IU-MIENH WOMEN PERCEPTIONS TOWARD UNDERREPORTING AND
UTILIZING OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SERVICES
Fey Saechao
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2009
Koy Saechao
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2009
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2011
IU-MIENH WOMEN PERCEPTIONS TOWARD UNDERREPORTING AND
UTILIZING OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SERVICES
A Project
by
Fey Saechao
Koy Saechao
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Serge Lee, Ph. D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student:
Fey Saechao
Koy Saechao
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Teiahsha Bankhead, Ph.D., LCSW
Division of Social Work
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
IU-MIENH WOMEN PERCEPTIONS TOWARD UNDERREPORTING AND
UTILIZING OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SERVICES
by
Fey Saechao
Koy Saechao
This Master’s Project is a product of equal collaboration by the authors. The paucity of
research examining domestic violence within the Iu-Mienh communities influenced the
current research.
This study examined fifty Iu-Mienh women from the greater
Sacramento area on their perceptions about factors that hindered Iu-Mienh women from
reporting and seeking domestic violence services.
The data in this research study
revealed that 65.3% of the participants knew someone from their community who has
experienced domestic violence. Patriarchal values, fear of bringing shame to the family,
and the immediate family as the primary supporter are potential factors that hinder
reporting and seeking services.
In addition, the participants’ primary suggestion to
improve services is to increase the number of Mienh speaking staff.
Findings can
contribute to knowledge-base on domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community and
create the foundation to begin addressing domestic violence within this community.
, Committee Chair
Serge Lee, Ph.D.
_____________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge Dr. Serge Lee, our thesis project advisor, who has been
instrumental in seeing the research paper evolve into the completion of this thesis project
from the beginning to the end. We thank you and appreciate your wisdom, guidance, and
support throughout the course of the past two academic years. Our deepest appreciation
goes to all the Mienh women who participated in this thesis project. We thank you for
your time, participation, and insights. In return, we hope the information paved the way
to enhance better understanding of the needs of the Iu-Mienh while empowering many
women to find their voices and strength to overcome the many adversities they encounter.
This thesis project would not be what it is without the people who have stood by
me throughout the past few years. First, I thank my heavenly father, God, for his infinite
blessings and unfailing love. To my mother, an exemplary women of perseverance and
optimism. It was your resilience of enduring many adversities that inspired me to
become a social worker and reach for my zenith. The wisdom, strength, nurturance, and
unconditional love you have instilled in me are the foundation of shaping me into the
person I am today; Yie hnamv meih. Laengz zingh maa. I thank my sister, Tiffany for
always believing in me and the enthusiastic encouragements that kept me motivated. I
also thank my family, friends, and brothers and sisters in Christ for your prayers,
encouragement, and support. I extend my appreciation to Koy, my thesis partner and
friend, for your hard work, support, patience with my obsessive-compulsive tendencies,
and caring reminders to find pleasure throughout this process (and in life). The
v
unwavering support and motivations from all of you guided me here. I thank you all, Fey
Saechao.
This journey wouldn’t have been possible without the important people in my life.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my parents for the sacrifice they made in order to give me
the opportunities to achieve my dreams. I love you, for your unconditional love, support,
and understanding. To my mother, through her unsuccessful battle with cancer, she had
instilled in me the strength and courage to tackle any obstacles in life. I’m blessed and
grateful to receive continuous support and encouragements from my family and friends. I
want to thank my four sisters, nephews, and friends for bringing joy and happiness in
times of stress. To my boyfriend, your love and support carried me through this journey.
Lastly, I would like to thank my thesis partner, Fey Saechao whom I am honored to call a
friend. Without your support, guidance, patience, and hard work this would never have
been possible. From the bottom of my heart, I love and thank each and every one. Koy
Saechao
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM ........................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
Statement of Collaboration ..................................................................................... 5
Statement of the Research Problem ........................................................................ 5
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 6
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 12
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 12
Historical Perceptions of Domestic Violence ....................................................... 13
Overview of Domestic Violence Policies and Services........................................ 19
Historical Origin and Migration of the Iu-Mienh ................................................. 23
Barriers.................................................................................................................. 25
Cultural Beliefs and Traditions ............................................................................. 26
Acculturation ........................................................................................................ 32
Language ............................................................................................................... 34
Education Attainment ........................................................................................... 36
Socioeconomic Status ........................................................................................... 37
Inadequate Culturally Sensitive Services ............................................................. 39
Summary ............................................................................................................... 41
3. METHODS ................................................................................................................. 44
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 44
Study Design ......................................................................................................... 44
Sampling Procedures ............................................................................................ 46
vii
Data Collection Procedures .................................................................................. 47
Protection of Human Subjects Procedure ............................................................. 48
4. FINDINGS .................................................................................................................. 50
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 50
Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................ 50
Acculturation Variables ........................................................................................ 54
Belief System ........................................................................................................ 58
Inferential Statistics .............................................................................................. 71
Additional Findings .............................................................................................. 94
5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 98
Major Findings ...................................................................................................... 98
Social Work Implications and Recommendations .............................................. 100
Limitations and Suggestion for Future Research ................................................ 105
Appendix A Consent to Participant in Research........................................................... 107
Appendix B Domestic Violence Contacts .................................................................... 110
Appendix C Questionnaire............................................................................................ 113
Appendix D Protection of Human Subjects .................................................................. 118
References ....................................................................................................................... 124
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 1 Participants' Age .................................................................................... 50
2.
Table 2 Iu-Mienh Women's Country of Birth ..................................................... 51
3.
Table 3 The Participants' Religious Belief ......................................................... 52
4.
Table 4 Participants' Marital Status .................................................................... 53
5.
Table 5 Participants' Educational Level .............................................................. 53
6.
Table 6 Participants' Primary Language ............................................................. 54
7.
Table 7 Language ................................................................................................ 55
8.
Table 8 Reading Proficiency............................................................................... 56
9.
Table 9 Writing Proficiency................................................................................ 57
10.
Table 10 Participants' Employment Status ......................................................... 57
11.
Table 11 Immediate Family ................................................................................ 58
12.
Table 12 Extended Family .................................................................................. 59
13.
Table 13 Friends ................................................................................................. 59
14.
Table 14 Community .......................................................................................... 59
15.
Table 15 Elders ................................................................................................... 60
16.
Table 16 Law Enforcement ................................................................................. 60
17.
Table 17 Men Have a Higher Status Than Women ............................................ 61
18.
Table 18 Women Must Obey Her Husband, Family and Elders ........................ 61
19.
