schools/inadequate school
climate/negative labeling by teachers. Nearly all (90.5%) of the youth service providers
that identified with the gender female agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that
poorly organized and functioning schools/inadequate school climate/negative labeling by
teachers influence gang membership among youth (Table 8). Eighty-three percent of
youth service providers that identified as male agreed or strongly agreed with the
statement. Overall, 87.9% of youth service providers agreed or strongly agreed with the
58
statement. The association between gender and the risk factor of poorly organized and
functioning schools was not significant.
Table 7
Service Providers Age in Relationship to the Statement that Peer Alcohol/Drug Use
Influence Gang Membership
Peer Alcohol/Drug
Use
Total
Agree Disagree
and
and
Strongly Strongly
Agree Disagree
Count
11
72.7%
27.3% 100.0%
28.6%
60.0%
Count
% within Age
Over 35 years old % within Peer Alcohol/Drug
Use
20
90.9%
Count
Total
3
% within Age
% within Peer Alcohol/Drug
Use
Under 35 years
old
Age
8
% within Age
% within Peer Alcohol/Drug
Use
33.3%
2
22
9.1% 100.0%
71.4%
40.0%
66.7%
28
5
33
84.8%
15.2% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
59
Table 8
Service Providers Gender in Relationship to the Statement that Poorly Organized and
Functioning Schools/Inadequate School Climate/Negative Labeling by Teachers
Influence Gang Membership
Poorly Organized and
Functioning
Schools/Inadequate School
Climate/Negative Labeling
by Teachers
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
Count
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
19
2
21
% within Gender
% within Poorly Organized and
Female Functioning Schools/Inadequate
School Climate/Negative
Labeling by Teachers
90.5%
9.5% 100.0%
65.5%
50.0% 63.6%
Count
% within Gender
% within Poorly Organized and
Functioning Schools/Inadequate
School Climate/Negative
Labeling by Teachers
10
83.3%
2
12
16.7% 100.0%
34.5%
50.0% 36.4%
Gender
Male
Count
% within Gender
Total
Total
% within Poorly Organized and
Functioning Schools/Inadequate
School Climate/Negative
Labeling by Teachers
29
4
33
87.9%
12.1% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
60
The following will discuss the perceived prevalence on the issue of gangs in
association to three influencing risk factors. As it is discussed in the demographics results
out of 33 respondents 21 reported the issue of gangs is staying about the same. For the
remaining 12 participants, six reported the issue of gangs is getting worse and six
responded it is getting better. Only the responses that indicated the issue of gangs is
getting worse or better were analyzed in association to the risk factors.
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship
to the Statement Parent Pro-Violent Behavior Influence Gang Membership.
All of (100%) of the service providers that perceive the current issue of gangs is
getting worse agreed or strongly agreed that parent pro-violent behaviors is a risk factor
for youth gang membership (Table 9). Likewise, two-thirds of all participants that
perceive the current issue of gangs is getting better agreed with that statement. In total
83.3% percent of the participants agreed with the same statement. The relationship
between perceived prevalence of gangs and parent pro-violent behavior was not
significant.
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship
to the Statement Exposure to Violence and Racial Prejudice Influence Gang
Membership
Similarly, all of the service providers that perceive the current issue of gangs is
getting worse agreed or strongly agreed that exposure to violence and racial prejudice a
risk factor for youth gang membership (Table 10). Additionally, two-thirds of all
participants that perceive the current issue of gangs is getting better agreed with that
61
statement. In total 83.3% percent of the participants agreed with the same the statement.
The relationship between perceived prevalence of gangs and exposure to violence and
racial prejudice was not significant.
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship
to the Statement Association with Antisocial/Aggressive/Delinquent Peers: High
Peer Delinquency Influence Gang Membership
Furthermore, all of the youth service providers that perceive the current issue of
gangs is getting worse agreed or strongly agreed that association with
antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers: high peer delinquency is an influencing risk factor
for youth gang membership (Table 11). Only 33.3% of youth service providers that
perceived the current issue of gangs is getting better agreed or strongly agreed with the
same statement. In total, approximately two thirds of participants (66.7%) agreed or
strongly agreed with the statement. There is an association between the perceived
prevalence of gangs and association with high peer delinquency (χ2=6.000; df=1;
p=.014).
