PREVALENCE OF OSTEOARTHRITIS IN THE PRE-CONTACT AND POST-
CONTACT ARIKARA
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Anthropology
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS in
Anthropology by
Meagan Marie O’Deegan
FALL
2013

© 2013
Meagan Marie O’Deegan
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii

PREVALENCE OF OSTEOARTHRITIS IN THE PRE-CONTACT AND POST-
CONTACT ARIKARA
A Thesis by
Meagan Marie O’Deegan
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Samantha M. Hens, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Jacob L. Fisher, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date iii

Student: Meagan Marie O’Deegan
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator ___________________
Michael G. Delacorte, Ph.D. Date
Department of Anthropology iv

Abstract of
PREVALENCE OF OSTEOARTHRITIS IN THE PRE-CONTACT AND POST-
CONTACT ARIKARA by
Meagan Marie O’Deegan
This study aimed to examine the incidence of osteoarthritis in adult individuals from the Arikara Native American population. Samples from pre-contact, contact, and post-contact periods were broken down by sex and age to test the hypothesis that osteoarthritis increased after European contact. Statistically significant increases in osteoarthritis before and after contact were observed in the ankle and wrist (overall osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle and elbow (female osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle
(male osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle and cervical vertebra (young adult osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle, knee, hip, wrist, elbow, and shoulder (middle aged adult osteoarthritis prevalence), and lumbar vertebra (old aged adult osteoarthritis prevalence). The increase in osteoarthritis post-contact is attributed to the dramatic population decreases caused by disease and conflicts with outside groups that led to the need for the healthiest individuals to take on more intense labor roles in hunting and agriculture to compensate for a population with an ever decreasing number of individuals who could contribute to the
Arikara society. The cause of osteoarthritis is difficult to attribute to an exact activity but v

is typically associated with actions that impacted a specific joint over a long period of time or intermittent high intensity activities (Bridges 1991). Activities associated with increased Arikara osteoarthritis incidence include long distance walking, frequent travel over hilly or rough landscapes, activities associated with food processing, the fur trade, carrying heavy loads, and for middle to older aged individuals may be linked to the aging process.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Samantha M. Hens, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date vi

DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my parents, Robert and Elaine O’Deegan, who love me and encourage me to pursue my dreams and to Dr. Hens for her contagious passion for anthropology, her incredible dedication to me and all of her students, and her irreplaceable guidance during my research. vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Hens for being the most amazing teacher, mentor, and thesis chair. I would like to thank Dr. Fisher for all of his input and guidance, the Anthropology Department at California State University, Sacramento, the University of Tennessee’s Department of Anthropology, and Stantec Consulting. Thank you to my parents, Robert and Elaine O’Deegan, my love, Patrick Kersten, and all of my family and friends who have supported me through this challenging but very rewarding journey. viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication ......................................................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
Statement of Purpose ...............................................................................................2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW: OSTEOARTHRITIS ...........................................................4
Introduction: Osteoarthritis ......................................................................................4
Bioarchaeological Osteoarthritis Studies .................................................................7
Biocultural Osteoarthritis Studies ..........................................................................20
3. LITERATURE REVIEW: ARIKARA .........................................................................26
Background: The Arikara .....................................................................................26
Arikara Archaeological Sites .................................................................................29
Extended Coalescent ............................................................................30
Post-Contact Coalescent ......................................................................31
Disorganized Coalescent ......................................................................32
Past Arikara Bioarchaeology Studies.....................................................................33
Project Specifications.............................................................................................40 ix

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...................................................................................43
Materials ..............................................................................................................43
Methods ..............................................................................................................44
5. RESULTS ......................................................................................................................47
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .........................................................................57
Further Research Suggestions ................................................................................62
Literature Cited ..................................................................................................................63 x

LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
1. Arikara Archaeological Sites ...................................................................................30
2. Arikara Study Sample Break Down .........................................................................44
3. Articular Surfaces and Margins of Major Adult Joints Observed for Presence or
Absence of Osteoarthritis .........................................................................................45
4. Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis Occurrence, Sexes Combined .......................48
5. Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Overall Incidence of Osteoarthritis
Between Time Periods, Sexes Combined ................................................................49
6. Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis in Females .....................................................50
7. Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Female Incidence of Osteoarthritis
Between Time Periods ............................................................................................50
8. Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis in Males .........................................................51
9. Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Male Incidence of Osteoarthritis
Between Time Periods .............................................................................................52
10. Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis by Age ...........................................................54
11. Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Age Group Incidence of Osteoarthritis
Between Time Periods .............................................................................................56 xi

1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Bioarchaeology is a combination of physical anthropology and archaeology and studies the osteology, genetics, and overall biology of past populations represented in the archaeological record. One of the main goals associated with bioarchaeology is the understanding and reconstruction of activities and lifestyles of past populations and how this impacted their skeletal biology (Bridges 1989a,b). Bioarchaeological osteoarthritis studies can reveal the past health, daily activities, social status, and sexual division of labor in past populations.
The first documented case of osteoarthritis was in a Jurassic pliosaur from approximately 150 million years ago. Osteoarthritis is known to have impacted human populations from the time of the Neanderthals. In modern populations, men tend to have more osteoarthritis and at an earlier age than women who usually get osteoarthritis after the age of 54 (Jurmain 1977a).
Osteoarthritis, also known as Degenerative Joint Disease, is the most prevalent articular disease thought to be caused primarily by aging and/or activities during life
(Bridges 1992; Ortner and Putschar 1981). The disease is characterized by a breakdown of the joint surface due to age or over use of a joint. Symptoms of the disease starting with the early stages and ending in the late stages begin with symptoms of eburnation, then osteophytes, then lipping, and finally fusion. The knee, first metatarsophalangeal, hip, shoulder, elbow, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints are impacted most often and earliest by osteoarthritis (Bridges 1992; Ortner and Putschar 1981). The main

variations of osteoarthritis include Rheumatoid arthritis, Juvenile Rheumatoid arthritis,
2 and Ankylosing Spondylitis (Bridges 1992).
There have been some major differences in osteoarthritis prevalence in prehistoric versus modern populations. This is thought to be due to differences in the amount of activity performed by each population. There is no conclusive evidence to show that certain subsistence strategies cause more or less osteoarthritis and traumatic injuries may play more of a role than day to day activities (Angel 1966; Bridges 1989a,b, 1991, 1992;
Cope et al. 2005; Jurmain 1977a, 1990, 1991; Lai and Lovell 1992; Larsen 1995, 2006;
Larsen et al. 1995; Rojas-Sepúlveda et al. 2008; Vanna 2007; Weiss and Jurmain 2007).
It is still unclear why there is more sexual dimorphism between males and females in agricultural groups than there is in hunter-gatherer remains. One hypothesis is that men were more involved in warfare during the agricultural period than hunter-gatherers (Boyd
1996; Bridges 1989a,b, 1994; Larsen et al. 1995; Rojas-Sepúlveda et al. 2008; Vanna
2007; Weiss and Jurmain 2007).
Statement of Purpose
Many previous studies documented the impacts of European contact on Arikara health. Previous pre- and post-contact osteology studies focused on Arikara female health
(Owsley and Bradmiller 1983; Owsley and Jantz 1985; Reinhard et al. 1994), Arikara growth and development (Jantz and Owsley 1984; Merchant and Ubelaker 1977) Arikara morphological variation (Erickson et al. 2000; Jantz 1973; Key and Jantz 1990; Owsley et al. 1982), Arikara dentition, (Perzigian 1975), and demographic analysis (Owsley and

Bass 1979). These studies show the negative impact on the morphology, health, growth,
3 and demography of the Arikara populations from pre- to post- European contact.
European influence included the introduction of horses at the beginning of the 18th century, which helped the Arikara in their subsistence strategies, and diseases like small pox and measles, which decimated over seventy-five percent of the Arikara population.
Regardless of the positive or negative influences of the Europeans on the Arikara, it is clear that their interactions influenced the Arikara culture, economy, and biology.
The majority of previous studies completed on the Arikara have used the skeletal collections housed at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. This study tests if the prevalence of osteoarthritis in the Arikara increased or decreased as a result of European contact. The study also compares the incidence of osteoarthritis between sexes to understand more about sexual division of labor in the Arikara and how European contact may have influenced changes to the sexual division of labor in the Arikara culture and economy. The findings of this study add to the literature of Arikara bioarchaeology studies and help us understand more about osteoarthritis. Lastly, this study will add to our comprehension of how indigenous populations responded biologically to the stresses of post-contact.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW: OSTEOARTHRITIS
While modern, historic, and prehistoric skeletal remains have been used to study osteoarthritis, there is no definitive understanding of which activities cause this disease.
4
The text below discusses the etiology of osteoarthritis, different types of osteoarthritis, common methods used for studying osteoarthritis in skeletal remains, and what Native
American bioarchaeological and biocultural research has uncovered about the disease.
Introduction: Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis, also known as Degenerative Joint Disease, is the most prevalent articular disease thought to be caused primarily by aging and/or activities during life. The disease slowly progresses with degeneration of articular cartilage followed years later by observable bone alterations (Bridges 1992; Ortner and Putschar 1981). Ortner and
Putschar (1981) describe the disease as characterized by a breakdown of the joint surface due to age or over use of a joint. Symptoms of the disease progressing from early stages to late stages include eburnation, osteophytes, lipping, and fusion. Seen at the beginning stages of the disease, eburnation is when there is a shine or polish on the joint surface.
Osteophytes are little bumps or bony growths that form as a result of the disease. Lipping is an overgrowth of the rim of the articular surface. Fusion of bones can occur in the very late stages of the disease. Lastly, Schmorl’s depressions have been linked to osteoarthritis
(Klaus et al. 2009). Schmorl’s depressions are hollow depressions in the vertebrae and are thought to be caused by trauma and/or strenuous activities (e.g. heavy lifting). The

following joints are impacted most often and earliest by osteoarthritis (from most frequently to the least frequently impacted joint): knee, first metatarsophalangeal, hip,
5 shoulder, elbow, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints (Bridges 1992; Ortner and
Putschar 1981). Osteoarthritis usually appears from 40-50 years old and prevalence of the disease increases with age. Thus, in archaeological skeletal remains, the demography of a site will greatly impact the frequency of observed osteoarthritis in skeletal remains.
Osteoarthritis is typically observed in either or both the joint surface and articular margins of the skeleton. Bioarchaeological osteoarthritis studies that have access to entire skeletons will contribute more to our understanding of the disease in past and modern populations (Ortner and Putschar 1981).
Bridges (1992) describes the differences between the main variations of osteoarthritis including Rheumatoid arthritis, Juvenile Rheumatoid arthritis, and
Ankylosing Spondylitis. Primarily inflicting women, Rheumatoid arthritis is described as inflammation of appendicular joints typically seen on both sides of the body in the hands and feet. The exact cause of the disease is unknown but it is believed to be influenced by a variety of factors, including stress, diet, and genetics. The disease has also been linked to osteoporosis because it slowly destroys the articular ends of joints. Juvenile
Rheumatoid arthritis is usually seen in children after an infection involving a fever and is temporary, usually only having an impact on large joints. Victims of this disease ordinarily make a full recovery and it does not repeat itself throughout the rest of life.
Ankylosing Spondylitis, is seen in males in the sacroiliac joint and the entire vertebral column, which has an impact on the apophyseal joints of the back. This disease is