Table 19 Wife is Property of Husband ............................................................... 62
ix
20.
Table 20 Men are Head of Household ................................................................ 63
21.
Table 21 Domestic Violence is a Private Matter ................................................ 64
22.
Table 22 Domestic Violence Resolved at Home ................................................ 65
23.
Table 23 Loss of Family Support........................................................................ 66
24.
Table 24 Disclosing Information Will Bring Dishonor to Family ...................... 67
25.
Table 25 Victims are Encouraged to Remain in Relationship ............................ 68
26.
Table 26 Fear of Family Dishonor for not Seeking Services.............................. 69
27.
Table 27 Fear for Personal or Children Safety to not Seek Services .................. 69
28.
Table 28 Fear of the Law not to Seek Services .................................................. 69
29.
Table 29 Lack of Financial Resources not to Seek Services .............................. 70
30.
Table 30 Lack of Community Resources not to Seek Services .......................... 70
31.
Table 31 Lack of Information About Resources not to Seek Services ............... 70
32.
Table 32 Lack of Family Support not to Seek Services ..................................... 71
33.
Table 33 Crosstabs Between Religious Beliefs and Knowing a Victim of DV.. 72
34.
Table 34 Crosstabs Between Religious Status and Religious Beliefs not to Seek
Services ............................................................................................................................. 73
35.
Table 35 Crosstabs Between Religion and Lack Family Support Barrier to not
Seek Services .................................................................................................................... 75
36.
Table 36 Crosstabs Between Religion and Primary Support is Immediate Family
........................................................................................................................................... 76
x
37.
Table 37 Crosstabs Between Religion and Family Dishonor Barrier not to Seek
Services ............................................................................................................................. 78
38.
Table 38 Crosstabs Between Residency Status and Primary Supporter the
Immediate Family ............................................................................................................. 79
39.
Table 39 Crosstabs Between Residency Status and Fear of Law Barrier to not
Seek Services .................................................................................................................... 81
40.
Table 40 Crosstabs Between Language and Fear of Law Barrier not to Seek
Services ............................................................................................................................. 82
41.
Table 41 Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Family Support Barrier to
not Seek Services .............................................................................................................. 84
42.
Table 42 Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Service Information a
Barrier not to Seek Services .............................................................................................. 85
43.
Table 43 Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Family Support a Barrier to
not Seek Services .............................................................................................................. 87
44.
Table 44 Crosstabs Between Schooling and Lack of Financial Resources a
Barrier to not Seek Services .............................................................................................. 89
45.
Table 45 Crosstabs Between Schooling and Lack of Community Resources
Barrier not to Seek Services .............................................................................................. 91
46.
Table 46 Crosstabs Between Schooling and Fear of the Law a Barrier to not
Seek Services .................................................................................................................... 93
47.
Table 47 Known a Victim of Domestic Violence ............................................... 95
xi
1
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Prior to 1970, domestic violence was both, a legal and accepted practice, and seen
as a private family matter (Sumter, 2006). During the 1970s, the second wave feminist
movements and women’s groups organized locally and internationally to shine a light on
domestic violence and brought dramatic changes to perceptions of domestic violence and
laws (Akar, Aksakal, Demirel, Durukan & Özkan, 2010; Alhabib, Nur, & Jones, 2009).
Alhabib, Nur and Jones asserted that starting in the1990s, laws were enforced and
effective resources were allocated to address domestic violence and that domestic
violence has become a dynamic subject of research, political discussion, and legal
reform.
According to Dutton (2006) and Nankani (2000), domestic violence, the
commonly used term for intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to any deliberate pattern
of controlling and assaultive behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, terrorize, humiliate,
threaten, isolate, or injure someone. Nankani (2000) noted that abusive behaviors that
occur between intimate partners of married, cohabitating, homosexual, and heterosexual
are used to maintain or gain control and power over another intimate partner. Domestic
violence occurs in various forms including physical, sexual, emotional, spiritual, and
financial abuse (Alhabib, Nur, & Jones, 2009; Ho, 1990; Yick, 2007). In addition, Mall
(2007) described a few abusive and aggressive behaviors, experienced by victims of
2
domestic violence such as hitting, forced sexual intercourse, extreme possessiveness,
isolation from family and friends, and withholding financial resources.
More than twenty years ago, domestic violence was viewed as an issue not worthy
of international attention or concern (Alhabib, Nur, & Jones, 2009). According to a
global study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) on the prevalence of
partner violence in ten countries throughout the world, reported between 15 to 71% of the
women in the study experienced sexual and/or physical violence at the hands of an
intimate partner (Mapp, 2008). Mapp also indicated that the data from the WHO research
supported the notion that the prevalence of partner violence was widespread. Alhabib,
Nur, and Jones cited the World Bank that domestic violence is a greater cause of health
issues than compare to malaria and traffic accidents combined. In the last comprehensive
survey on domestic violence, Tjaden and Thoennes (2000) estimated that about 1.5
million women and 830,000 men were victims of intimate violence in the United States.
In 2007, California law enforcement received 174, 649 domestic violence calls, of which
69,422 (39.75%) calls involved weapons (National Coalition Against Domestic Violence,
2010). Domestic violence was an insignificant issue, but now researchers have
conducted studies and collected data that shows the global prevalence of domestic
violence is becoming an epidemic societal problem (Hattery, 2009).
Oyunbileg, Sumberzul, Udval, Wang and Janes (2009) approximated that 95 to
98% of the victims of domestic violence in the world are female. Although women can
be violent towards their male partners and that violence also occurs between partners of
3
the same sex, partner violence is experienced higher by women at the hands of men
(James, 2008). There are many incidences of domestic violence experienced by women
from ranging ethnic groups. For example, it is reported that ethnic women such as
African-American women experienced intimate partner violence at a rate 35% higher
than that of white women, and about 2.5 times that of women of other race (Hampton &
Gullotta, 2006). On a study that analyzed the needs of domestically abused Hispanic or
Latino women found that approximately three quarters (70%) of the women had
experienced physical violence, which exceeds the estimated national rate of 54.9%
prevalence for Hispanics (National Women’s Law Center, University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine & The Lewin Group, 2000). In a study of 160 South Asian women
in the Greater Boston area, Raj and Silverman (2002) found that 40.8% South Asian
women reported that they have been physically and/or sexually abused by their current
male partners in their lifetime. Research has indicated that domestic violence is a social
problem that is pervasive in virtually all cultures, countries, ethnic and racial groups,
social classes, and boundaries (Sumter, 2006; Tjaden &Thoennes, 2000).