Summary
This chapter presented an analysis of the data. Demographics and descriptive data
were discussed. Using the chi-square analysis, the demographics of youth service
providers and their association to their perceptions of risk factors that influence youth
gang membership was examined. The next chapter will analyze the data presented here,
present conclusions, limitations of the study, and implications for social work practice,
policy and further research.
62
Table 9
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship to
the Statement Parent Pro-Violent Behavior Influence Gang Membership.
Parent Pro-Violent Behavior
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
Count
Getting
Worse
Prevalence
of gangs
Getting
Better
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Parent proviolent behavior
% of Total
Count
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Parent proviolent behavior
% of Total
Count
Total
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Parent proviolent behavior
% of Total
Total
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
6
0
6
100.0%
0.0%
100.0%
60.0%
0.0%
50.0%
50.0%
0.0%
50.0%
4
2
6
66.7%
33.3%
100.0%
40.0%
100.0%
50.0%
33.3%
16.7%
50.0%
10
2
12
83.3%
16.7%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
83.3%
16.7%
100.0%
63
Table 10
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship to
the Statement Exposure to Violence and Racial Prejudice
Exposure to Violence and
Racial Prejudice
Agree
and
Strongly
Agree
Getting
Worse
Prevalence of
gangs
Getting
Better
Count
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Exposure to
Violence and Racial
Prejudice
Count
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Exposure to
Violence and Racial
Prejudice
Count
Total
% within Prevalence of
gangs
% within Exposure to
Violence and Racial
Prejudice
Total
Disagree
and
Strongly
Disagree
6
100.0%
0
6
0.0% 100.0%
60.0%
0.0%
50.0%
4
2
6
66.7%
33.3% 100.0%
40.0%
100.0%
50.0%
10
2
12
83.3%
16.7% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
64
Table 11
Youth Service Provider Perceived Prevalence on the Issue of Gangs in Relationship to
the Statement Association with Antisocial/Aggressive/Delinquent Peers: High Peer
Delinquency Influence Gang Membership
Association with
Total
antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers:
high peer delinquency
Count
Agree
Disagree
and
and
Strongly Agree
Strongly Disagree
6
0
6
100.0%
0.0%
100.0%
high peer delinquency
75.0%
0.0%
50.0%
Count
2
4
6
33.3%
66.7%
100.0%
high peer delinquency
25.0%
100.0%
50.0%
Count
8
4
12
% within Prevalence of
66.7%
gangs
33.3%
100.0%
% within Association
with high peer
delinquency
100.0%
100.0%
% within Prevalence of
Getting
gangs
Worse
% within Association with
Prevalence of
gangs
% within Prevalence of
Total
Getting
gangs
Better
% within Association with
100.0%
65
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the key data that was gathered
through this study. The chapter will start by providing a summary of the findings that
were presented in chapter four. Next, there will be a discussion on the conclusions that
can be drawn from this study and how the findings compared with the literature that was
reviewed in chapter two. The chapter will also describe the limitations of the study, as
well as provide implications for social work practice and policy. The chapter will
conclude with providing suggestions for future research and recommendations on how to
affectively use data, such as the findings from this study to tailor services for youth that
are gang affiliated.
Summary of Study
This study was conducted with the hope to study youth service provider’s
perceptions regarding risk factors influencing gang membership. The information
contained in this study may serve both youth service providers and the researcher gain a
greater insight about the risk factors influencing gang membership and what areas need to
be addressed in order to combat the issue. The researcher found upon completion of the
study, that there were only three statistically significant risk factors that showed to have
an association to gang membership: level of education and delinquent/gang-involved
siblings; age and low attachment to child/adolescent; and prevalence of gangs and
association with high peer delinquency.
66
The results of the study, through the use of chi-square tests, found that there were
three risk factors which youth service providers reported influence gang membership and
showed to be significant. First in relation to youth service provider level of education
there was a significance observed for one identified risk factor. Significance was
observed in the relationship between youth service provider level of education and the
perceived influence of the risk factor statement that delinquent/gang-involved siblings’
influences gang membership. All youth service providers that had a college level
education reported this statement to be influential while majority of youth service
providers that had some college level education support this statement as well. Secondly,
participants perceive that low attachment to child/adolescent influence gang membership.