characterized by inflammation and bone fusion following the inflammation. Causes of
6 this disease are thought to be primarily genetic (Bridges 1992).
Osteologists typically use visual observations to determine the presence and severity of osteoarthritis. Jurmain (1980, 1990) used an ordinal scaling method, which is used by many other bioarchaeologists. The ordinal scaling method is a visual observation that involves giving each joint a score of none/slight, moderate, and severe. Bridges
(1991) used a similar scaling method in her research with 0 = no arthritis, 1 = trace or minimal arthritis, 2= minor arthritis, 3 = moderate arthritis, and 4 = severe arthritis. Cope et al. (2005) used the following key to code for presence of osteoarthritis to determine the degree of deterioration at the joint surfaces: (0) Clear: No signs of porosity, lipping, or eburnation, and articular surface intact; (1) Minor deterioration: Less than 1/3 articular surface porosity, minimal osteophyte formation, no lipping, and no eburnation; (2) Mild lipping or deterioration: Less than 1/3 articular surface porosity, and lipping of less than
1/3 of the circumference of joint edge; (3) Moderate lipping and rough facet: 1/3 or greater articular surface porosity, and lipping around 1/3 or greater of the joint circumference; no greater than 2/3 porosity or lipping; (4) Severe facet damage or bone irregularity, and eburnation: 2/3 or greater of articular surface porosity, lipping of 2/3 of the joint circumference, and eburnation present. Bones that scored 0 on the scale were considered normal, with no evidence of osteoarthritis. Bones that scored between 1 and 4 on the scale were considered to have mild to severe osteoarthritis: 1 or 2, mild; 3, moderate; and 4, severe osteoarthritis (Cope et al. 2005).

Jurmain (1990) explains that studies should focus on four factors to understand more about the causes of osteoarthritis, 1) how old the individual was when they got
7 osteoarthritis, 2) how severe the disease is and where it occurs on the body, 3) sexual dimorphism of the appearance and expression of the disease, and 4) how the disease progresses as an individual ages. Ortner and Putschar (1981) argue that osteoarthritis study methods are most effective when the osteoarthritis is recorded by location and severity (taking into account the percentage of the joint surface impacted) of the disease
(Ortner and Putschar 1981).
Bioarchaeological Osteoarthritis Studies
The following research focuses primarily on the causes of osteoarthritis with an emphasis on how subsistence strategies, daily activities, and status may influence the disease in Native American bioarchaeology.
Jurmain (1977a) explored the etiology (cause) of Degenerative Joint Disease by examining the prevalence of DJD in four populations (n=798): Modern African-
Americans, Modern Caucasian Americans, Pre-historic (1200 AD) Pueblo Native
Americans, and Protohistoric (1800-1912 AD) Alaskan Eskimos. He specifically examined the joints of the knee, hip, shoulder and elbow to learn more about the causes of osteoarthritis. The results indicated that osteoarthritis is caused by a combination of the type of environment the population lives in, their lifestyles, and their daily activities. The most critical cases and earliest occurrence of osteoarthritis occurred in the Eskimo population; for all joints examined, the right side was more impacted by osteoarthritis

8 than the left. Compared to the Caucasian population, African Americans had more osteoarthritis in the knee, shoulder, and elbow. The Pueblo population had the least amount of osteoarthritis of all populations. The Pueblo were agriculturalists who still led very strenuous lifestyles. Jurmain attributed this low incidence of osteoarthritis to genetic adaptation of the Pueblo population who he thought had built up resistance to processes that caused degeneration. Mechanical stress particularly impacted the knee and elbow joints in all populations, while the hip joint appeared to be the most influenced by factors like age, sex, etc. The findings on the etiology of osteoarthritis indicated that continual and intense activity-related stress on these joint systems appeared to be the primary cause of osteoarthritis; however, osteoarthritis was also heavily influenced other factors like age, sex, genetics, and hormones (Jurmain 1977a). Similar findings in prehistoric
Natufian hunter-gatherers from Jordan and Palestine were also described by Kennedy
(1998).
Bridges (1989a) examined a prehistoric population from the Southeastern United
States and the incidence of spondylolysis and its relationship to osteoarthritis.
Spondylolysis is characterized by a fracture of the neural arch of the lumbar vertebrae
(most prevalent on L5) between the superior and inferior articular facets and most often occurs on both sides of the vertebra. The study examined two populations (n=157),
Archaic hunter-gatherers (6000-1000 BC) and Mississippian maize agriculturalists (1200-
1500 AD). Bridges tried to understand if there was a relationship between the different activities associated with these two subsistence strategies in the prevalence of spondylolysis and any connections with osteoarthritis. Spondylolysis was observed in 17-

twenty percent of the prehistoric samples. There were no significant differences in prevalence found between sexes. However, the onset age of spondylolysis occurred later
9 in females than in males, which was attributed to sexual division of labor with more strenuous activities earlier in life for males than females. The late onset in women was connected to osteoporosis. The results indicated that spondylolysis and DJD are usually associated with activities performed throughout life. Of course as with previous research, it was reiterated that the prevalence of osteoarthritis was something that increased with age, but the incidence and severity of osteoarthritis was also influenced by other factors like activities, trauma, and disease. Overall, the relationship of spondylolysis to the incidence of osteoarthritis was poor (Bridges 1989a).
Prior to the study specifically examining DJD and spondylolysis in huntergatherers and agriculturalists, Bridges (1989b) studied the shifts that occurred in physical activities that are related to maize agriculture. Previous studies had shown a decrease in osteoarthritis incidence with agriculture (Larsen 1981, 1982; Ruff 1987; Ruff et al. 1984).
While this initial study by Bridges (1989b) did not focus specifically on osteoarthritis, the study is important in that it analyzed the activity changes that occurred between males and females in sexual division of labor. Both male and female leg strength increased during this time period and specifically, women’s long bone diaphyses showed increased size and strength. The differences implied that women’s roles in labor increased while men’s roles stayed stagnant. This is further supported by past studies that resulted in increased osteoarthritis in women but the same amount of osteoarthritis in men. These

results may indicate that the introduction to maize agriculture had an impact on women
10 who may have taken on more responsibilities in subsistence than men (Bridges 1989b).
In trying to further understand more about osteoarthritis, researchers have been trying to understand whether different subsistence strategies can increase or decrease the prevalence of osteoarthritis. Larsen’s (1995) study showed that hunter-gather populations have a higher incidence of osteoarthritis than agricultural societies. But other studies
(Bridges 1992; Goodman et al. 1984; Jurmain 1977a,b, 1980; Martin et al. 1979; Ortner
1968; Pickering 1984; Pierce 1987) have shown no difference or an increase in osteoarthritis in agricultural populations. While these connections cannot necessarily be made, differences in subsistence strategy and location of osteoarthritis have been found in various studies. Bridges (1991) studied the skeletal remains of hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists from northwest Alabama. Osteoarthritis was primarily observed in the shoulder, elbow, hip, ankle, and knee. There was no sexual dimorphism observed in the hunter-gatherer remains, but males had more osteoarthritis than women in the agricultural remains. This study included biomechanical research that indicated increased activity at the onset of agriculture correlated with an increase in osteoarthritis. Although the huntergatherers overall had a slightly higher incidence of osteoarthritis than agriculturalists, this difference was very slight and was not significant. Therefore the increased daily activity from an agricultural subsistence strategy did not appear morphologically and the onset of osteoarthritis may be caused by other unknown factors. Bridges (1991) gives the example of bone strength being caused by one repetitive daily activity, while osteoarthritis may be caused by a trauma or an intense event that occurred over a short period of time.

Jurmain (1990) also studied osteoarthritis in Native American remains at an archaeological mound site in the San Francisco Bay. The goal of the research was to
11 record the amount, presence, and severity of osteoarthritis in this Native American population and compare it to other Native American populations including agricultural
Native Americans from Pueblo, New Mexico and Arctic hunter-gatherer Eskimos. A sample of complete and aged skeletal remains of males (n=90) and females (n=77) were analyzed by scoring various joints macroscopically. The lower lumbar region and hands and feet had the most degenerative changes. While the San Francisco Bay hunter-gatherer remains exhibited more osteoarthritis than the agriculturalist Pueblo Native Americans, the San Francisco Native Americans still showed less osteoarthritis than the Eskimos hunter-gatherers. The Pueblo skeletal remains displayed more instances of osteoarthritis in the shoulders and hips, which is more indicative of age related osteoarthritis than activity related. This difference may be due to the fact that the Pueblo population had a longer lifespan than either hunter-gatherer group in the comparative study. There was no strong indicator as to why the Eskimo group had a much higher incidence of osteoarthritis than the other two Native American groups. Potentially, the arctic environment or certain activities unique to the Eskimos caused more degeneration of joints than the other two populations. The author did warn the readers that all three groups of skeletal samples were too small to make claims of real statistical significance between the populations. Jurmain explains that even though the use of skeletal analysis and ethnographic histories (if available) can tell us much about a people and why they have osteoarthritis, we need to be cautious about assigning the cause of osteoarthritis to

specific activities. Ultimately, the Native American study is evidence of less osteoarthritis in agriculturalists than hunter-gatherer populations and can still give us
12 some insights into the types of lives these people led (Jurmain 1990).
A study by Angel (1966) involved the examination of approximately 25 adult, eight juvenile, and two infant skeletal remains from Tranquility in Central California. The remains date back to the late Holocene (2550 ± 60 BP) (Berger et al. 1971). The population is thought to be hunter-gatherers. For the samples studied, Angel found that the average life span was 32 years old. The arthritis observed in these skeletal remains shows that these individuals had demanding lives. Atlatl Elbow is the term Angel uses to describe arthritis in the elbow from over use of that joint system from throwing an atlatl during hunting. Hypertrophic arthritis was also observed in the cervical and lumber vertebra. This type of arthritis on skeletal remains as young as 25-40 years old indicates a demanding lifestyle for this population as arthritis typically appears 10 to 20 years later in most populations. No arthritis was observed in the hip, knee, or ankle. There was mild arthritis in the foot, hands, and shoulder. Atlatl elbow was found in slightly less than half the individuals (n = 6 of 13), two of which were females. The arthritis observed in the female elbows was attributed to repeated seed grinding (Angel 1966). The presence of arthritis in women’s shoulders and hands in some Native American populations was thought to be from the repetitive and daily activity of seed-grinding, referred to as
‘Metate elbow’ for corn grinding in the Ancestral Pueblo (this is seen in both Ancestral
Pueblo men and women) (Boyd, 1996).