The above research has showed large volume of domestic violence cases, reports,
and studies that brought much attention and confirmation that the issue of domestic
violence is prevalent in many cultures (Al-Nsour, Khawaja & Al-Kayyali, 2009; Akar,
Aksakal, Demirel, Durukan & Özkan, 2010; Mapp, 2008). Yick (2007) inserted that
many scholars, researchers, and practitioners often concluded that intimate violence did
not affect Asian and immigrant communities. There are a few research available
4
focusing on domestic violence in Asian communities. A study on spouse aggression in
Hong Kong indicated that 14% of physical violence was between spouses (Roberts,
1998). In Santa Clara County of California, the Santa Clara Death Review Committee
indicated that out of the 51 deaths between the years of 1993-1997 that occurred relating
to domestic violence, 31% involved Asians. In 2000, Kim and Sung (as cited in Yick,
2007) conducted telephone survey with 256 Korean American households and revealed
that 18.8% couples experienced at least one incident of physical violence during 2000. In
2003, Yick et al. (as cited in Yick, 2007) conducted a telephone survey in Los Angeles
County with 262 Chinese Americans and they found that 80% disclosed to experiencing
some form of verbal aggression by a partner or spouse and 10% experienced physical
violence. Chao (2006) noted that research and empirical knowledge on the Iu-Mienh and
other Southeast Asians are developing but barely sufficient. There are a growing number
of researches suggesting that domestic violence is indeed a significant issue in Asian
communities (Bui & Morash, 1999; Ho, 1990; Kim-Goh & Baello, 2008). For example,
Yick (2007) pointed out that it is only recently that there are more scholars and
researchers analyzing domestic violence in ethnic minority groups. Yick and OomenEarly (2008), conducted a study that reviewed published articles on domestic violence in
Asian communities, over a sixteen-year period. In their cross-sectional analysis, they
found that only sixty (2.4%) articles that were published between 1990 and 2005 on
domestic violence were on Asian Americans. Yick and Oomen-Early concluded that
5
even though domestic violence has been researched for decades, there still remain spares
empirical studies on domestic violence in Asian communities.
Statement of Collaboration
This Master’s Project is a product of equal collaboration and effort by the authors.
The research of literature for chapter one and two were equally divided between the two
authors with which they collected and collaborated together to complete the two chapters.
The authors also collaborated to complete and submitted the Protection of Human
Subjects application for review and approval. They both discussed and determined the
procedures for collecting data, including developing a questionnaire for the study design,
and sampling procedures to divvied 25 questionnaires among the researchers to collect
data within their community. The authors documented the method and research
procedures in chapter three together. They both entered the collected data and
statistically analyzed the recorded data using PASW/SPSS and presented the research
data in chapter four. The major findings, social implications and recommendations, and
limitations and suggestions for future research were discussed and drafted in chapter five
by the authors to produce this Master’s Project.
Statement of the Research Problem
Yick and Oomen-Early (2008) discovered in research journals and empirical
knowledge that the voices of Asian women were clearly underrepresented. As a result,
documentation, research, and empirical knowledge of the Iu-Mienh and other Southeast
Asians are slowly developing (Chao, 2006; Ly Daffon, 2001; Song, 1986; Yang, 2001;
6
Yick, 2007). There still is a paucity of research examining domestic violence within the
Iu-Mienh and greater Southeast Asian communities. Due to the absence of accessible
and practical collections of empirical research and literature, these are the root of the
problems, which contributed to only a minimal understanding of domestic violence
within the Iu-Mienh community and as well as services available to them. Therefore, it is
crucial to identify factors that hindered Iu-Mienh women from reporting and seeking
domestic violence services in order to gain a richer knowledge of the Iu-Mienh women
perspectives about domestic violence. It is also important to create the foundation to
begin addressing domestic violence within this community. Accessible, sufficient, and
comprehensive analysis and research are vital for the development and implementation of
effective cross-cultural interventions and treatment programs and services to assist
women affected by domestic violence.
Purpose of the Study
This Mater’s Project was inspired by three objectives. First, the authors wanted to
increase research knowledge pertaining to domestic violence in the Southeast Asian
populations, specifically the Iu-Mienh due to limited researches available. The
researchers speculated that by conducting additional research projects on domestic
violence within this population, social workers and paraprofessionals could gain better
understanding regarding the issue. The next objective is for the researchers to gain better
understanding of their own culture to assist in identifying the factors that hindered IuMienh women from reporting and seeking domestic violence services. Lastly,
7
identifying these factors can assist social workers and paraprofessionals to advocate and
facilitate the development and implementation of services that are currently not viable to
the Iu-Mienh community.
Theoretical Framework
There are many different theories that had been used to examine and attempt to
explain domestic violence. This research project applied two theoretical frameworks, the
feminist theory and ecological system to provide alternative perspectives to help facilitate
the understanding of domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community.
The first appropriate theoretical framework applied to understand domestic
violence in the Iu-Mienh community is the feminist theory. According to Payne (2005),
the feminist theory focuses on advocating or concerning social, political, cultural, and
economic rights for women and their social relations to patriarchy. Payne states that
patriarchy is a systems of thought and social or relations that privileges and empowers
men and creates relationships between men that devalue, disenfranchise, and disempower
women. The feminist theory contends that issues of gender and power are the root of
intimate partner violence and the subordination of women to male authority is
institutionalized in the structure of patriarchal societies (Yick, 2007). A society consists
of a social structure that assigns women an inferior status and an existing social,
economic, and political structure reinforces the acceptance of this social order (Bui &
Morash, 1999).
8
The application of the feminist theory in the Iu-Mienh community contends that
Iu-Mienh families have rigid patriarchal attitudes and cultures in which the roles of
women are devalued (Chao, 2006). The power and control of resources is held by the
male head of household, who is also the decision maker and sole provider for their
families (Rydstrom, 2003). On the other hand, women take care of household chores and
the children (Yick, 2007). Rydstrom asserts that many women were taught and
conditioned to never disobey the men in their lives which contribute to the patriarchal
roles being unchallenged. Yick (2001) attests to this issue that in the Iu-Mienh families,
the father has the initial control over their daughters; after the women marry, the role of
head of household passes to her husband; and then the authority passes to her sons. She
stated that the strict gender roles perpetuate patriarchy in the Iu-Mienh family structure,
which eventually contributes to domestic violence. For example, many Iu-Mienh women
are socialized to accept that their identities are bounded as mothers and wives and with
tremendous pressure to maintain the family. Battered Iu-Mienh women may find it
difficult to report and or terminate the abusive relationship and also tolerate violence
against them (Yick, 2007).