Chi-square tests between demographics and risk factors influencing gang membership
showed significant results. First considering the demographic of youth service provider’s
age, there was significance with the risk factor that low attachment to child/adolescent
influences gang membership. Youth service providers that reported being over 35 years
old was more likely to identify the risk factor as leading to gang membership. Third, in
consideration on the current perceived prevalence of the gang issue six service providers
reported a perception that gang issues are getting worse while six other providers
reported it is getting better. Chi-square data between the perceived prevalence of the gang
issue showed to be significant only for one dependent variable. In support, all of the six
service providers that reported the issue of gang is getting worse reported that the risk
factor of association with antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers: high peer delinquency is
a strong influencing risk factor leading to youth gang membership. In contrast, youth
67
service providers that reported the issue of gangs is getting better identified the risk factor
of association with antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers: high peer delinquency at a
lesser, yet considerable rate.
The results of the study found there are three risk factors that were approaching
significance. In evaluating the risk factor that influence youth gang membership service
provider professional role showed that two identified risk factors were approaching
significance. First, youth service providers who reported having a professional role of a
counselor were more likely to identify that the availability of drugs in the neighborhood
is a risk factor influencing gang membership. Similarly, there was an observation
approaching significance between the youth service provider professional role and
perception that the availability of firearms influencing gang membership. Again youth
service providers that reported their role was that of a counselor was more likely report
that the availability of firearms is a contributing risk factor for gang membership. In
addition, all youth service providers almost equally that reported being under and over 35
years old identified the risk factor of peer alcohol/drug use as a contributing factor for
youth gang membership
In addition, four risk factors were identified as not being significantly associated.
In relationship between youth service provider’s current perception on the prevalence of
the gang issue six service providers reported a perception that gang issues are getting
worse while six other providers reported it is getting better. Chi-square data between the
perceived prevalence of the gang issue showed there was no significance among the two
dependent variables. First, all of the six service providers that reported the issue of gangs
68
are getting worse reported that the risk factors of parent pro-violent behavior and
exposure to violence and racial prejudice are strong influencing risk factors leading to
youth gang membership. Service providers that reported the issue of gangs is getting
better identified the risk factors of parent pro-violent behavior and exposure to violence
and racial prejudice at a much lesser rate. Next, the risk factor that showed to not have
significance was relating to the risk factor of life stressors such s poverty or illness and
youth service provider’s level of education. For both youth service providers that
reported having a college graduate education and some college education, there is no
association with the perceived influence of the risk factor statement that life stressors
such as poverty or illness influences gang membership. Lastly in consideration of the
youth service providers, there was no significance between demographics of gender and
poorly organized and functioning schools/inadequate school climate/negative labeling by
teachers that influences gang membership.
Discussions
The study was created to further understand youth service provider’s perception
on the risk factors that relate most closely to why youth join gangs. In the creation of the
study, the researcher looked to further the understanding the five risk factor domains each
encompassing various risk factors and their prevalence among youth gangs. These five
domains included: individual, family, school, community, and peer risk factors. A
comparison of the study findings compared to the findings of the literature review will
follow.
69
First the individual risk factor domain identifies nine risk factors that have been
attributed as contributing factors for youth gang membership. It is noted in the literature
review that there are numerous themes in the individual domain that contribute to gang
affiliation. The factors recognized as life stressors such as antisocial behaviors, mental
health, violent victimization, poverty, and general delinquency are known to pose a threat
for gang affiliation. The literature review indicates that individual risk factors increase
tolerance level among youth therefore posing a threat to gang membership (Howell,
2010; O’Brien et al., 2013). On the contrary to supporting facts that individual risk
factors have a major role in influencing gang membership, this is study did not find
significance. While approximately 91% of youth service providers agreed that the risk
factor of life stressors such as poverty or illness is an influencing factor for youth gang
membership, this statement did not have an association between the service providers
level of education.