13
More specific studies on the particular activities that might cause osteoarthritis have also been completed. Jurmain (1991) explains that the osteoarthritis that occurs due to age, while it can vary, tends to be expressed on the joint margins (osteophytes), while the location of osteoarthritis related to activities during life is typically seen on articular surfaces. Jurmain and other researchers (e.g., Bridges 1992) pointed out that while we can make many inferences on the cause of osteoarthritis with age versus life activities, it is difficult to determine which specific life activities caused osteoarthritis in that individual and that the majority of osteoarthritis recorded is thought to be caused by habitual stress on the bones.
Lai and Lovell (1992) examined the skeletal remains of three indigenous males from the Fur Trade Period Seafort Burial Site in Alberta, Canada. Two of the males were
35-45 years old at death and the third male was 30-40 years old. While the sample size is too small to be statistically significant, these three individuals can help us to understand more about how activities may impact the prevalence of osteoarthritis and other types of degeneration. The samples are good for this type of study because the typical daily activities of these three individuals have been well documented and the skeletal remains at this site were well preserved. These individuals most likely completed frequent heavy lifting, carrying, and paddling/rowing. These individuals had vertebral osteophytosis, osteoarthritis, Schmorl’s nodes, increased robusticity, and wear and tear to the shoulder joints. Osteoarthritis was observed on all three individuals and was present on both sides of the body of the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, and ankle joints. In some cases, advanced stages of osteoarthritis had set in, including eburnation, lipping, etc. The results indicate

that while osteoarthritis results from aging, the early onset of osteoarthritis in these individual was most likely linked to their occupations and their resulting day-to-day
14 activities (Lai and Lovell 1992).
Larsen (1995) found that the majority of past studies have not found a relationship between subsistence strategies in the prevalence of osteoarthritis, correlations have been discovered between the prevalence of osteoarthritis and a population’s environment or location. Spondylolysis was also discussed, linking it to the Bridges (1989a) article of the same findings. Bilateral osteoarthritis of the elbow has been observed in more females from both hunter-gatherer and agricultural societies, which is linked to the food processing that was completed by women in both subsistence strategies (Larsen 1995).
Larsen and co-workers (1995) analyzed osteoarthritis among skeletal remains excavated from Stillwater Marsh in the western Great Basin. A minimum of 85 individuals represented in the skeletal samples, 50 adults and 35 juveniles. The skeletons date from 2300-300 BP. The healthy and robust skeletal remains indicated strenuous daily activities for this population with osteoarthritis observed in over seventy-five percent of the population. The lumbar vertebrae, cervical vertebrae, and elbow joints contained the most osteoarthritis. Male incidence of osteoarthritis in was higher than females except in the case of the lumbar vertebrae. Women carrying heavy items and children during food gathering contributed to higher incidence of osteoarthritis of the lumbar vertebrae. The highest incidence of male osteoarthritis was in the hip, ankle, and shoulder. This indicated that males did more long distance walking than females (Larsen et al. 1995).

Overall, the results of this study indicated, once again, that the prevalence of osteoarthritis in the Stillwater Marsh population is attributed to strenuous activities
15 performed on a daily basis throughout life rather than due to aging. The higher incidence of osteoarthritis in males compared to females from the Stillwater Marsh site indicated males as having more involvement with daily subsistence tasks that were more strenuous and this caused the males to be more susceptible to osteoarthritis. However, women’s potentially more localized activities at Stillwater Marsh (as implied by the authors of this study) still involved strenuous tasks like carrying children, firewood, supplies, etc., but overall, females lead more sedentary lifestyles, spending more time at Stillwater Marsh than the males in this population (Larsen et al. 1995).
Boyd (1996) reviewed multiple archaeological studies that focused on osteoarthritis and cultural inferences related to the presence of the osteoarthritis. More specifically, researchers assume activities, activity levels, and occupation of the individual as main causes of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is used as an indicator of someone’s occupational stress and repeated activities on skeletal morphology.
Osteophyte formation on the cervical vertebrae and related to strain on the neck usually caused by carrying heavy items is linked to osteoarthritis. Bridges (1994) found more cases of osteophytosis on the east coast than on the west coast in prehistoric United States populations in males and females. Ethnohistorical data shows that similar to men, women often participate in strenuous activities carrying heavy items. Osteoarthritis is seen in men and women but the area of the body that osteoarthritis impacts differed by sex. More

specifically, male osteoarthritis is seen more often in the elbow and hips and female osteoarthritis is seen more often in the knees and shoulders.
16
Boyd (1996) discusses the research of Merbs (1983), who studied Saddlermuit
Eskimo and used osteoarthritis indicators along with dentition and available ethnographic information to infer how the evidence of osteoarthritis related to the people’s day-to-day lives. However, even Merbs seemed to warn readers that day-to-day activities are not a guarantee of the cause of osteoarthritis or other pathologies and may not leave any real signature on skeletal morphology (Merbs 1983).
Cope et al. (2005) examined osteoarthritis in 650 metacarpals and carpals from the Umm an-Nar tomb (2300 BC) in the United Arab Emirates. The skeletal remains for this sample were commingled and disarticulated, which made analysis of individuals hands (left and right) difficult. Cope et al. (2005) built on previous studies, which indicated that osteoarthritis was the result of intense use of specific joint systems throughout life. In this specific case, the researchers indicate that the Umm an-Nar tomb population used their hands intensely for everyday activities (i.e., fishing, herding, building shelters, metalworking, pottery making, etc.) and this resulted in increased prevalence of osteoarthritis. The results indicated that mild to severe osteoarthritis was present in more than fifty-three percent of the trapeziometacarpal (TMC) joint facets
(with greater than twenty percent forming moderate to severe osteoarthritis). Fifty percent of osteoarthritis was located on the first metacarpels, forty percent on the second metacarpals, and fifty-seven percent on the trapezium bones. A link between robusticity and osteoarthritis was found because robusticity was prevalent in most of the remains

17 with osteoarthritis. The majority (eighty-five percent) of the bones analyzed were identified as males with eighty percent showing robust characteristics. The findings indicate a strong relationship between osteoarthritis, sex, and robusticity. The results also indicated that the population at this site had lives in which the hands were involved in intense activities (Cope et al. 2005).
Larsen’s (2006) examined how the transition in subsistence activities from hunting and gathering to agriculture has had an impact on human health. Overall, populations who had physically demanding lives tend to have more bone density and show more osteoarthritis than other populations. There have been contrasting results from previous studies on the amount of osteoarthritis in varying subsistence populations.
Osteoarthritis may be linked more to environmental factors (i.e., local climate and terrain) than activity levels when comparing populations. A decrease in osteoarthritis has also coincided with a decrease in bone density (Larsen 2006).
Vanna (2007) examined the skeletal remains of modern and ancient Greek populations to understand more about the processes behind different responses we see in sex and gender that are reflected in the skeleton. Vanna anticipated this study might reveal more about sexual division of labor in these ancient and modern Greek populations. One of the factors she examined was osteoarthritis. The results indicated that the male prevalence of osteoarthritis is higher than females in the ancient populations, but female osteoarthritis is higher in the modern population. Vanna explains the high prevalence of osteoarthritis in the ancient male population (specifically in the vertebrae and the other joints) was due to male roles that entailed more intense daily activities,

which put more strain on their bodies compared to females. The higher incidence in the
18 modern females was explained by the fact that women live longer and are more susceptible to osteoporosis, which can cause a higher incidence of osteoarthritis mainly as a result of more fractures which are a symptom of osteoporosis. Overall, Vanna attributes social factors (i.e., ancient population sexual division of labor with men characterized as having a heavier workload) to differences in osteoarthritis. On the other hand it appears that more biological factors like age and estrogen impacted the modern female samples. Vanna also discovered that in both samples, men tended to be more impacted by osteoarthritis in the larger joints (knee, hip, elbow, shoulder), whereas women were more affected in the smaller joints like the hands and feet. If you combine the prevalence of osteoarthritis in both populations, men had a higher overall incidence of osteoarthritis than women. Another interesting finding of Vanna’s research is that in the age range of 35-50, men have a very high incidence of osteoarthritis in the knee joint whereas none of the women showed evidence of osteoarthritis. However, after the age of
50, osteoarthritis of the knee in women is three times more prevalent than in men.
Osteoarthritis in the vertebra increased in both ancient males and females with age. The only caveat to this was seen in men between the age of 20-35 who saw a high incidence of osteoarthritis in the spine, again attributed to more strenuous workloads for men during this time in their lives. Additionally, men from the ancient population saw a five times increase in osteoarthritis of the spine as they aged compared to women, but the opposite is true in the modern population. Overall, Vanna concluded that the differences between

these two temporally variant populations were not drastically significant enough to influence the prevalence of diseases like osteoarthritis (Vanna 2007).
Evaluating past works on Native American bioarchaeology and osteoarthritis,
Bridges (1992) points out that one of the main problems with the studies done on
19 osteoarthritis is that the primary way of defining osteoarthritis on bones is visual observation, which can be inconsistent from study to study. Additionally, studies use different scales to visually measure arthritis and some even fail to account for age differences in skeletal remains. These varying research methods have inconsistent study results and made it hard to compare studies to one another. Bridges also explains that research has not been able to show that one subsistence strategy over another can cause more osteoarthritis. While many studies have shown Eskimo populations to have a higher incidence of osteoarthritis in the shoulder than other hunter-gatherer groups, even agricultural groups show a high incidence of osteoarthritis in the shoulder, showing that there may not actually be a higher incidence in one population compared to another due to their subsistence strategies.
Major differences have been found in prehistoric versus modern populations. This is thought to be due to differences in the amount of activity performed by each population. This would make it difficult to compare modern studies to prehistoric studies but may help us to understand causes of osteoarthritis in the two populations. It is still unclear why there is more sexual dimorphism between males and females in agricultural groups than there is in hunter-gatherer remains. One hypothesis is that men were more involved in warfare during the agricultural period than hunter-gatherers. There is no

conclusive evidence to show that certain subsistence strategies caused more or less osteoarthritis and traumatic injuries may play more of a role than day to day activities
20
(similar findings were also found by Lieverse et al. 2007).
Many have pointed out the faults with using osteoarthritis to try and understand daily behaviors of individuals. The disease is influenced by multiple things including, age, sex, weight, race, genetic predisposition, trauma, type, and frequency and duration of activity. Modern research of osteoarthritis has shown that day-to-day activities may not mean that an individual will get osteoarthritis (Boyd 1996). An example from Waldron
(1994) showed that some coal miners had osteoarthritis in their spine while others did not, showing the inconsistency of the expression of the disease.
Weiss and Jurmain (2007) provide a review about the causes of osteoarthritis.
Interestingly, factors such as genetics may play more of a role than previously thought and weight in modern populations is now thought to be an additional component in the cause of the disease. Sexual dimorphism of the disease, previously strongly correlated with differing activities between the sexes, is now thought to be caused due to hormones, body size, and overall anatomical differences. Strenuous activities starting at a young age could also influence one’s susceptibility of osteoarthritis (Rojas-Sepúlveda et al. 2008;
Weiss and Jurmain 2007).
Biocultural Osteoarthritis Studies
Some researchers have tried to understand more about status, social hierarchy, and overall culture, through analysis of osteoarthritis. The logic is that a higher status

individual did not have to perform as many strenuous daily activities as a lower status
21 individual. Therefore, there should be less osteoarthritis in an individual if they have a higher status. Woo and Sciulli (2011) analyzed late Archaic burials in Ohio. The hypothesis was that osteoarthritis and grave goods would help to indicate the status of the individuals. However, no significant differences were found. There was a large amount of osteoarthritis seen in the majority of the remains, indicating a strenuous life for these individuals and a seemingly flat social hierarchy or a system based on achieved status where individuals who worked hard were given more prestige. An alternative analysis might be that social status cannot be attained from analysis of osteoarthritis. Boyd (1996) summarized R.L. Blakely’s work which used paleopathology (including osteoarthritis) and demographic data to understand more about status. Blakely’s study showed no substantial relationship between status and osteoarthritis. Because of the lack of substantial differences, status, according to Blakely, was earned and not handed to individuals. However, later research of the same site by Blakely revealed that the majority of the individuals in the mound were older adult males. This means that the paleopathologies were most likely caused by old age and do not reveal the behaviors or political systems of the society associated with the site. Boyd concludes that using these types of observations/ methods to make inferences about the structure of the society and specifically whether individuals earned their rank or not, lacks support. Essentially, there are other factors that can influence skeletal morphology such as the environment, physiology, and social roles. Inferring this type of information from skeletal remains of an archaeological site seems difficult to achieve without bias. Boyd argues that using