Payne (2005) points out that feminist theory critique gender roles and strived to
change the political and social order so that women will no longer be oppressed by
engaging in organizing and taking political action to address these injustices. Therefore,
Payne suggests that a step towards eliminating violence against women includes
redistributing the power imbalances between men and women. According to Yick
9
(2007), feminist perspective interventions aim to empower women to move from their
pre-socialized roles, to teach women that they have a choice, and to provide them with
effective resources. Women are guided to focus on their strengths, values, beliefs, and
experiences in order to aid in changing the negative messages that may have been
internalized by societal influences (Barajas & Perez, 2005).
The second theoretical framework congruent with this population and guidance of
the research is the ecological system. According to Payne (2005), ecological system
theory is a holistic social work approach which observes the complex systems of
interactions, transactions, and relationships between individuals and their environment.
The ecological system composes systematic levels of the micro-level to the macro-level.
According to Dutton (2006) and Skillwoman (2005), the micro-level includes a variety of
elements on a personal scale, such as the individual’s biological, psychological, spiritual,
and social components which are viewed in the settings of the individual or immediate
family unit in which wife assault and battering occurs such as the interaction pattern of
the intimate partner and the conflict issues affecting them. Dutton and Skillwoman
discussed that the next level within the ecological system is the meso-level, which
focuses on the interactions or connections between the individual and middle scale
entities, such as extended families and friends at which the abused women is influenced
or connected with the family to the larger culture. For example, work stress or social
support could be either positive or negative influences on the likelihood of spouse assault
(Dutton, 2006; Skillwoman, 2005). Dutton contends that the following ecological system
10
level is the exosystem, which are relations in the social setting to the individual such as
broad cultural values and beliefs that the individual holds and lives by. For example, the
individual who lives in a patriarchal culture, such as many Iu-Mienh women, abides
community expectations and the male’s level of authority in the male-female relationship,
which contributes to the development of spouse abuse. The last level is the macro-level,
which focuses on large scale elements, such as institutional systems, legal systems, and
services and policies at the state, national, or international level in correspondence to the
individual such as utilizing or having involvement with shelters, law enforcements, and
restraining orders (Dutton, 2006; Skillwoman, 2005). Each level of systems is
interrelated because they correlate and interact with one another within the individuals’
environment (Dutton, 2006).
Barajas and Perez (2005) draw the connection between each environmental level
and the abuse women by illustrating the experiences of an abuse minority or immigrant
women, such as the Iu-Mienh, Latino, and Southeast Asians, with a description. First,
within her home, she has to face the abuse from the male partner and is usually
intimidated to seek help because of fear, isolation, and language barriers. Second, the
extended family may become the oppressive system by criticizing and not supporting her,
the victim of abuse. Lastly, at the community and governmental level, victims of
domestic violence may not find appropriate support services to meet their needs because
of the lack of bicultural and bilingual service programs. Every level of environment has
the potential to shape or transform the perspectives, beliefs, and behaviors of domestic
11
violence victims (Barajas & Perez, 2005). The understanding and recognition of this
influential affect through the Ecological Systems provides social workers and
practitioners with a broad range of cross-cultural analysis and intervention approaches for
working with special populations, such as the Iu-Mienh, affected by domestic violence.
12
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Domestic violence is not a new phenomenon (Pham & Teas, 1996). Our
presentations in the previous chapter concluded that domestic violence occurs across all
cultures, countries, and society (Sumter, 2006; Tjaden &Thoennes, 2000). Pham and
Teas asserted that efforts to address and combat this phenomenon vary. They further
discussed that some cultures, such as Westernized cultures attempt to confront domestic
violence through approaches that includes research, dissemination of resources, and
development of programs and services, while other cultures suppress, avoid, and hide its
existence. Researchers of cross-cultural studies on domestic violence recited that many
abuse women continue to suffer and live in silence behind closed boundaries of their
culture and traditions (Ho, 1990; Nankani, 2000; Pham & Teas, 1996). These researchers
noted that domestic violence remains hidden among some individuals and families in the
United States.
This Chapter, The Review of the Literature, examined various studies, journal
articles, and book chapters which provide information about domestic violence, battered
women, immigration, and the Iu-Mienh as well as other Southeast Asians. This review of
the literature explores several fundamental themes that are critical to understanding
domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community.
13
This review of the literature is organized into three main sections, which begins
with an analysis of the literature on historical perceptions of domestic violence that is
examined across historical evolution and cultures. The section followed identified and
examined domestic violence policies and services. The final section of this chapter
concentrates on domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community with an exploration of the
Iu-Mienh origin and migration and the barriers that potentially hinder Iu-Mienh women
from reporting and seeking domestic violence services, which includes cultural beliefs
and traditions, acculturation, language, education, socioeconomic disparities, and
inadequate cultural and linguistic appropriate services. It is important to review literature
in regards to these themes to gain foundational knowledge of domestic violence within
the Iu-Mienh community, in hopes to provide an understanding of potential factors that
contribute to the underreporting and utilizing of domestic violence services.
Historical Perceptions of Domestic Violence
A comprehensive social history of intimate partner violence remains limited
because historians have not yet fully understand the extent of domestic violence (Dutton,
2006). Dutton pointed out that the few journals and articles that are available on
historical perceptions of domestic violence have been focused on attitudes of misogyny
that permits wife assault. It is relevant to examine the theological tracts of domestic
violence because they influence both the exertion of guiding and the exoneration
perceptions and behaviors of domestic violence. An earlier study emphasized that it is
critical to trace domestic violence from which it manifests (Ho, 1990).
14
Ho (1990) and Dutton (2006) indicated that domestic violence manifests in
various forms at different time periods. They pointed out in early historical Western
societies that biblical passage of Eve’s transgression of eating the forbidden fruit, which
consequent to all women being punished with the ruling of the husband over wives;
wives submitted to their husbands because the husband is the head of the wife. Several
studies on domestic violence and spirituality reported that the connection between
spirituality and domestic violence has just recently been recognized and studied (Feder,
1999; Hampton & Gullotta, 2006). Hampton and Gullotta reported that narrow
interpretations of Bible passages have provided fertile ground for violence in the home.
Many women were constricted to subordination to men in their societal gender roles and
familial domains. Hampton and colleague also concluded that tying imperative messages
and conducts to scripture is manipulative and has allowed some men to overtly use
scripture as a tool to disempowered and harm women.