In addition, the peer risk factor domain identifies only four risk factors. Despite,
the low number of risk factors identified in the domain, the peer risk factor domain is
notorious for being one of the highest influential risk factors leading to youth gang
membership. It is in fact noted by multiple researchers that association with delinquent
and gang involved peers is one of the strongest correlations for individual gang
membership (Esbensen, 2000; Melde et al., 2011; O’Brien et al., 2013; Wood & Alleyne,
2010; Wyrick & Howell, 2004). In comparison, to findings in the literature review, one of
the questions on the survey of this study relating to the peer factor domain found one
association to be significant. There was an association for both youth service providers
70
who perceived the prevalence of gangs is getting worse and those that perceived it is
getting better that related to the risk factor of association with
antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers: high peer delinquency. Additionally, the literature
review suggests that adolescent is a particularly a vulnerable age group in which the
formation of social networks and peer groups may have a positive or negative influence
(Howell, 2010; Wood & Alleyne). In turn youth may adapt to behaviors or activities
performed in their social network groups. Activates such as engaging in drug or alcohol
use and deviant behaviors are often noted (Bouchard & Spindler, 2010, Lachman et al,
2013). This finding in the literature was supported by one of the identified risk factors in
the survey. There was one association found related to the youth service providers age
and perception that peer alcohol/drug use influences gang membership. This risk factor
was supported as an influencing risk factor by approximately 91% of all the respondents.
Significantly, the domain of family risk factors encompasses the identification of
eight risk factors. A risk factor that was found to be repeatedly prominent thought the
literature review is the family member involvement in delinquent activity and gang
involvement. It is in fact recognized as the most influential risk factor leading to youth
gang membership in the family domain as this tends to reinforce and support the behavior
(Alleyne & Wood, 2010; Howell 2010; O’Brien et al., 2013; Wyrick & Howell, 2004).
Similarly, to the belief found in the literature review, there was an association in in
relation to the risk factor that delinquent/gang-involved sibling’s influences youth gang
membership. In fact, about 91% of youth service providers identifying with a
professional role of counselor and all other professional roles perceived this risk factor to
71
be strongly influential. Additionally, the importance of healthy positive family
environment and relationships is stressed throughout the literature review. It is eminent
that youth develop a strong bond ad attachment with their family members. These ideal
circumstances are often barricade by extenuating circumstances such as financial
stressors. Youth that are gang involved often report a lack of bondage and
communication in their family environment. In terms of this study, there was an
association in relation to the risk factor of low attachment to child/adolescent in relation
to the age of youth service providers. Although, about 88% of all the respondents
perceived this risk factor as being influential, the results were only approaching
significance. On the other hand, findings pertaining to the risk factor of parent pro-violent
behavior were inconsistent with findings presented in the literature review. In the
literature, it is identified that attitudes and pro-violent behaviors in the family are strong
predictors for gang membership (Howell; Wyrick & Howell). However, there was no
significance found in relation to the risk factor and the perceptions of youth service
providers on the perceived prevalence of the issue of gangs.
Moreover, the domain of school risk factors contributes to the literature with the
identification of seven risk common risk factors. In this domain, the risk factors are
discussed from two varying perspectives: individual and environmental. The research
points out that for the individual level there are multiple risk factors identified as strong
predictors for gang involvement (Howell, 2010). Meanwhile, environmental factors in
school settings may expose youth at a higher risk for gang membership. In fact, evidence
suggests that gangs are more likely to form in poor functioning schools and is associated
72
with a range of other environmental factors (Howell; Melde et al., 2011; Wyrick &
Howell, 2004). Therefore, risk factors in the school domain were believed by the
researcher to have a strong significance in the influence of gang membership.
Nonetheless, there was no association observed between the risk factor of poorly
organized and functioning schools/inadequate school climate/negative labeling by
teachers and the reporting gender of youth service providers.
Lastly, the community risk factor domain entails nine risk factors as possible
predictors of gang membership. Throughout the literature it is emphasized that
community conditions can be the defining factor for youth gang membership. The
evidence supports that distressed communities present as one of the strongest risk factors
for gang membership. Perpetuating rates of crime and delinquency in distressed
communities support further negative conditions such as the ability of drugs and firearms
(Esbensen, 2000; Howell, 2010). Out of the questions on the survey relating to
community risk factors, there were only two associations found. This related to the risk
factors of availability of drugs in the neighborhood and the availability of firearms in
relation to the professional capacity of the youth service providers. Nearly 91% and 88%
of all youth service professionals perceived the risk factors are influential factors for
youth gang membership respectively. These risk factors were merely approaching
significance. Further the research suggested that unsafe neighborhoods and the presence
of violence is particularly an influencing factor for youth gang membership as youth
might join gangs to seek protection. Therefore, this researcher believed there would be a
strong significance as it relates to the risk factor of exposure to violence and racial
73
prejudice. Even so, there was no significance between the risk factor and youth service
provider perceived prevalence on the issue of gangs.