22 other evidence to support claims of status such as other artifacts discovered near skeletal remains and historic records (if there are any) would make arguments by Blakely stronger and useful in future archaeological cases.
Larsen et al. (2001) examined skeletal changes in Post-Contact Native American populations by comparing pre-contact and post-contact skeletal collections. The study examines skeletal collections from the Southeastern United States with an early and late prehistoric Georgia population and a post-contact Florida indigenous population. The authors examined the vertebra, shoulder, hip, wrist, and hand joints. The results showed the early prehistoric population had more osteoarthritis than the late prehistoric population. Most notably, there is significantly more occurrence of osteoarthritis in the post-contact population, with the most significant increase in the vertebra joints. The high increase in osteoarthritis of the post-contact Native Americans was attributed to the fact that these Native Americans were used for hard labor in the Catholic missions in this area and the heavy workload is attributed to an increase in osteoarthritis. Larsen also points to other studies like Erickson and colleagues (2000) analysis of the hip in Arikara and other
Plains Native American skeletal studies that showed an increase in Native American osteoarthritis post-contact (Larsen et al. 2001).
An impetus for the current research was Klaus and colleagues (2009) study that examined the indigenous Mochica population in the north coast Lambayeque region of
Peru. The authors test the hypothesis that the colonial economy of the area was linked to a hard lifestyle for the Mochica and is reflected on the population’s skeletal remains. This hypothesis is tested by recording the changes in the amount of osteoarthritis from both

late prehispanic and colonial populations of Mochica. There have been few studies that
23 looked at osteoarthritis in prehispanic South American populations. Late prehispanic labor organization in the population of study is characterized by varying industries and economic redistribution. Colonial labor organization involved large scale crop cultivation and exploitation of the Mochica for labor. Men and women were both involved in the labor force but performed different tasks (Klaus et al. 2009).
The late prehispanic (900-1532 AD) samples represented middle and lower class
Mochica and included 113 adult individuals while 139 low status Mochica adults were used for the colonial samples. The colonial samples included two time periods for burials,
Early/Middle Colonial and Middle/Late Colonial. The authors used the Stress Hypothesis to explain the cause of osteoarthritis by long periods of intense daily activity that places stress on the joints. Additionally, injuries to the joints related to activities in the early part of life may increase chances of osteoarthritis. However, overall the exact causes of osteoarthritis are still unknown. The authors separated the remains into four age classes and looked at eleven joint systems (shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, hip, knee ankle, and foot). Analysis of osteoarthritis used methods from Larsen et al. (1995). The majority of the joints examined (eighty percent) showed evidence of osteoarthritis on both sides of the body. Joints of the shoulder (osteoarthritis 2.2 times more likely), elbow (osteoarthritis 2.7 times more likely), wrist (osteoarthritis 5.6 times more likely), and knee (osteoarthritis 3.6 times more likely) all showed statistically significant increased osteoarthritis in the colonial samples compared to the late prehispanic sample. Age classes 1 (15-24.9 years) and 2

24
(25-34.9 years) had a higher likelihood of osteoarthritis (20 times more likely in colonial age class 1). The authors also found a statistically significant difference in time periods, specifically the Early/Middle Colonial period when osteoarthritis is 3.2 times more likely in the shoulder, 4.8 times more likely in the elbow, 9.9 times more likely in the wrist, 2.9 times more likely in the hands, 2.3 times more likely in the knee, 2.6 times more likely in the cervical vertebrae, 2.4 times more likely in the thoracic vertebrae, and 2.2 times more likely in the lumbar vertebrae. There were no drastic changes in prevalence of osteoarthritis during the Middle/Late Colonial period (Klaus et al. 2009).
When looking at differences of osteoarthritis prevalence by sex the authors found that the late prehispanic period showed that males had a much higher prevalence of osteoarthritis and this trend continued into the colonial period with more osteoarthritis of the shoulder, wrist, elbow, and cervical spine than women. However, women had a higher prevalence of Schmorl’s depressions and osteoarthritis in the ankle and foot than men during both time periods. Overall, men had more osteoarthritis than women in the elbow, wrist, lumbar vertebrae, hip, and knee. Colonial period Mochica women did show more prevalence of osteoarthritis in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and knee than late prehispanic women. Prehispanic women did show a higher prevalence for osteoarthritis in the hip compared to colonial female samples. This increase in prevalence of osteoarthritis is also connected to research showing female fertility decreasing during colonization as a result of an increase in physically demanding labor resulting in less energy for reproduction (Klaus et al. 2009).

Based on the results above, the authors were able to reject multiple causes of osteoarthritis such as changes in body mass or changes in post-contact genetics or
25 physiology. The findings were further supported by ethnohistoric and ethnoarchaeological evidence which looked at factors like the environment and the prehispanic Mochica economy versus the colonial economy. These lines of evidence used with the skeletal analysis showed changes to the use of the upper body and knees. The authors accepted the hypothesis proposed at the beginning of the article and explain that increased osteoarthritis in colonial populations was caused by an increase in physically demanding labor causing more use, injuries, and overall ‘wear-and-tear’ (Klaus et al.
2009: 213) to the joints (Klaus et al. 2009). A 2012 study by Watkins is an example of how more recent population’s social status has been linked with osteoarthritis with similar findings to this study.
Standard methods of visual and metric analysis of osteoarthritis would help researchers compare their work and move research forward with each study. According to Bridges (1992) future studies must focus on controlling for age and use more statistical analysis when looking at sexual dimorphism and bilateral symmetry. Weiss and Jurmain
(2007) suggested future research including comparison of joints within individuals, studying osteoarthritis in animals, and looking at large present day human populations.
Overall, multiple levels and types of analysis must be used when researching this complex disease.

26
Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW: ARIKARA
Background: The Arikara
The Arikara lived in the Missouri River Valley, which encompassed South
Dakota, Northern Nebraska, and Central North Dakota (Jantz and Owsley 1984). The
Arikara are part of the Cadoan linguistic family (Perzigian 1975). In addition to the
Arikara, archaeological sites under the Coalescent Tradition have been attributed to
Native American populations such as the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Pawnee (Lehmer 1954).
The Arikara practiced a mixed subsistence strategy that included hunting, gathering, and agriculture. Typical crops for the Arikara included corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers.
Bison were hunted as a source of food and for materials that could be used to make clothing, shelter, and tools (Holder 1970; Owsley and Bass 1979; Perzigian 1975). The
Arikara are biological and linguistic relatives of the Pawnee of Nebraska (Jantz 1973;
Lehmer and Caldwell 1966). The Arikara are somewhat unique in that they came into contact with Europeans later in time and at a much slower pace than other Native
American populations. As a result of their late contact with Europeans, the Arikara are useful in understanding how the introduction of infectious diseases, horses, and other
European items into the Arikara populations influenced the population bioculturally
(Erikson et al. 2000).
Rodgers (1997) gives a summary of Arikara-European history, organized into six phases. Period 1 (late 1500s-1680), this time period is used for prehistoric context prior to

direct European contact. Period 2 covers the time span from 1681-1725 and is a time of
27 increasing direct contact with Europeans.
Period 3 (1726-1775) involves a large amount of Arikara and European interactions, including Arikara’s acting as intermediate contact between European fur traders and other Native American populations. This period is also the confirmed period for the introduction of guns and horses, which were clearly in heavy use by the Arikara at this time. The Arikara reached the height of their power in the late 1700s with 18 to 32 villages and a population of approximately 30,000 (Abel 1939; Holder 1970; Nasitir
1952). Villages have been described as fairly autonomous and some accounts even describe varying languages and biological diversity between villages (Abel 1939). The post-contact Arikara practiced endogamy, keeping marriages within the Arikara population for the most part. Additionally, there is evidence that the Arikara had social hierarchy, which would have also influenced their marriage decisions; however, the hierarchy was not very stable with accounts of Arikara families’ status fluctuating over time (Holder 1970; Owsley et al. 1982; Owsley and Bradtmiller 1983).
Period 4 (1776-1805) is characterized by ever increasing European-Arikara contact. Disease took the biggest toll on the Arikara population during this time period.
As a result, Arikara cultural and subsistence practices are impacted during this time period and the Arikara economy and population in general are greatly weakened. Strains in the Arikara’s participation in the fur trade is also noted during this time period.

During Period 5 (1806-1835), the Arikara continue to struggle as a result of drastic population decline. The fur trade began to decline during this time period and
28 relations between the Arikara and Europeans were strained. Relations with the Europeans became so difficult, at one point the Arikara left their villages to live with the Pawnee
Native Americans.
Lastly, during Period six (1836-1862), even though the European-Arikara relationship was still tense, the Arikara re-inhabited their villages and resumed their role as mediums for the fur trade. Rather than beaver, bison was the primary fur traded during this time period by the Arikara. Conflicts and dominance by the Sioux continued to strain the Arikara population and culture. During this period the Arikara were supported by the
United States government and were mandated by the government to combine populations with the Mandans and Hidatsas for security. These Native American populations are still affiliated with one another to this day (Abel 1939; Nasatir 1952; Rodgers 1997).
Like other Native American tribes, smallpox greatly affected the Arikara population, killing an estimated seventy-five percent of the population, with the height of the epidemic impacting the Arikara in 1781 and 1782 (Deetz 1965; Jantz 1973; Lehmer
1954). Accounts of small pox devastating the Arikara population on three separate accounts were recorded, which facilitated the political and cultural breakdown of the remaining Arikara population (Deetz 1965; Jantz 1973; Lehmer 1954). Other postcontact diseases impacting the Arikara included measles, chicken pox, whooping cough, cholera, venereal diseases, and tuberculosis. Major outbreaks of smallpox or measles

occurred in 1735, 1750, 1780-82, 1831-1832, 1837-38, 1845-46, and in 1956 (Deetz
29
1965; Hyde 1959; Owsley and Jantz 1985). Compared with the estimated 18-32 villages and 30,000 people (4,000 of which were warriors) towards the end of the 1700s, by 1785 only seven villages remained with only 900 warriors, and in 1795 this was further reduced to 500 warriors. In 1804 the number of villages dropped to three and the population was approximately 2600, 2000 in 1810, 500 in 1888, and 380 in 1904 (Holder
1970; Nasatir 1930; Owsley and Jantz 1985).
The post-contact Arikara populations encountered a quickly changing landscape that impacted the Arikara’s subsistence practices and is linked to higher death rates. The demographics of the Arikara and the stresses the population was put under are obvious when studying the Arikara population demographics and skeletal remains. Studies demonstrating this are included in the ‘Past Bioarchaeology Arikara Studies’ section below.
Arikara Archaeological Sites
There are multiple Arikara archaeological sites in which Arikara skeletal remains have been excavated. These sites are associated with the Coalescent period, which is broken down into three phases (in order from earliest to latest): the Extended Coalescent, the Post-Contact Coalescent, and the Disorganized Coalescent. The sites associated with each coalescent phase, dates, and other information are included below in Table 1.
Descriptions of each Coalescent phase and the sites are included below (Jantz and
Owsley 1984).