The rigid views of the wife had not only been woven into church ideology to fuel
violence against them, but have also been embedded in common law and traditions
(Hampton & Gullotta, 2006). In medieval Europe, husbands were widely perceived as
having the “right” to “chastise”, or, to control and punish their wives and other members
of their households (Dutton, 2006; Feder, 1999). This right provided men absolute power
of life and death over his wife, children, and slaves (Dutton, 2006). Dutton and Feder
continued discussing about the historical accounts of domestic violence into the colonial
period. These two researchers reported that when the English colonists came to America
15
during the 1600s, they brought with them these ideologies and attitudes, at which
domestic violence existed in the New World just as it had in England and European
societies. In 1874, traditional domestic violence practices perpetuated to institutional
legislations with the British Common Law, which allowed for a man to beat his wife with
a rod no bigger than his thumb, known as the “rule of thumb” in the United States
(Dutton, 2006). The right to beat wives was maintained into the 1900s where many state
courts rejected the rights of a husband to physically punish their wife, but they
maintained that moderate chastisement, assaults not leaving permanent injury should be
viewed as private matter and left outside the purview of the law (Dutton, 2006; Feder,
1999). By the early twentieth century, the rule of thumb had been discredited in law and
domestic violence became well recognized as a widespread issue around the world
(Dutton, 2002; Hattery, 2009).
In a cross-cultural study on factors of disclosing intimate partner violence,
Montalvo-Liendo (2008) reviewed several cross-cultural studies that were performed in
thirty-five countries and indicated that between 10% and 52% of women around the
world reported physical abuse or sexual abuse, by an intimate partner at some point in
their lives. In the United States, the Bureau of Justice Statistics report shows that in the
years 1976-2005, 23.5 % of all murder victims were women, and 64.8% out of the 23.5%
of murder victims were murdered by their intimate partners (Mapp, 2008). In Summers
and Hoffman’s (2002) review of literature on domestic violence in thirteen countries, it is
reported that in South Africa, one out of six women is battered and one out of four
16
women is assaulted by a boyfriend or husband every week. They revealed in Austria that
females represent 70% of sexual assault victims, with approximately 90% representing
women killed as a result of domestic altercations in intimate-partner relationships. The
authors cited a survey conducted by the Metropolis of Tokyo in 1997, that there are 100
to 120 murder cases annually involving the killing of the wife by the husband, and
roughly 40 (33% to 40%) of these murdered women had been abused by their husbands.
Thailand was one of the thirteen countries that Summers and Hoffman examined in their
review of the literature. They found that quantitative accounts of domestic violence do
not exist in Thai society. The researchers attributed the non-existing documentation of
domestic violence in Thai society to the silent sufferings of many abused women there.
Song (1987) wrote that battered women are silent victims who have been
continuously hidden behind boundaries such as their cultural traditions. There are many
women who have suffered in silent with violence against them that are far less
transparent to society and are beyond humanity (Abraham, 2000; Mapp, 2008; Summers,
& Hoffman, 2002). The Human Rights Watch (as cited in Summers and Hoffman, 2002)
reported that acid throwing is a common form of violence against women in Pakistan.
For example, if a man is angry with his wife, he will pour acid on her, which in many
cases, results in disfigurement and/or blindness. In this study, they affirmed that in 2002,
there were over 1,000 cases of acid throwing documented in Pakistan, and about onequarter (roughly 1 out of 4) of the women were killed.
17
Dowry is another form of violence against women, which is well practiced in
different cultures of Asia, India, and primarily in Muslim nations (Mapp, 2008). Dowry
was initially intended as an inheritance for the woman to have her own wealth that is
separated from her husband’s. Dowry was developed to show the appreciation for, and
the status of, the bride, however, the advent of British concept and culture of inheritance
shifted the traditional inheritances of women to their husbands and sons (Kishwar, 2005;
Oldenberge, 2002). Mapp (2008) stated that dowry has been illegal in India since 1961,
but the importance and amount of a bride’s dowry has been increasing in India. She
attributed that many families are now driven into debt because of dowry payments.
Prasad (1994) asserted that some husbands have often attack or burn their wives as a
means of extorting more dowries from their wives’ families. Ash (2003) cited statistics
from the Indian government reported that in 2001, nearly 7,000 women were killed by
their husband and in-laws over dowry. The director of domestic violence shelters in
Delhi believes that approximately over seventy cases in a month are related to dowry
issues. She indicated in many cases, the families attempt to disguise the deaths as
“accidental deaths from kitchen fires” (Ash, 2003). Often times, the cause of death are
defaulted onto the women by the men’s defense that dinner was late or poorly cooked
(Mapp, 2008).
Honor killing is included as a form of violence against women in some South
Asian cultures such as the Muslim culture (Mapp, 2008). She described that honor
killing is when females are killed if they are perceived to have shame or dishonored their
18
family name and in order for the family to regain back its honor is to kill the women.
Honor killing to the husband or father killing his wife or daughter who has been
presumed to have violated cultural norms such as being seen as not subservient enough,
refusing to wear varieties of Islamic clothing, having non-Muslim friends or boyfriend,
raped or leaving an abusive husband (Niaz, 2003). Similarly, Chesler (2010) examined
honor killings in South Asian cultures, indicated that allegations of resisting or
disobeying cultural and religious expectations accounted for 44% of honor murders in the
Muslim world; 71% in Europe and 91% in North America. She indicated that North
America or the United States had higher honor murders because victims were murdered
for being too Western, which includes living independently or wanting an advanced
education and a career. These violations may not even be proven, but may be only a
suspicion of the women’s family. Honor killing or related situations have been
documented in countries of Turkey, Pakistan, and Egypt as well as countries in Europe,
where people from these countries are predominately Muslim nations (Mapp, 2008).
Honor killing is used as a justification for the murder of spouses by family member in
honoring cultures and formal customs and it is a legal tradition among developing nations
(Chesler, 2010).
Internationally, fathers played an active role over one-third of the honor murders
(Niaz, 2003). Fathers were most involved in North America; 52% were least involved in
the Muslim world; and in Europe, fathers were involved in more than one-third of the
murders. He pointed out that honor killing fathers may feel that the entire burden for
19
upholding their family honor and cultural standards falls heavily upon them and them
alone. In 2007, there was a murder in Canada, involving the murder of Aqsa Parvez by
her father and brother because she was not behaving the way a good Muslim girl should
and that Mr. Parvez would be looked down by his community as not being able to control
his daughter. As noted by investigators, Mr. Parvez stated that he believed murdering his
daughter was doing the right thing from an Islamic standpoint (Spencer, 2010). Mapp
(2008) pointed out that traditional practices and social norms permeating these societies
are difficult to alter and fosters attitudes, beliefs, and abuse that perpetuate violence
against women.