Limitations
At the conclusion of the study, the researcher determined that there were some
limitations with this study. First, the sample size of this study compromised of only 33
respondents. To combat this as a limitation, a larger sample would have been necessary.
The researcher at the conclusion of the data collection period found that if more time
would have been granted to research participants, a greater number of responses may
have been obtained. In addition, from errors that were found in the collected surveys, the
researcher concluded that a better direction could have been given to ensure surveys were
completed correctly. The researcher also found that the way in which the statements were
asked might have caused some confusion for the respondents. The issue of doublebarreled questions demonstrated to be a concern in the development of the instrument.
Furthermore, the methodology of utilizing youth service provider’s perceptions might
have been better in accessing information if a qualitative rather than quantitative method
was used. In-depth interviews with youth service provide might reveal further
information in regards to the perceptions of risk factors influence youth gang
membership. This information could be valuable in further understanding influencing risk
factors. Also, the findings of this study are not able to be generalized to the large
population because of the sample size. In sum, the areas of the instrument, sampling
frame, and the method of data collection are identified areas for improvements.
74
Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy
There are important implications for social work from this research project. First
and foremost the National Association of Social Workers (2012), assert that social
workers must abide by the professions conviction that “Social workers promote social
justice and social change with and on behalf of clients” (Preamble section, para. 2). This
conviction can be attained by attending to the issue of youth gangs. Consequently in all
levels of social work micro, mezzo, and macro levels, youth gangs are an important issue
in the field of social work. Based on findings from this research study some implications
can be concluded as well as the need for further research.
At the micro level, social workers can apply the core values of service, dignity
and worth of the person, and the importance of human relationships. Primarily the core
value of service can be accomplished by identifying the needs of individuals; individuals
meaning an array of families, individuals, and so forth. In particular, this study points out
the need for service allocation in the family domain. As it was presented in the literature
review, the family risk factors are one of the strongest predictors for youth gang
membership. Further, in the identification of needs, social workers may address the social
issue of youth gangs. The social issue of youth gangs not only does it include the
individual, but also as this study results showed that delinquent/gang-involved siblings is
a strong influencing factor for youth gang membership. Risk factors identified in the
peer domain would also be important to consider. Additionally, it is essential that social
workers establish the importance of dignity and worth of the person. This core value will
aid in the process of empowering individuals to make necessary changes to meet their
75
own needs while at the same time maintaining the responsibility of duality to the
individual and society. Nonetheless, a cognizant understating of the importance of human
relationships is an imperative element in the path to positive changes. Social workers are
able to serve as the agent to promote change; and although the issue of gangs cannot at all
be avoided, circumstances may be mitigated by social workers to develop solutions at the
micro level (National Association of Social Workers, 2012).
At the mezzo level, social workers can apply the profession’s core values of
competence and integrity. Competent social workers could contribute not only to the
knowledge base of the profession, but also to other professions servicing gang affiliated
youth. As the findings of this study presented, roughly 91% of youth service providers
perceived the availability of drugs in the neighborhood and 88% of youth service
providers perceived the availability of firearms are influencing risk factors for youth gang
membership in the community domain. Therefore, it is important to collaborate and
develop various community components such as schools, and organizations providing
youth services to address the perceived risk factors. Also, a multidisciplinary team would
be of benefit in the development of strategies to deal with the social phenomena while
adhering to the core value of integrity. Ultimately, a holistic approach is more likely to
produce results in the deterrence of youth from the gang life style and victimization
(National Association of Social Workers, 2012).
At the macro level there are implications concerning the core value of social
justice. Social justice can be used as an umbrella term to conduct efforts of organizing,
advocacy, and policy changes specifically to those that are oppressed. The organizing and
76
development of comprehensive programs is necessary in order to address the
encompassing issue of youth gangs accordingly. This can be achieved by the completion
of needs assessments and advocacy efforts for accurate service allocations. At the same
time, it is important to address issues of social injustices in the various systems.
Particularly it is essential that social workers advocate for changes in policy in which
youth are furthered penalized on the basis of being gang affiliated. It is important to
comprehend that youth often join gangs due to paramount risk factors which often result
from a lack of inherent human rights caused by societal failures (National Association of
Social Workers, 2012).
Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to gain greater understanding of youth service
provider perceptions on the risk factors that influence youth gang membership. From the
research, and the literature reviewed by the researcher, recommendations can be made in
hindsight how this study could have potentially yield better results, recommendations for
future research, and move toward meeting implications of the study.

The researcher could have allotted a longer collection period for the surveys to
be completed in order to ensure that a greater pool of youth service providers
was given the opportunity to complete the survey.

At the end of the survey instrument, the researcher could have included an
open ended question to see if there were any additional risk factors that youth
service providers found were relevant to youth gang membership
77

The researcher could have utilized a qualitative research design that asked the
youth service providers for the top three risk factors on why they perceive
youth join gangs.

Future research studies could also examine the risk factors that were
significant and approaching significance to determine if community programs
are effective in working with these risk factors.

Further research studies could examine and explore whether youth service
providers understand the risk factors involved and how they can use the
information they gather to better serve the youth they working with and
reducing the number of youth that are gang affiliated
Conclusion
This chapter provided a conclusion on the key findings made from this research
design. In this chapter, there was a discussion on the summaries made from the results
found in chapter four, as well as a discussion on how those findings compared to
literature review of chapter two. Next, the study limitations were introduced followed by
the implications for the field of social work. The chapter concluded by providing
recommendations for future research on this topic. The findings from this research
design help in determining where future research on this topic could be conducted more
successfully. Lastly, this research demonstrates that generalizations of the findings
cannot be made, as every region can have different risk factors that most affect the
prevalence of youth gangs.
78
APPENDIX A
Survey Instrument
1. What is your age?
Under 35 years old
Over 35 years old
2. What is your gender?
Female
Male
Other (please specify):
3. Please specify your ethnicity (or Race)
White
Hispanic or Latino
Black or African American
Native American or American Indian
Asian/Pacific Islander
Multi-racial
Other (please specify):
4. What is your highest level of education?
High School Education or Less
Some College
College Graduate
5. How many years of experience do you have working with gang involved youth?
Less than 2 years
More than 2 years
6. What is your role in working with gang involved youth?
Counselor
Educator
Mentor
Other-Please Describe:
7. In your opinion, what is most important in dealing with gangs?
Prevention
Intervention
Suppression
Other- Please Describe:
8. How would you describe the issue of gangs in your area of work?
Getting worse
Getting better
Staying about the same
79
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
1
2
3
4
9. Youth with the following risk factors are more likely to join gangs. Place a
number from 1to 4 using the grid above to state your level of agreement next to each
risk factor listed below.
Individual Risk Factors
Antisocial/delinquent beliefs
Early dating/sexual activity/parenthood
Life stressors such as poverty or illness
Makes excuses for delinquent behavior (neutralization)
Mental health problems
Physical violence/ aggression
Violent victimization
Alcohol/drug use
General delinquency involvement
Family Risk Factors
Broken home/changes in caretaker
Delinquent/gang-involved siblings
Family poverty/low family social economic status
Low attachment to child/adolescent
Low parent education
Poor parental supervision
Parent pro-violent behavior
Family history of problem behavior/criminal involvement
School Risk Factors
Low academic aspirations
Low math achievement test scores (males)
Low parent college expectations for child
Low school attachment /bonding/motivation/ commitment to school
Poor school attitude/performance and academic failure
Frequent truancy/absences/suspensions; expelled from school; dropping
out of school
Poorly organized and functioning schools/ inadequate school
climate/negative labeling by teachers
Community Risk Factors
Availability of drugs in the neighborhood
Availability of firearms
80
Economic deprivation/poverty/residence in a disadvantaged neighborhood
High-crime neighborhood
Community disorganization
Feeling unsafe in the neighborhood
Low neighborhood attachment
Neighborhood youth in trouble
Exposure to violence and racial prejudice
Peer Risk Factors
Association with antisocial/aggressive/delinquent peers: high peer
delinquency
Association with gang-involved peers/relatives
Peer alcohol/drug use
Peer rejection
10.
From your experiences working with gang involved youth please rank the
following risk factors. What is the most to least influencing risk factor for youth
joining a gang?1 = Most Influential 5 = Least Influential
Family Risk Factors
Community Risk Factors
School Risk Factors
Peer Risk Factors
Individual Risk Factors
11.
In your opinion please rank the following areas from most important to least
important area for intervention. 1=Most Important 5 = Least Important
Family
Community
School
Peers
Individual
Do you know anybody that has experience working with gang involved youth that might
be interested to participate in the study? If so, please provide their names and contact
information.