30
Table 1: Arikara Archaeological Sites
Extended Coalescent
Site Date
Sully A (39SL4) 1663-1694 AD
Sully D (39SL4)
Mobridge I (39WW1)
Rygh (39CA4)
1650-1675 AD
1600-1650 AD
1600-1650 AD
Post-Contact Coalescent
Site Date
Four Bear (39DW2) 1758-1774 AD
Larson (39WW2) 1679-1733 AD
Sully E (39SL4)
Mobridge 2 (39WW1)
1675-1700 AD
1675-1700 AD
Disorganized Coalescent
Site Date
Leavenworth (39C09) 1802-1832 AD
Leavitt (39ST215)
(Jantz and Owsley 1984)
1784-1792 AD
Extended Coalescent
The Extended Coalescent Period consists of the following sites, Sully A, Sully D,
Mobridge I, and Rygh. The Extended coalescent involved mastering agricultural practices with a reliance on both agriculture and bison hunting for subsistence. This time period was influenced by climatic changes that caused food shortages to both hunting and agricultural subsistence (Jantz and Owsley 1984; Lehmer 1970, 1971). The Mobridge I
Site cemetery is located on the north bank of Missouri River in South Dakota.
Excavations of this site were performed over three summers in 1968, 1969, and 1970 by

William M. Bass (University of Tennessee, Knoxville) and in 1971 by D.H. Ubelaker.
31
Six-hundred and fifty-four skeletons were recovered (Merchant and Ubelaker 1977). The most skeletal remains in the Northern plains from a single site have been recovered from the Mobridge I Site. The site is characterized by a village with three separate cemeteries.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the site has had at least two Arikara occupations at different times (One from the Extended Coalescent Period, the other from the Post-
Contact Coaloescent Period) (Owsley et al. 1982; Wedel 1956).
Post-Contact Coalescent
The Post-Contact Coalescent includes the Four Bear, Larson, Sully E, and
Mobridge 2 sites. The Post-Contact Coalescent period is understood to be a time of stability for both hunting bison and agricultural crop yields. Additionally, the introduction of the horse during this time period also allowed bison yields to increase due to a wider hunting area by horseback. Nutrition during this time period was considered to be average or above average (Jantz and Owsley 1984; Lehmer 1971). Post-contact
Arikara populations are typically in graves of cemeteries close to Arikara village sites.
There are no accounts of certain Arikara peoples being buried in different locations. The
Larsen Site is a single occupation site (Owsley and Bass 1979) and is part of the La Beau
Phase of the Post-Contact Coalescent. The site is located in Walworth County South
Dakota on the east bank of the Missouri River. The site includes an earth lodge village and a cemetery. Burials at this site are described as well structured and only consist of the
Arikara population (Key and Jantz 1990; O’Shea 1984). Horses were introduced to the

Arikara in 1715; however, the Larson site population was part of the early post-contact
32 coalescent historical time period and did not frequently utilize horses (Jantz and Owsley
1984; Key and Jantz 1990; Owsley and Bass 1979; Ruff 1994). During this time period the Arikara were known to have located cemeteries close to village sites. There may have been periods at this site in which the population of the village fluctuated due to Arikara shifting settlement patterns, usually associated with hunting. Reports explain that the remaining population left in the villages during this time were the sick and/or elderly, potentially biasing the representativeness of the skeletal samples from this site. This village was most likely politically self-governing (Holder 1970; Hurt 1969; Lehmer
1971; Owsley and Bass 1979). The skeletal remains from this site have one of the largest number of individuals of any site in the region. Excavations of this site were conducted by the University of Kansas and took place in 1966, 1967, and 1968.
Disorganized Coalescent
The Disorganized Coalescent period is represented by the Leavenworth and
Leavitt sites. This period is characterized by decreases in the Arikara population from disease, war with neighboring Native American groups and Europeans, sociocultural deterioration, and devastating food shortages. Diseases during this time included smallpox, which began to impact the Arikara around 1780. Disease and the subsequent decrease in population left the Arikara populations vulnerable to village raids by other
Native Americans who stole food and/or food caches or competed for bison hunting. It is

33 expected that the health of the Arikara was the lowest during this time period (Abel 1939;
Jantz and Owsley 1984; Lehmer 1971; Wedel 1956). The Leavenworth site is Located in
Corson County South Dakota. Lewis and Clark recorded this Arikara village in 1804
(Jantz 1973; Lehmer and Jones 1968). The Leavenworth site consists of an historic village. Many Europeans were in the area during this time. Trade and disputes with the
Europeans and other nearby Native American communities was prevalent. During this time horses were utilized during these conflicts. The preservation of the human skeletal remains from this site varies in condition and preservation. The Arikara population at the
Leavenworth site was greatly impacted by small pox epidemics towards the end of the
18th century (Erickson et al. 2000). The village was attacked in 1823 by Col.
Leavenworth. The site was excavated in 1965 and 1966 by the University of Kansas
Anthropology department. Two-hundred and seventy-eight burials were excavated
(Gilbert and Bass 1967; Krause 1972; Wedel 1956).
Past Arikara Bioarchaeology Studies
Past bioarchaeological research on the Arikara (described in more detail below) comprise primarily health, growth, and demographic studies. In 2000, Erickson et al. completed a studying examining how Arikara morphology was influenced by activities.
In this case, the authors were specifically looking at two Arikara populations in South
Dakota. The first was from the Larson site, whose past Arikara inhabitants had minimal to no use of horses and the Leavenworth site in which horses were utilized regularly. The

authors were specifically examining the acetabulum differences to see if there were differences in morphology between the horse riding and non-horse riding populations.
34
The research found that there was a significant difference in morphology between these two populations in that the horse riding Arikara population from the Leavenworth site had expanded anterior-superior acetabular borders compared with the Larson site population who did not ride horses as frequently. The study focuses on males before and after European contact (i.e., before and after the introduction of horses by the Europeans).
This research builds on the idea that activities throughout life can influence human morphology (as seen in the osteoarthritis discussions in Chapter 2 above). Previous studies by Reinhard et al. (1994) showed that the Omaha and Ponca tribes had elongated acetabulae as a result of horseback riding, increased fractures of the calcaneus as a result of repeated dismounting from horses, and more osteoarthritis in the lumbar portion of the spine from long rides on horseback. Erickson et al. (2000) also found similar elongation attributed to the frequent horseback riding of the Leavenworth site, but other factors like diet changes, disease, etc. may have also influences the differences in acetabulae between these two Arikara sites/populations (Erickson et al. 2000).
Another example of a bioarchaeology study completed with the Arikara skeletal collection is Jantz and Owsley’s 1984 study of long bone growth variation. Long bones in particular have been found in previous studies to be particularly sensitive to environmental shifts. The authors studied ten Arikara skeletal groups dating from 1600-
1832. The Arikara skeletal populations examined included prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic, all of which are part of the Plains Village pattern and take place during times of

35 environmental shifts and show the impacts of European contact. The skeletal samples for this study came from seven sites. The Sully site and the Leavitt site (archaeologically part of the Bad-Cheyenne District) located in Central South Dakota, and five sites were located in Northern South Dakota in the Grand-Moreau District. All skeletal samples are part of the Coalescent tradition or South Dakota the Plains Village pattern after approximately 1300 (Jantz and Owsley 1984; Lehmer 1971). The authors show that factors like health and nutrition did vary between these Arikara groups due to varying factors like disease, war, and nutritional changes (Jantz and Owsley 1984).
The focus for this study was on juveniles 1-12 years of age. The study found that there was improved long bone growth in the post-contact coalescent groups versus the extended coalescent groups, which was attributed to better health and nutrition during the later time period. The Disorganized Coalescent groups showed ‘growth failure’ and showed the least amount of long bone growth compared to the other two groups. This lack of growth was attributed to the poor health and nutrition associated with this time period. An unexpected result of the study showed that the upper long bones were longer in this group than in the other two groups but the reasons for this are unknown and need further research (Jantz and Owsley 1984).
Jantz (1973) completed a study to understand microevolutionary changes to crania from the Arikara skeletal collection. He examined skeletal remains from five different archaeological sites from the Coalescent Tradition ranging in time from 1600, considered part of the prehistoric time period, to 1830 which is part of the late historic era. These sites included the Leavenworth (1803-1830), Larson (1750-1785), Sully (1700-1750),

Mobridge I (1600-1650), and Rygh (1600-1650) archaeological sites. Jantz tests the hypothesis that the Arikara and Mandan groups reproduced together, which is feasible
36 since they inhabited neighboring areas during both prehistoric and historic periods.
Additionally, after the attack on the Leavenworth village by Col. Henry Leavenworth, the
Arikara migrated to South Dakota for a year to live with the Mandan. Jantz’s study suggests that the Arikara and Mandan Native American groups reproduced with one another. In their interactions with Europeans, the Arikara were sometimes middle men for fur traders, which was also cited by Jantz as increasing opportunities for gene flow between the Arikara, other nearby Native American populations, and Caucasians. Lastly,
Jantz explains that the genetic changes that occurred within the Arikara population may have occurred at an increased rate due to the stress resulting from European contact. The results showed that Arikara and Mandan prehistoric samples were discernible; however,
Arikara and Mandan crania became less distinguishable in later time periods. The results appear to support Jantz’s hypothesis that the Arikara and Mandan may have reproduced together explaining the cranial variation seen between prehistoric versus historic Arikara crania. Additional tests between Arikara crania and Caucasian crania also reveals this pattern but to a much lesser extent than the Arikara-Mandan findings (Jantz 1973).
A study by Key and Jantz (1990) hypothesized that the Leavanworth site would have more within group heterogeneity than the earlier Bad River Phase 2 sites. The results showed that there was heterogeneity in crania from the Leavenworth site. In contrast, sites associated with the Bad River 2 Phase (1740-1795) were undistinguishable from one another (Key and Jantz 1990).