Overview of Domestic Violence Policies and Services
During the Roman Era, males were granted absolute authority over members of
their households which included that the father or husband had legal rights to incorporate
capital punishment and admonish his children and wife (Pham & Teas, 1996). The
researchers noted that early settlers from Europe brought this ideology to the United
States with them and instituted it into the early American legal traditions. Due to this
ideological issue, there was a widespread acceptance of domestic violence that was
unchallenged until the second half of the 19th century when physical assaults on wives
were prohibited in most states. They added that despite the prohibition, there was
minimal effort to enforce wife assault regulations, leaving victims virtually without
recourse until the 1970s.
20
In the 1970s, organizations and movements brought the issue of domestic
violence to the forefront as a crime (Dutton, 2006; Pham & Teas, 1996). The federal
government gradually recognizes the seriousness of domestic violence initially with
Congresswomen Barbara Milkulski introducing the legislation, National Domestic
Violence Prevention and Treatment Act of 1977 (Gelles, 1997). The National Domestic
Violence Prevention and Treatment Act of 1977 established a program within the
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) to provide grants to state and local
governments and private non-profit organizations for community domestic violence
prevention demonstration programs, and for victims and services, including emergency
shelters, personnel training, and technical assistance activities (Feder, 1999; Summers &
Hoffman, 2002).
In 1994, President Clinton signed into law the Violence Against Women Act
(VAWA), which provided funds to state agencies for assistance to victims of domestic
violence (Summers & Hoffman, 2002). The budget amount of $1.5 billion was
appropriated to fight violence against women, including $3 million over a period of three
years to reestablish a national 24-hour hotline that provides counseling, problem-solving
techniques, and referrals for battered women and their families from across the country to
help victims and survivors of domestic violence (Gelles, 1997; Summers & Hoffman,
2002). The VAWA included additional services mandated by legislators such as the
following: making it a federal crime for abusers to cross state lines to commit domestic
violence; enforce protection orders across state lines and provide criminal penalties for
21
interstate stalking; provide funding to states and local communities for establishing
counseling programs and various prevention programs such as education, and training for
police and justice system workers, dealing with victims of domestic violence
(Gelles,1997). There are approximately more than half of the states in the United States
that have enacted arrest laws and mandatory arrest laws allowing police officers to make
an arrest of the batterer when there is evidence that a person has been abused or injured
(Summers & Hoffman, 2002).
The shelter movements has been the center of public education and public
awareness, which aimed to change social attitudes and advocate for needed legal and
institutional changes to prevent domestic violence (Gelles, 1997). Gelles reported there
were only two shelters established in 1964, with one of the first shelters being Haven
House in California. He indicated that in 1976, there were probably no more than five or
six shelters in the United States. A national survey of shelters was conducted in Canada
entitled the Transition Home Survey for the year of 1997-1998 reported that there were
over 6,100 women and children living in 422 shelters that offered refuge for family
violence. The survey further indicated 85% of these women were seeking shelter from an
intimate partner, of which 36% had been abused by their husbands, 32% by a commonlaw partner, 12% by a former spouse or partner, and 5% by a current or former boyfriend
(Summers & Hoffman, 2002).
In a study on domestic violence interventions, conducted in 1998 by Chalk and
King (Chalk & King, 1998, as cited in Summers & Hoffman, 2002) found that as of 1998
22
there were approximately 1,800 programs, of which 1,200 shelters and 600 intervention
programs were available for victims of domestic violence in the United States. The
researchers indicated that shelters were initially designed to provide refuge or safety for
victims of domestic violence. Today, shelters and programs has evolved to include a
broad array of related social services, hot lines, medical and legal assistance, individual
and group counseling, support groups, housing assistance, child care, job training, shortterm crisis intervention and long-term social support and services for victims of intimate
violence (Chalk & King, 1998).
According to My Sister’s House website, in January of 2001, My Sister’s House,
in Sacramento County became the first and only non-profit organization that provides
services to meet the needs of women and children for the Asian and Pacific Islander
(API) community. According to this agency, they provide 24 hour multilingual crisis
line, support groups, culturally and linguistically appropriate domestic violence
intervention services, Women to Work Program, safe haven shelter, and community
outreach and education. On March 2002, the Women to Work Program was
implemented to offer services such as providing health information, transportation, child
care, housing, and employment and career guidance. The purpose of these services was
aimed to help clients become self-sufficient and move to a state of stability. The safe
haven shelter was not established until April of 2003, which is a program that provides
clients with basic food and supplies, support, and case management. Currently, the safe
23
haven shelter established by My Sister’s House in Sacramento, California, remains the
only shelter in the Central Valley that serves API women and children (Chao, 2006).
Historical Origin and Migration of the Iu-Mienh
Historically, the Iu-Mienh people were referred to as the “Yao” for barbaric ways
and derogatory name. The term Yao is still being widely used in China, but elsewhere,
they are referred to as “Mienh” or “Iu-Mienh,” means “We are the people” (Fitzpatrick,
2009; Moore-Howard, 1989). According to Fitzpatrick (2009) and Yaangh (2008), the
Iu-Mienh traditionally referred to as “Mbong Zangc Iu-Mienh,” which means they are
"The people of the mountains”. The researchers indicated that the Iu-Mienh is one of
many contemporary Southeast Asian minority groups that constitute a large segment of
the Asian community in the United States.
The origin of the Iu-Mienh people is still a mystery due to the fact that they do not
have a written language to document their history (Yaangh, 2008). Fitzpatrick (2009)
stated that relatively little has been written about the Iu-Mienh people. Empirical
evidence about the history and customs of this ethnic group is primarily oral. For
decades, the Iu-Mienh has traditionally preserved their histories, language, and
significant events and experiences through the mechanisms of embroidery, singing,
culture, healing rituals, and storytelling (Fitzpatrick, 2009). Based on existing literatures,
the Iu-Mienh had never have a “specific national identity” as a result, they were among
the stateless without a national country of their own since existence. Therefore, the Iu-
24
Mienh were a migratory people, relocating often to find agricultural land for their slashand-burn farming (Fitzpatrick, 2009; Yaangh, 2008).
According to Yaangh (2008), it is estimated that the Iu-Mienh had originated
from somewhere in east-central China. In the 1800s, the traditional Iu-Mienh life was
interrupted by political and socioeconomic pressures from the majority Han Chinese.