Name:
Phone:
E-mail:
Name:
Phone:
E-mail:
Name:
Phone:
E-mail:
Thank you for your time and participation!
81
APPENDIX B
Consent to Participate in Research:
Consent Form
Introduction and Purpose
My name is Marisol Garcia. I am a social work graduate student at California State
University, Sacramento working with my thesis advisor, Dr. Maria Dinis. I would like to
invite you to take part in my research study. The purpose of this research study is to
explore the perceptions of service providers in regards to the factors that influence gang
membership among youth. You are being invited to participate in the study because you
are a service provider that has experience working with gang affiliated youth.
Procedures
The procedure involves filling out an eleven question survey that will take approximately
30 minutes. The survey questions will be regarding your perceptions about the
influencing risk factors for gang membership among youth.
Benefits
There is no direct benefit for your participation in this research study. However, the
results of this research study may guide future service providers with an enhance
understanding of the factors that influence gang membership.
Risks/Discomforts
There are no known risks associated with this research study. The nature of the questions
in the survey is regarding your perceptions of factors that influence gang membership
from a service provider stance.
Confidentiality
The researcher will do her best to keep your information confidential. All data will be
stored at this researcher’s home in a secured locked cabinet. To help protect your
confidentiality, the surveys will not contain information that will personally identify you.
Your responses will be kept confidential and no identifying information will be reported.
All data will be reported in the aggregate. The results of this study will be used for
scholarly purposes only and may be shared with this researcher’s thesis advisor.
82
Compensation
You will not receive any compensation for your participation in this research study.
Rights
You may choose not to participate. If you decide to participate in this research survey,
you may withdraw at any time or skip any questions. If you decide not to participate in
this study or if you withdraw from participating at any time, you will not be penalized.
Voluntary Participation
Your participation in this research study is completely voluntary. If at any time you will
like to withdraw from completing the survey you may do so at any time.
If you have any questions about the research study, please contact: Marisol Garcia at
(916) XXX-XXXX or via e-mail at mg644@csus.edu. Or you may also contact this
researchers thesis advisor, Maria Dinis, Ph.D., MSW, 916-278-7161 or via e-mail at
dinis@csus.edu.
By returning this survey to the researcher, you have given your permission to participate
in this study.
83
APPENDIX C
Human Subjects Approval
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
DIVISION OF SOCIAL WORK
To:
Marisol Garcia
Date: February 12, 2014
From: Research Review Committee
RE: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPLICATION
Your Human Subjects application for your proposed study, “Perceptions of Service
Providers on the Factors Influencing Gang Membership”, is Approved as Exempt.
Discuss your next steps with your thesis/project Advisor.
Your human subjects Protocol # is: 13-14-057. Please use this number in all official
correspondence and written materials relative to your study. Your approval expires one
year from this date. Approval carries with it that you will inform the Committee
promptly should an adverse reaction occur, and that you will make no modification in
the protocol without prior approval of the Committee.
The committee wishes you the best in your research.
Research Review Committee members Professors Maria Dinis, Jude Antonyappan, Serge Lee, Francis Yuen, Kisun Nam, Dale Russell,
Cc: Dinis
84
REFERENCES
Alleyne. E., Wood, J. L. (2010). Gang involvement: Psychological and behavioral
characteristics of gang members, peripheral youth and nongang youth.
Aggressive Behavior 36 423-436 doi: 10.1002/ab.20360.
Akiyama, C. (2012). Understanding youth street gangs. Journal of Emergency
Nursing.38(8) 568-570. doi:.org/10.1016/j.jen.2011.10.006.
Beare, M. E., Hogg, C. (2013) Listening in…to gang culture. Canadian Journal of
Criminology and Criminal Justice. doi: 10.3138/cjccj.2011-E-29.
Bouchard. M., Spindler. A. (2010). Groups, gangs, and delinquency: Does organization
matter? Journal of Criminal Justice 38(2010) 921-933. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.201
0.06.009.
Dnes, A., W., Garoupa, N. (2010). Behavior, human capital and the formation of gangs.
Blackwell Publishing.