37
Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) completed a study comparing growth of Arikaras from the Mobridge I Site with other Native American samples. The results of their study indicate a similar growth rate between the Arikara and the other Native American groups.
The findings also showed a slower growth rate in Native Americans compared to
Caucasians (Merchant and Ubelaker 1977).
Owsley and Bass (1979) completed demographic analysis of the Arikara skeletal remains of the Larson site. Life tables showing the mortality, survivorship, age-specific probability of death, life expectancy, and crude mortality rate were calculated. The
Larson site has no evidence of burial practices by age, sex, or social class. The results showed that the Arikara population at the Larson site had a high infant and child mortality rate, and an even higher mortality rate for those between the ages of 15-19.
Females in this age range (15-19 and 35-39) had a high mortality rate at this site. Males had the greatest mortality rate between the ages of 30-34. Only four percent of the population at the Larsen site reached 50 years of age. The findings of this study correlate with historic accounts of the Arikara population decline post-contact. The mortality rates were associated with complications with childbirth and child rearing for both mother and child, starvation, disease, and warfare with other Native American populations (i.e., the
Crow, Asiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sioux) (Abel 1939; Nasatir 1952; Owsley and
Bass 1979). The data indicated an overall general population decline, which is also supported by the historic data available (Owsley and Bass 1979).
Adding to the previous demographic study by Owsley and Bass (1979), Owsley and Bradmiller (1983) further investigated the reasons for high infant and late adolescent

female mortality (typically related to complications with childbirth/childrearing). The
38 authors examined four South Dakota Arikara sites (villages and cemeteries)
Leavenworth, Larson, Sully, and Mobridge I, dating from 1600 to 1832. Preservation at these sites is high, good enough for even fetal bone preservation, which has a low likelihood of preservation in most cases. The authors examined two specific female skeletal remains. The results indicate that these two cases do not support claims of cause of death due to childbearing. Additionally, in relation to the current thesis, Schmorl’s
Nodes, linked to osteoarthritis were observed and recorded in the pregnant females in this study (Owsley and Bradmiller 1983).
Owsley and Jantz’s (1985) study compared the growth rate in fetal skeletal remains from two sites from the early post-contact period (1600-1733 AD) and the late post-contact period (1760-1835). The seven northern South Dakota Coalescent Tradition sites for the study included Four Bear, Larson, Leavenworth, Leavitt, Mobridge I, Rygh, and Sully (Jantz 1973; Krause 1972; Lehmer 1971; Owsley and Jantz 1985). The results show that the surrounding stresses (European contact) negatively impacted fetal development of the Arikara as is seen in the smaller fetal bones of the later Arikara sites compared to the earlier Arikara sites (Owsley and Jantz 1985).
Owsley and colleagues (1982) completed multivariate analysis on Arikara cranial morphology on the skeletal remains from the Mobridge I site. They specifically examined the cranial morphology from varying locations at the Mobridge I site (thought to be varying in age) to see if there were any differences between areas of the site in cranial morphology. The results show that there is cranial morphological variation seen between

the varying locations within the Mobridge I site. The study supports the previous archaeological dating of certain areas of the site being considered older than other areas
39 of the site (Owsley et al. 1982).
Lastly, Perzigian (1975) examined differences in tooth size between juveniles and adult protohistoric Larson site Arikara. The results show that adult Arikara teeth are larger and have less variability than juvenile Arikara. It appears that selection of larger tooth size was in play (Perzigian 1975).
The bioarchaeological studies completed on the Arikara have displayed how the morphology, health, growth, and demography of the Arikara populations have changed from pre- to post-contact. The Erickson et al. (2000) study revealed that the European introduction of horses to Arikara populations influenced the morphology of the acetabulae in pre- and post-contact Arikara populations. This research builds on the idea that activities throughout life can influence human morphology (Erickson et al. 2000).
Other studies like that of Jantz and Owsley (1984) and Owsley and Jantz (1985) showed that juveniles and fetal development were negatively impacted as European contact increased (Jantz and Owsley 1984; Owsley and Jantz 1985). Merchant and Ubelaker’s
(1977) study results indicated a similar growth rate between the Arikara and the other
Native American groups. The findings also showed a slower growth rate in Native
Americans compared to Caucasians (Merchant and Ubelaker 1977). Differences in skeletal morphology between Arikara populations was also observed in the Owsley et al.
(1982), Jantz (1973), and Key and Jantz (1990) studies. Demographic studies by Owsley and Bass (1979) and Owsley and Bradmiller (1983) had contradicting results. The

Owsley and Bass (1979) study indicated that the Larson site Arikara population had a
40 high infant and child mortality rate, and an even higher mortality rate for those between the ages of 15-19. The mortality rates were associated with complications during childbirth and child rearing for both mother and child, starvation, disease, and warfare with other Native American populations (Abel 1939; Nasatir 1952; Owsley and Bass
1979). The data indicates an overall general population decline, which is also supported by the historic data available (Owsley and Bass 1979). However, Owsley and Bradmiller
(1983) study results did not support claims of cause of death due to childbearing (Owsley and Bradmiller 1983).
Through skeletal analysis, these studies reveal the health impacts that European contact had on the Arikara population. As discussed earlier, the Arikara are somewhat unique in that they came into contact with Europeans later in time and a much slower pace than other Native American populations. As a result of their late contact with
Europeans, the Arikara are useful in understanding how the introduction of infectious diseases, horses, and other European items, into the Arikara populations influenced the
Arikara bioculturaly (Erikson et al. 2000). The current study will add to our understanding of the Arikara and osteoarthritis as a whole.
Project Specifications
This study aims to examine the incidence of osteoarthritis in adult individuals from the Arikara Native American population. The sample is broken down by sex, age, and three major time periods were sampled in order to test the hypothesis that

41 osteoarthritis increased after European contact. This study is based on and will build upon previous bioarchaeological works by Klaus et al. (2009), Woo and Sciulli (2011), Larsen et al. (2001), Erickson et al. (2000), Boyd (1996), and Larsen et al. (1995), and Reinhard et al. (1994). These studies all aimed to understand the biological stresses caused by
European contact through analysis of osteoarthritis in various Native American populations.
There have been some major differences in osteoarthritis prevalence found in prehistoric versus modern populations. This is thought to be due to differences in the amount of activity performed by each population. This would make it difficult to compare modern to prehistoric studies but may help us to understand causes of osteoarthritis in the two populations. There is no conclusive evidence to show that certain subsistence strategies cause more or less osteoarthritis and traumatic injuries may play more of a role than day to day activities (Angel 1966; Bridges 1989a,b, 1991, 1992; Cope et al. 2005; Jurmain 1977a, 1990, 1991; Lai and Lovell 1992; Larsen 1995, 2006; Larsen et al. 1995; Rojas-Sepúlveda et al. 2008;Vanna 2007; Weiss and Jurmain 2007). It is still unclear why there is more sexual dimorphism between males and females in agricultural groups than there is in hunter-gatherer remains. One hypothesis is that men were more involved in warfare during the agricultural period than hunter-gatherers (Boyd, 1996;
Bridges 1989a,b, 1994; Larsen et al. 1995; Rojas-Sepúlveda et al. 2008; Vanna 2007;
Weiss and Jurmain 2007). Similar to previous biocultural studies by Woo and Sciulli
(2011), Boyd (1996), Larsen et al. (2001), and Klaus et al. (2009), the findings of this

42 study add to the literature on osteoarthritis, bioarchaeology, the Arikara, and the biological response of indigenous populations to stresses of post-contact.
The Arikara skeletal collection located at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Department of Anthropology Osteology Laboratory was examined in this study. The
Arikara collections were from all major time periods (pre-contact, intermediate contact, and post-contact). The goal of the study was to examine male and female skeletal remains for evidence of osteoarthritis to better understand if there is a difference between sexes
(to understand more about sexual division of labor among the Arikara) and differences between pre-contact and post-contact osteoarthritis prevalence.

43
Chapter 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
For this study, the Arikara Native American skeletal remains housed at the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville were used to study the prevalence of osteoarthritis in pre-contact and post-contact groups. Comparisons between males and females were also completed. All skeletal materials were treated with respect and complied with all
NAGPRA related federal regulations.
The Arikara collections utilized were from the archaeological sites representing the three major time periods: pre-contact (Extended Coalescent), intermediate (Post-
Contact Coalescent), and post-contact (Disorganized Coalescent). The sites encompassed the time period ranging from 1600 to 1832. The Extended Coalescent is represented by the sites of Mobridge I and Rygh (1600-1650). The Post-Contact Coalescent is represented by the Larson site (1679-1733). Finally the Disorganized Coalescent is represented by the Leavenworth site (1802-1832). These Arikara skeletal collections generally include well preserved complete skeletal remains. The collection, as noted above in Chapters 3 and 4, has been used in previous bioarchaeogical studies on the biological impacts of European contact on the Arikara.
One-hundred and sixty-six individuals were examined from the Arikara skeletal collection: sixty-one individuals from the pre-contact sites of Mobridge I and Rygh, sixty-five individuals from the contact site of Larson, and forty individuals from the post-

contact site, Leavenworth. All sites included individuals from both sexes and a range of
44 ages. Thirty females and thirty-one males were examined from the pre-contact sites of
Mobridge I and Rygh. The Mobridge I and Rygh samples also included 22 young adult individuals, 22 middle aged individuals, and 17 old aged individuals. Thirty females and
35 males comprised the sample from the contact site of Larson. The Larson site also included 28 young adults, 23 middle-aged adults, and 14 old aged individuals. Nineteen females and 21 males were examined from the Post-contact site of Leavenworth. The
Leavenworth sample included 23 young adults, 12 middle aged adults, and five individuals of old age (Table 2).
Table 2: Arikara Study Sample Break Down
Total Number of
Individuals
Total Female
Sample
MobridgeI-Rygh (Pre-contact)
30
61
Larson (Contact)
65
30
Leavenworth (Post-contact)
40
19
Total Male
Sample
Young Adult
31
35
21
22
28
23
Middle
Aged
22
23
12
Old Aged
17
14
5
Methods
The skeletal materials studied were previously sexed and aged by Owsley in the mid-1970s and these estimates were considered reliable age and sex estimations. Adults were studied within age range intervals of young adult, middle aged adult, old aged adult
(18-30 = young, 31-40 = middle, 40+ = old).

45
The skeletal analysis of osteoarthritis bone lesions was based on previous osteoarthritis work by Cope et al. (2005) and Larsen et al. (1995). Table 3 lists the joints examined as part of this study.
Table 3: Articular Surfaces and Margins of Major Adult Joints
Observed for Presence or Absence of Osteoarthritis
Skeletal Component Observation Articular
Joint
Cervical Intervertebral body; superior and inferior articular processes
Lumbar Intervertebral body; superior and inferior articular processes
Shoulder Proximal humerus (head); scapula (glenoid)
Elbow Distal humerus (trochlea, capitulum); proximal radius (head, radial tuberosity); proximal ulna (semi-lunar notch, radial notch, coronoid process)
Wrist Distal ulna (head, styloid process); distal radius (lunate-scaphoid articular surfaces)
Hip
Knee
Femur (head); innominate (ilium auricular); acetabulum
Femur (lateral and medial condyles); patella (condylar surfaces); tibia (lateral and medial condyles)
Ankle Tibia (talar articular surfaces)
(Larsen et al. 1995)
Levels of osteoarthritis were defined by the degree of deterioration at the joint surfaces. Individual bones were coded for the presence of osteoarthritis according to the following key in Cope et al. (2005): (0) Clear: No signs of porosity, lipping, or eburnation, and articular surface intact. (1) Minor deterioration: Less than 1/3 articular surface porosity, minimal osteophyte formation, no lipping, and no eburnation. (2) Mild lipping or deterioration: Less than 1/3 articular surface porosity, and lipping of less than
1/3 of the circumference of joint edge. (3) Moderate lipping and rough facet: 1/3 or

greater articular surface porosity, and lipping around 1/3 or greater of the joint circumference; no greater than 2/3 porosity or lipping. (4) Severe facet damage or bone
46 irregularity, and eburnation: 2/3 or greater of articular surface porosity, lipping of 2/3 of the joint circumference, and eburnation present. Bones that scored 0 on the scale were considered normal, with no evidence of osteoarthritis. Bones that scored between 1–4 on the scale were considered to have mild to severe osteoarthritis: 1 or 2, mild; 3, moderate; and 4, severe osteoarthritis (Cope et al. 2005). Comparison of the joint systems by age and sex were completed and significance of these comparisons utilized an independent statistical t-test test. All statistics were run in Microsoft Excel.