While in China the Iu-Mienh people faced persecutions from the Han majority and other
warlords that forced them to migrate to the southern regions of China; moving them
further into the highlands of China. As is known the Iu-Mienh had been residing in areas
of Southern provinces such as Sichuan, Quizhou, Yunnan, and Hainan of China for
approximately 2,000 years (Yaangh, 2008).
In 1963, the Iu-Mienh and other Southeast Asian groups such as the Hmong and
Khmer were recruited by American forces and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to
fight against the Lao Communist (Chan, 1994; Moore-Howard, 1989). In the early
nineteenth century, some of the Iu-Mienh and Southeast Asians migrated into mainland
Southeast Asia and settled in the mountainous regions of northern Thailand, Vietnam,
Burma, and Laos due to the political persecution from the Vietnam War (Chan, 1994).
As political persecution progressed, a large proportion of several Southeast Asian groups
fled to refugee camps in Thailand where they endured harsh living conditions for months
and years (Chan, 1994; Fitzpatrick, 2009; Walker-Moffat, 1995; Yaangh, 2008).
It was not until late 1975s that the U.S. Congress granted evacuation of the
Southeast Asian groups from Thailand refugee camps into the United States (Chan, 1994;
25
Fitzpatrick, 2009). Since 1975, there have been nearly one million Southeast Asian
refugees admitted to the United States (Yang, 2001) and over 110,000 of those admitted
refugees were identified as either Hmong or Laotian Highlanders. According to a study
that analyzed the Iu-Mienh culture, Moore-Howard (1989) reported that in 1982,
estimates of 3,000-4,000 Iu-Mienh were placed in the United States. There were
approximately 1,500 Iu-Mienh living in various states of Portland, Organ, with smaller
groups in cities of Richmond, Oakland, San Jose, Long Beach, and Sacramento,
California. In California, there were approximately 500 families, with the majority living
in Sacramento County (Moore-Howard, 1989). A survey conducted by Judith Barker and
Kaochoy Saechao (2000) on the demographics of the Iu-Mienh in West Coast States of
the United States, concentrating in the three most settlement destinations, which include
the states of Washington, Oregon, and California. The researchers surveyed the basic
size and compositions of numerous households in Iu-Mienh communities within the three
focal states and estimated that there was approximately a population of 20,000 Iu-Mienh,
with the majority of 75% of the Iu-Mienh population living in California (Barker &
Saechao, 2000). Recent population of the Iu-Mienh comprises approximately 32,000 IuMienh refugees residing in the above three states (Fitzpartrick, 2009)
Barriers
Abused women have suffered and lived in silence for various reasons, including
their children and their safety, security, cultural ideologies, gender, and ethnic
background (Yick, 2007). In a national study on domestic violence, Tjaden and
26
Thoennes (2000) reported that Asian American women are the least likely to report any
kind of physical abuse. According to Huisman (1996), domestic violence in the Asian
communities is rarely explored due to the fact that researchers run into many difficulties
when trying to understand this issue. The difficulties include language barriers, cultural
misunderstandings, beliefs that wife battering is not a problem among Asians, and
reluctance to accept that wife battering exists in their communities and to report the abuse
(Huisman, 1996).
This section will explore the multitude of contributing factors of cultural beliefs
and traditions, acculturation, language, education, socioeconomic, and inadequate
cultural and linguistic appropriate services that constrain and contribute to the disclosure
and reporting of domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community. Although the breadth of
this section is on the Iu-Mienh, a collection of literature from multicultural, immigration,
Asian American, and domestic violence analysis and researches will be incorporated and
utilized. The intent of this literature review is not to stereotype or discriminate any group
but to draw general concepts from existing literature to develop a sophisticated
understanding of domestic violence in the context of the Iu-Mienh community.
Cultural Beliefs and Traditions
Numerous Southeast Asian refugees originating from various countries in Asia
have brought their own individualistic cultural beliefs and values. Many people within
the Southeast Asian communities, more specifically people of Chinese ancestry, such as
the Iu-Mienh believes in Confucianism (Chuong & Tran, 1999). Kim (1996) stated that
27
the cosmic order in Confucianism believes that everything in life is relational and
hierarchical. For example, heaven is view as superior and is related to earth, which is
inferior. The human relationship is also viewed through the lens of the cosmic order.
Individuals with hierarchical positions of the ruler, parent, husbands, and elder siblings
hold a superior position while, children, wives, and younger siblings exist in inferior
positions. The tradition of Confucianism practice patrilineal worship, in which males are
always superior to females base on the belief that males are able to reproduce their
father’s lineage (Rydstrom, 2003). Rydstrom also contested that another reason why
males are superior is that males are heads of the household, who are responsible for
carrying out patrilineal rituals, and controlling the family economically and religiously.
In contrast, females are responsible for running the household, such as cooking, cleaning,
and childbearing, which indicates that males hold a more dominant and powerful role
(Rdystrom, 2003).
Females learn from an early age about their roles and status through the teachings
of Confucius (Shon & Ja, 1982). Confucian’s philosophy teaches about the woman’s life
cycle in three phases. In the first phase, during her youth she must obey and be loyal to
her father; in the second phase of adulthood, she must obey and be loyal to her husband;
and in later years of the final phase, she must obey and be loyal to her oldest son (Brown
& Shalett, 1997; Chin, 1994; Pham & Teas, 1996; Shon & Ja, 1982). When the woman
does not live up to this philosophical ideology then the male is allowed to discipline her
by violent means (Chuong & Tran, 1999). Western studies have found similar findings
28
that male domination plays a dominant role in affecting the problem of domestic violence
(Pham & Teas, 1996).
In a patriarchal society, traditional males want their wives to remain dependent
but when they realize that their wives’ traditional gender roles have changed, they feel
that their dominant male role is threatened (Yaangh, 2008). Southeast Asian men may
fear feeling powerless and losing control over their spouses and feel the need to exert
more power and control which frequently result in domestic violence (Ly Daffon, 2001).
Iu-Mienh women who are in abusive relationships endure oppression as a result of a
patriarchal system that is interwoven in their community (Chao, 2006). A study
conducted by Ho (1990) on power differential among Southeast Asians reports finding on
the following ethnic groups: Laotians, Khmer, Vietnamese, and Chinese women. The
research revealed that the power differential between the sexes is prevalent in all of four
Asian communities. Through cultural values and religious customs, women are taught to
accept their roles. Nankani (2000) pointed out that domestic violence is not primarily
focus on verbal, physical, or psychological abuse but on the abuse of power. Men used
their powers to take control of these women and the patriarchal society contributes and
aids the perpetrators to continue the abuse. The research pointed out that the power
differential can increase the likelihood of domestic violence (Pham & Teas, 1996).