Engel, R., J., & Schutt, R., K. (2009). The practice of research in social work. (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Esbensen, F. A, (2000). Preventing adolescent gang involvement. Juvenile Justice
Bulletin. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Estrada, J. N., Gilbreath, T. D., Astor, R. A., Benbenishty, R. (2013). Gang membership
of California middle school students: Behaviors and attitudes as mediators of
school violence. Health Education Research 28(4) 626-639. doi:101093/her/cyt037
85
Fleisher, M. (2009). Coping with macro=structural adversity: Chronic poverty, female
youth gangs, and cultural resilience in a US African-American urban community
Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 1(4). 274-284.
Frazer, M., W. (2004). Risk and resilience in childhood: An ecological perspective. (2nd
ed.). Washington: DC. National Association of Social Workers.
Hayden, T (2004). Street wars; Gangs and the future of violence. New York: NY. The
New Press
Hill, K. G., Lui, C., Hawkins, J.D. (2001). Early Precursors of gang membership : A
study of Seattle Youth. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Office of Juvenile justice and
Delinquency Prevention.
Howell, J. C. (2010). Gang prevention: An overview of research and programs. Juvenile
Justice Bulletin. Office of Juvenile justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Howell, J. C., Egley, A. Jr. (2005). Moving risk factors into developmental theories of
gang membership. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 3:334 doi.
10.1177/1541204005278679
Howell, J. C., Egley, A. Jr., Tita, G. E., Griffiths, E. (2011). U.S. gang problem trends
and seriousness, 1996-2009. National Gang Center Bulletin No. 6. Office of
Juvenile justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Howell, J. C., Moore, J. P. (2010). History of street gangs in the United States. National
Gang Center Bulletin No. 4. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention.
86
Kizer, K. (2012). Behind the guise of gang membership: Ending the unjust
criminalization. DePaul Journal for Social Justice,5 (2) .
Lachman, P., Roman, C. G., Cahill, M. (2013). Assessing youth motivations for joining a
peer group as risk factors for delinquent and gang behavior. Youth Violence and
Juvenile Justice 11(3) 212-229.doi: 10.177/1541204012461510
Lipsey, M. W., Howell, J. C., Kelly, M. R., Chapman, G., Carver, D. (2010). Improving
the effectiveness of juvenile justice programs: A new perspective on evidencebased practice. Center for Juvenile Justice Reform
Loeber, R., Kalb, L., Huizinga, D., (2001). Juvenile delinquency and serious injury
victimization. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Melde, C., Gavazzi, S., McGarell, E., Bynum, T. (2011). On the efficacy of targeted gang
interventions: Can we identify those most at risk? Youth Violence and Juvenile
Justice, 9(4) 279-294. Doi: 10.177/1541204011399934
Merriam-Webster (2014). Merriam-Webster Dictionary online. Retrieved from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
Miley, K. K., O’Melia, M., & DuBois, B. (2011). Generalist social work practice: An
empowering approach. (6th ed.). New York: NY. Pearson Inc.
National Association of Social Workers. (2012). Code of Ethics. Retrieved from
http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/default.asp
National Youth Gang Center. (2006). National youth gang survey analysis. Retrieved
April 16, 2014, from http://www.iir.com/nygc/nygsa/.
87
O’Brien, K., Daffern, M., Chu, C. M., Thomas, S.D.M. (2013). Youth gang affiliation,
violence,
Rizzo, M. (2003). Why do children join gangs? Journal of Gang Research 11:65-74.
Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. (2011). Research methods for social work. (7th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole
Schriver, J., M. (2011). Human behavior and the social environment: Shifting paradigms
in essential knowledge for social work practice. Boston: MA. Pearson Inc.
Short, J. F., Hughes, L. A. (2006). Studying youth gangs. Lantham MD: Alta Mira Press.
Spergel, I., A. (1995). The youth gang problem: A community approach. New York: NY.
Oxford University Press.
Thomas, C. R. (2005). Serious delinquency and gang membership. Psychiatric Times
22(4) 18-21.
Thornberry, T. P., Huizinga, D., Loeber, R.(2004). The causes and correlates studies:
Findings and policy implications. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention 9(1) 3-19.
Wood, J., Alleyne, E. (2010). Street gang theory and research: Where are we now and
where do we go from here? Aggression and Violent Behavior. 15 100-111 doi:
10.1016/j.avb.2009.08.005
Wyrick, P. A. Howell, J. C. (2004). Strategic risk-based response to youth gangs. Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 9(1) 20-29