47
Chapter 5
RESULTS
The prevalence of osteoarthritis in pre-contact, contact, and post-contact Arikara populations revealed that statistically significant differences between the three time periods overall, by sex, and by age do occur in some joint systems. An independent statistical t-test was used to understand if the data showed a significant difference in osteoarthritis prevalence between time periods. With an independent t-test, if the P-value is below 0.05 the data is statistically significant and is considered to show a difference between the time periods (pre-contact, contact, post-contact). If the P-value is equal to or above 0.05, then there is no statistical significance between the compared time periods.
Increases in osteoarthritis were observed in all joint systems and are described in the text and tables below. Statistically significant increases in osteoarthritis before and after contact were observed in the ankle and wrist (overall osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle and elbow (female osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle (male osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle and cervical vertebra (young adult osteoarthritis prevalence), ankle, knee, hip, wrist, elbow, and shoulder (middle aged adult osteoarthritis prevalence), and lumbar vertebra
(old aged adult osteoarthritis prevalence).
Table 4 displays the observed differences in overall presence of osteoarthritis between the three time periods (pre-contact, contact, and post-contact). Between the precontact and contact sites, moderate osteoarthritis increased in the hip and mild osteoarthritis increased in the wrist and cervical vertebra. Between the contact and postcontact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, hip, wrist, elbow, lumbar vertebra,

and cervical vertebra. In pre-contact versus post-contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, elbow, lumber vertebra, and cervical vertebra. Table 5 displays the results of the t-test for overall osteoarthritis occurrence between the three time periods. The ankle joint data (contact vs post-contact and pre-contact vs post-
48 contact) and wrist joint data (pre-contact vs post-contact) were statistically significant and showed a difference between the respective time periods.
Table 4: Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis, Sexes Combined
Ankle Knee Hip Wrist Elbow Shoulder Cervical Lumbar
Mobridge I - Rygh (Pre-contact)
No OA 25 2
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
50
25
36
60
Moderate OA
Severe OA
0
0
2
0
0
10
83
7
0
12
65
21
2
0
5
30
60
5
0
3
46
48
3
0
54
28
11
7
0
12
28
53
7
0
Larson (Contact)
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
22
51
22
5
0
Leavenworth (Post-contact)
No OA 3
Mild OA 1 50
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
44
0
3
9
37
51
3
0
5
31
59
5
0
0
15
66
19
0
0
12
85
3
0
19
46
32
3
0
10
41
46
3
0
6
34
52
8
0
3
18
71
8
0
7
48
45
0
0
8
35
52
5
0
34
44
20
0
2
33
37
30
0
0
12
28
44
16
0
11
39
45
5
0

49
Table 5: Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Overall Incidence of Osteoarthritis Between Time
Periods, Sexes Combined
Joint
Ankle
Pre-contact vs Contact
P-value
0.4905
Contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.0116*
Pre-contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.0011*
Knee
Hip
0.2018
0.4832
0.2460
0.2110
0.8835
0.4062
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumber
0.5897
0.7436
0.2143
0.2025
0.5048
0.1753
0.0944
0.1766
0.7199
0.2353
0.0445*
0.1433
0.7562
0.1697
0.5250
Note: * = significant value
Table 6 displays the observed differences in female presence of osteoarthritis occurrence between the three time periods (pre-contact, contact, and post-contact).
Between the pre-contact and contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the cervical vertebra and wrist, while moderate osteoarthritis increased in the hip. Between the contact and post-contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, elbow, shoulder, and cervical vertebra. Lastly, in pre-contact versus post-contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, elbow, and cervical vertebra. Table 7 displays the results of the t-test for female prevalence of osteoarthritis between the three time periods. The ankle joint data (pre-contact vs post-contact) and elbow joint data (contact vs post-contact) were statistically significant and showed a difference between these respective time periods.

50
Table 6: Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis in Females
Ankle Knee Hip Wrist Elbow Shoulder Cervical Lumbar
Mobridge I - Rygh (Pre-contact)
No OA 27 3 0 18 7 7 71 7
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
53
20
0
0
47
47
3
0
17
76
7
0
64
14
4
0
26
60
7
0
43
50
0
0
15
7
7
0
43
43
7
0
Larson (Contact)
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
23
50
20
7
0
13
37
47
3
0
0
17
66
17
0
27
46
27
0
0
10
43
43
4
0
7
53
40
0
0
43
43
14
0
0
20
27
40
13
0
Leavenworth (Post-contact)
No OA 6
Mild OA 1 44
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
50
0
0
6
33
50
11
0
0
16
79
5
0
17
33
50
0
0
5
11
79
5
0
10
32
53
5
0
42
29
29
0
0
17
33
44
6
0
Table 7: Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Female Incidence of Osteoarthritis Between Time
Periods
Joint
Ankle
Pre-contact vs Contact
P-value
0.4065
Contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.1681
Pre-contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.0193*
Knee 0.5840 0.2507 0.4177
Hip
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumber
0.4733
0.8507
0.1554
0.5322
0.4080
0.8847
0.5106
0.1438
0.3343
0.5243
0.7802
0.0314*
0.9698
0.1796
0.3774
0.6458
0.1221
0.6427
Note: * = significant value
Table 8, displays the observed differences in male presence of osteoarthritis between the three time periods (pre-contact, contact, and post-contact). Between the precontact and contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the cervical vertebra, while moderate osteoarthritis increased in the lumber vertebra. Between the contact and post-

contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, knee, and hip. In pre-contact versus post-contact sites, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, lumber
51 vertebra, and cervical vertebra. Table 9 displays the results of the t-test for male prevalence of osteoarthritis between the three time periods, the ankle joint data (contact vs post-contact and pre-contact vs post-contact) were statistically significant and showed a difference between these respective time periods.
Table 8: Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis in Males
Ankle
MobridgeI-Rygh (Pre-contact)
Knee Hip Wrist Elbow Shoulder
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
23
47
30
0
0
0
26
74
0
0
0
0
90
10
0
7
66
27
0
0
3
32
62
3
0
0
48
45
7
0
Larson (Contact)
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
20
53
24
3
0
6
37
54
3
0
0
14
66
20
0
12
46
36
6
0
3
26
60
11
0
8
43
49
0
0
Leavenworth (Post-contact)
No OA 0
Mild OA 1 55
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
40
0
5
5
28
67
0
0
0
10
90
0
0
0
25
65
10
0
5
38
52
5
0
5
48
42
5
0
Cervical Lumbar
40
40
13
7
0
26
44
26
0
3
26
42
32
0
0
17
13
63
7
0
3
29
48
19
0
5
45
45
5
0

52
Table 9: Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Male Incidence of Osteoarthritis Between Time
Periods
Joint
Ankle
Pre-contact vs Contact
P-value
0.9244
Contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.0346*
Pre-contact vs Post-contact
P-value
0.0297*
Knee
Hip
0.1598
0.8347
0.6645
0.2778
0.3958
0.1507
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumber
0.3458
0.3346
0.2543
0.3294
0.2586
0.6141
0.7836
0.3511
0.8855
0.1193
0.1331
0.2397
0.9597
0.4622
0.6642
Note: * = significant value
Table 10 displays the observed differences in young adult presence of osteoarthritis occurrence between the three time periods (pre-contact, contact, and postcontact). In young adults from pre-contact versus contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, elbow, shoulder, and cervical vertebra. In young adults from contact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, knee, wrist, elbow, and shoulder.
In young adults from pre-contact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, and cervical vertebra.
Table 10 also displays the observed differences in middle aged adults from precontact versus contact. Mild osteoarthritis increased in the hip, cervical vertebra, ankle, wrist, and shoulder. Moderate osteoarthritis increased in the hip and lumber vertebra. In middle aged adults from contact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, knee, hip, wrist, elbow, shoulder, cervical vertebra, and lumber vertebra. Moderate osteoarthritis increased in the knee, elbow, and shoulder. In middle aged adults from precontact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, wrist, elbow,

53 shoulder, cervical vertebra, and lumber vertebra. Moderate osteoarthritis also increased in the knee, elbow, shoulder, and lumber vertebra.
Table 10 also displays the observed differences in old aged adults from precontact versus contact. Mild osteoarthritis increased in the cervical vertebra, knee, wrist, and shoulder. Moderate osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, hip, and lumber vertebra. In old aged adults from contact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the ankle, hip, wrist, shoulder, cervical vertebra, and lumber vertebra. In old aged adults from pre-contact versus post-contact, mild osteoarthritis increased in the cervical vertebra, ankle, knee, hip, wrist, elbow, shoulder, cervical vertebra, and lumber vertebra.
Table 11 displays the results of the t-test for differences in osteoarthritis occurrence among different age groups between the three time periods. Young adult contact vs post-contact and pre-contact vs post-contact in the ankle joint and pre-contact versus post-contact in the cervical vertebra were statistically significant and showed a difference between these respective time periods. Middle aged adults in the pre-contact versus contact time periods showed a statistically significant difference in the lumber vertebra. In middle aged adults from the contact versus post-contact, the knee, wrist, and shoulder joints were all statistically significant. Middle aged pre-contact versus postcontact displayed a statistically significant difference with the ankle, knee, hip, wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints. Lastly, the only statistically significant data from old aged adults was from the pre-contact versus contact in the lumbar vertebra.

54
Young Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Middle Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Old Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Young Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Middle Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Old Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
19
62
19
0
0
6
65
29
0
0
Ankle
33
56
22
43
35
0
0
11
0
0
0
58
21
21
0
Table 10: Overall Percentage of Osteoarthritis by Age
MobridgeI/Rygh (Pre-Contact)
Ankle Knee Hip Wrist Elbow Shoulder Cervical Lumbar
46
27
27
0
0
5
50
45
0
0
0
20
80
0
0
14
76
10
0
0
5
36
59
0
0
10
45
45
0
0
59
41
0
0
0
14
45
41
0
0
0
27
73
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
15
65
20
0
0
9
27
59
5
0
0
45
50
5
0
50
28
17
5
0
21
21
53
5
0
0
29
65
6
0
Knee Hip
18
53
0
21
5
30
65
0
0
25
4
0
0
14
79
7
0
0
17
61
22
0
75
4
0
0
0
57
43
0
0
10
70
20
6
53
35
6
0 0
Larson (Contact)
Wrist
37
52
0
24
64
12
0
Elbow
11
46
36
7
0
5
30
61
4
0
0
14
72
14
0
0
47
47
6
0
Shoulder
11
64
25
0
0
9
30
61
0
0
0
43
57
0
0
52
12
18
18
0
11
0
0
41
41
13
0
5
7
43
50
0
0
0
12
70
18
0
Cervical Lumbar
43
46
26
44
0
23
59
18
0
30
0
0
0
0
50
50
0
9
52
39
0
0
11
0
0
0
23
62
15
0

Young Aged
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Middle Aged Adult
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Old Aged Adult
No OA
Mild OA 1
Mild OA 2
Moderate OA
Severe OA
Table 10 Continued
Leavenworth (Post-Contact)
Ankle Knee Hip Wrist Elbow Shoulder Cervical Lumbar
5
65
25
0
5
0
0
0
36
64
0
20
80
0
0
9 0
46 22
45 78
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
8 0 25
75 100 67
17
0
0
0
8
0
0 0
20 0
80 80
0
0
20
0
0
25
75
0
0
19
52
29
0
0
5
27
68
0
0
0
8
75
17
0
0
0
80
20
0
13
52
35
0
0
0
8
75
17
0
0
20
80
0
0
38
43
19
0
0
0
0
38
25
37
0
25
75
0
0
17
52
26
5
0
0
0
0
30
70
0
0
80
20
0
55

56
Table 11: Statistical Independent T-Test Results for Age Group Incidence of Osteoarthritis Between
Time Periods
Joint
Pre-contact vs Contact
P-value
Contact vs Post-contact
P-value
Pre-contact vs Post-contact
P-value
Young Aged Adult
Ankle
Knee
0.8506
0.1809
0.0097*
0.2836
0.0455*
0.8105
Hip
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumbar
0.7092
0.2256
0.4537
0.2182
0.1230
0.2692
0.7616
0.0778
0.2304
0.6751
0.5229
0.5325
0.9382
0.4505
0.6110
0.4647
0.0452*
0.6573
Ankle
Knee
Hip
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumbar
Ankle
Knee
Hip
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
Cervical
Lumbar
0.5406
0.4527
0.7509
0.1878
0.7676
0.7144
0.7819
0.1182
0.3940
0.1911
0.0515
0.5785
0.9358
0.2480
0.0400*
Note: * = significant value
0.0345*
Middle Aged Adult
0.0534
0.0235*
0.8161
0.0216*
0.0541
0.0157*
0.7371
0.2802
Old Aged Adult
0.6992
0.6050
0.3913
0.6296
0.4798
0.3913
0.3751
0.2804
0.0072*
0.0456*
0.0000*
0.0011*
0.0478*
0.0210*
0.5822
0.3724
0.0536
0.8992
0.9291
0.3841
0.2887
0.4872
0.2516
0.6101

57
Chapter 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Ethnohistoric and ethnoarchaeological evidence combined with skeletal analysis provide a strong argument for the negative impact European contact had on the health of indigenous populations. The findings of this study may be explained by the impact of
European contact on the Arikara population. Disease and conflicts with outside groups took a large toll on the Arikara population, which forced changes to cultural and subsistence practices. As the fur trade began to decline, historic records indicate that relations between the Arikara and Europeans were strained and the Arikara left their villages to live with the Pawnee Native Americans. Later, the Arikara population dealt with conflicts and eventual dominance by the Sioux Native Americans, which forced another move to join with the Moran Native Americans (Abel 1939; Nasatir 1952;
Rodgers 1997). The dramatic population decreases caused by disease and conflicts with outside groups led to the need for the healthiest individuals to take on more intense labor roles in hunting and agriculture to compensate for a population with a decreasing number of individuals who could contribute to the Arikara society. Often ignored in paleopathological studies are the influences of illness or absence of individuals and the impacts this causes on healthy individuals left behind to take on an increased workload to support themselves and their community. The skeletal remains excavated at the postcontact cemetery may also represent a segmented post-contact Arikara population who was left behind after the majority of the population was forced to immigrate to other areas (Roberts 2013).

This study aimed to examine the incidence of osteoarthritis in adult individuals from the Arikara Native American population. Samples from pre-contact, contact, and
58 post-contact periods were broken down by sex and age to test the hypothesis that osteoarthritis increased after European contact. Data analysis revealed that statistically significant differences between the three time periods overall, by sex, and by age do occur in some joint systems. While not all of the data were statistically significant, this may be attributed to small sample sizes or lack of actual difference in the prevalence of osteoarthritis. The cause of osteoarthritis is difficult to attribute to an exact activity but is typically associated with actions that impacted a specific joint over a long period of time or intermittent high intensity activities (Bridges 1991). Joint systems with statistically significant increases in osteoarthritis and a discussion of possible causes for this increase are discussed below.
After contact, an increase in ankle osteoarthritis was statistically significant for overall prevalence, females, males, young adults, and middle aged adults. Increased prevalence of ankle osteoarthritis post-contact could be due to various factors. Ankle osteoarthritis is typically caused by general stress and overuse involving large amounts of flexion and extension of the joint (Lieverse et al. 2007). This type of stress on the ankle joint is attributed to either long distance walking, frequent travel over hilly or rough landscapes, or frequent squatting or kneeling (Lieverse et al. 2007). Corroborated by
Larsen et al. (1995), this increase in ankle osteoarthritis may be attributed to long distance walking over hilly terrain during the post-contact era. The fragmentation of
Arikara villages during the post-contact forced by historically recorded strained

relationships with Europeans and other Native American tribes resulted in higher levels
59 of mobility for the Arikara. These conflicts forced the Arikara to travel in order to integrate with other ally tribes (Abel 1939; Nasatir 1952; Rodgers 1997). Alternatively, an increase in ankle osteoarthritis could be attributed to food processing or other practices involving frequent squatting or kneeling (Lieverse et al. 2007). Food processing was part of the agricultural practices of the Arikara (Holder 1970; Owsley and Bass 1979;
Perzigian 1975). These food processing activities may have increased post-contact on the remaining healthy individuals left in the villages who were left to take on the burden for those who were sick or absent from the village (Holder 1970; Perzigian 1975). However, the lack of a significant increase in osteoarthritis of the knee joint suggests persistent squatting may not have been a routine activity for the Arikara.
An increase in wrist osteoarthritis was statistically significant for overall prevalence and middle aged adults. For the wrist joint, Klaus et al. (2009) also found an overall increase in osteoarthritis prevalence between the pre-contact and post-contact time periods in the indigenous Mochica population from the north coast Lambayeque region of Peru. Klaus and colleagues attributed this increase in wrist osteoarthritis to increased wear and tear on that joint system. The increase in wrist osteoarthritis in the
Arikara may be due to increased food processing as the Arikara were partly agriculturalists in their subsistence practices (Holder 1970; Owsley and Bass 1979;
Perzigian 1975). Food processing activities would likely increase for the remaining healthy individuals left in the villages who were left to take on the burden for those who were sick or absent from the village (Holder 1970; Perzigian 1975). Boyd (1996)

60 describes the Alaskan Eskimo’s increase in osteoarthritis of the wrist as a result of processing animal fur. This also appears to be a likely cause of increased wrist osteoarthritis as the connection between an increase in wrist osteoarthritis and processing animal fur would correlate with the Arikara’s participation with the European fur trade.
For females and middle aged adults, the elbow showed a statistically significant increase in osteoarthritis before and after contact. These findings were similar to Klaus and co-workers (2009) who also revealed that post-contact women showed more prevalence of osteoarthritis in the elbow than contact women. Osteoarthritis in the elbow joint is typically attributed to work-related activities (Jurmain 1977, 1988; Klaus et al.
2009). Increased osteoarthritis in the elbow joint may be an example of the repetitive and daily activity of seed-grinding, referred to as ‘Metate elbow’ for corn grinding observed in the Ancestral Pueblo (Boyd 1996). In the Boyd (1996) study, ‘Metate elbow’ was observed in both men and women of the Ancestral Pueblo, but in this study the increase was only observed in women and middle aged adults. Another possibility, according to
Angel (1966), is ‘Atlatl elbow’ or the repetitive hunting activity of throwing the atlatl weapon. Whether attributed to ‘Metate elbow’ or ‘Atlatl elbow’, the increased elbow osteoarthritis observed in females and middle aged adults indicates a repetitive activity and possibly sexual division of labor in the Arikara and the changing role for women in food processing and a potential increased role in hunting before and after contact. The increase in elbow osteoarthritis in women may also indicate that women took on even more responsibilities, such as additional food processing and hunting because men were sick or were away fighting with other tribes. The findings of this study may also support

the hypothesis that men were more involved in warfare during the agricultural period
61 than hunter-gatherers (Boyd 1996; Bridges 1989a,b, 1994; Larsen et al. 1995; Rojas-
Sepúlveda et al. 2008; Vanna 2007; Weiss and Jurmain 2007). Alternatively, the study on indigenous fur traders by Lai and Lovell (1992) showed that activities associated with the fur trade (i.e., carrying and lifting) was associated with osteoarthritis in the elbow and could be associated with the cause of Arikara osteoarthritis in the elbow.
Statistically significant increases in osteoarthritis of the cervical vertebra were observed in young adults. Angel (1966) described cervical osteoarthritis as typical of the strenuous lives of hard working populations. Osteoarthritis on the cervical vertebrae has been related to strain on the neck usually caused by carrying heavy items (Boyd 1996;
Bridges 1994; Klaus et al. 2009). Cope et al. (2005) also attributed osteoarthritis in the cervical vertebra to carrying heavy items on top of the head which may have been a practice of the Arikara. The cervical vertebra osteoarthritis observed in young adults therefore, indicates that young adults carried a heavier load during the post-contact period than previous time periods.
Middle and old aged adults showed an increased in osteoarthritis of the lumber vertebra before and after contact. Angel (1966) described lumbar osteoarthritis as typical of the strenuous lives of hard working populations. Additionally, middle aged adults had an increase in osteoarthritis of the knee, hip, and shoulder joints post-contact. These joint systems are typically most impacted by the aging process (Jurmain 1977). The statistically significant increases in osteoarthritis in middle and old aged adults most likely reveals that osteoarthritis is linked to the aging process (Bridges 1992; Jurmain

1977; Ortner and Putschar 1981). If not the aging process, shoulder osteoarthritis has
62 been linked to repetitive activities of hunting and food processing (Boyd 1996).
Osteoarthritis of the hip, knee, and shoulder has also been attributed to strenuous activities throughout life (Boyd 1996). Lastly, the study on indigenous fur traders by Lai and Lovell (1992) showed that activities associated with the fur trade (i.e., carrying and lifting) was associated with osteoarthritis in the shoulder and knee and could be associated with the cause of Arikara osteoarthritis in these joint systems.
By trying to understand past cultures from a bioarchaeological and biocultural perspective, we will gain more insights into how Europeans contact impacted indigenous cultures. This study helps us to understand more about osteoarthritis, and how indigenous populations respond biologically to the stresses of post-contact.
Further Research Suggestions
Future research should focus on gaining larger sample sizes of Arikara, other
Native American, or other indigenous groups in which skeletal samples from pre-contact and post-contact are available to understand more about how European contact and disease influenced indigenous cultures.

63
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