Ahmad, Riaz, Barata, and Stewart (2004) stated that although the role of
patriarchy in domestic violence is becoming increasingly clear in recent research across
cultures and countries, there remains limited research about how women’s acceptance of
29
patriarchal norms influence their perceptions of abuse. They conducted a study to
investigate the relationship between South Asian immigrant women’s perceptions of
spousal abuse and acceptance of patriarchal norms. They found that women who agreed
with patriarchal social norms were less likely to see spousal abuse as abuse. In addition,
the use of social services was low and almost half of the participants did not know that
concerns about marital relationships could be discussed with health care providers.
Ahmad, Riaz, Barata, and Stewart identified several practical implications as women who
accept patriarchal norms may delay active coping or help seeking and may be at greater
risk for the abuse to continue. They cited a research by Haj-Yahia, that woman who
holds strong patriarchal beliefs are more likely to believe that wife abuse should be dealt
with in the family and are less likely to support provision of assistance to battered
women.
Confucian philosophy also emphasizes and values family over independence
(Kim, 1996). This refers to the attachment and identification to the nuclear and extended
family which are characterized by strong feelings of solidarity, loyalty, and reciprocity
(Triandis, Marin, Betancourt, Lisansky, & Chang, 1982). The individual represents the
family, thus, the needs of the family are given priority over individual fulfillment (Ho,
1990). Based on Confucius values on community and family, each member of the family
is expected to maintain harmony by adhering to specified hierarchical roles and
complying with social and familial authority (Sue & Sue, 1993). Ho stated that in order
to achieve harmony, each member sacrifices his or her own ambitions and desires. The
30
family functions as a whole or collectively to maintain a sense of belonging and
obligations from the family network (Shon & Ja, 1982). Members within the family are
concerned about how other family members view their actions (Brown & Shalett, 1997).
A study conducted by Das Dasgupta and Warrier (1996) on twelve South Asian battered
women, found that adhering to traditional gender roles was revealed as a barrier to help.
The researchers discovered that women’s belief in the importance of being a good wife
means willingness to sacrifice personal autonomy, and freedom to adhere to these beliefs,
which shaped their willingness to seek assistance.
Each individual within the family is responsible for bringing honor to the family
and avoid shaming the family name (Brown & Shalett, 1997). Therefore, each family
member is expected to behave appropriately because of the fear of “losing face” (Ly
Daffon, 2001). Ho (1990) described this concept as the entire family losing status and
respect in the community. Ho mentioned a severe burden will be place on the individual
to achieve harmony while trying to minimize any problems or conflicts that could bring
shame to the family. Nankani (2000) contested the viewed of domestic violence is seen
as a private nature that should be resolved in the home and not broadcasted in the
community. Marital problems were often resolved within the family and the community
through advisement and consulship from family members or the community (Lovell,
Tran, & Nguyen, 1987). Mahapatra (2008) reported a study based on in-depth interviews
conducted with eighteen South Asian women in the United Kingdom, found that shame
was a central factor for women, regardless of whether they stayed or left the abusive
31
relationship. Another study revealed Southeast Asian women responded that they did not
leave their marriages because they did not want to damage the image of their community
and jeopardize their families’ honor (Das Dasgupta & Warrier, 1996). Many literatures
discover that Southeast Asians, who reported that they are in battered relationship, do not
want to lose support from their own communities (Grossman & Lundy, 2007). Ly
Daffon (2001) asserted that this cultural familial view contributes to the underreporting of
domestic violence among the Southeast Asians due to the pressure to prevent “loss of
face”. The emphasis and repetition of the importance of keeping family honor has caused
many Southeast Asian women to suppress their psychological and emotional disturbances
and hardships (Nankani, 2000).
It is unacceptable for the abused women in the Iu-Mienh culture to disclose her
experienced to the general community (Nankani, 2000). Chao (2006) found that IuMienh women who are victims of domestic violence will seek help from relatives but if
those individuals are unsupportive then they turn to their close friends for support. If they
seek help, they risk getting beaten severely for involving others in the family matters.
The participants whom participated in Chao’s study reported that extended family
members would not interfere on behalf of the victim in a domestic violence situation.
The extended family members would lecture the abuser and advise the victim to not
involve the law enforcement, while encouraging them to remain in the relationship.
Eight out of the nine respondents said Iu-Mienh women in abusive relationships decide to
seek help when the abuse becomes too severe, life threatening, or the endangerment of
32
their children. Chao (2006) points out that in the Iu-Mienh community domestic violence
appears to be accepted by a significant number of their communities. If the wife leaves
the abusive relationship, she is often ostracized by her in-laws, community, and family of
origins. The reason is because divorce is not a common practice among the Southeast
Asian groups (Mahapatra, 2008). Southeast Asian culture valued the virtues of
perseverance and suffering (Ho, 1990). Women are discouraged from discussing family
problems when they occur and are given recognition for enduring the hardship
(Yoshioka, Gilbert, El-Bassel, & Baig-Amin, 2003).
Acculturation
Historically, refugees particularly the Iu-Mienh immigrated to the United States
by force of political persecution and the ravages of war (Chao, 2006; Fitzpatrick, 2009).
A refugee is identified as a person who fled his or her country due to fear of persecution
based on race, nationality, religion, political opinion, or membership in a particular social
group (Vang, 2006). Fitzpatrick mentioned that the Iu-Mienh had to face many
challenges in the new host country, in particular, adapting to the American society with
beliefs and values drastically different from their own. Arriving to the United States,
many Iu-Mienh refugees were exposed to an entirely different world with modern
household conveniences such as toilets, television, refrigerators, and electric stoves
(Yaangh, 2008). Attempting to adapt to the new environment was not only a struggle for
many Iu-Mienh refugees but also the cultural changes, which included an impacting
cultural change in the living arrangements (Moore-Howard, 1989). Moore-Howard
33
reported in Laos, the Iu-Mienh lived in rural small village comprised of their clan and
family. When the Iu-Mienh settled in the United States, many lived in urban areas
(Yang, 2001; Yanngh, 2001). Iu-Mienh refugees were confronted with separation from
extended families because they were unable to maintain small village like living styles,
due to housing safety and regulations in the United States (Chan, 1994). Housing barriers
caused many to be isolated with limited family relationships and community support
(Yang, 2001). Yick (2008) asserted that refugee families in cultural transition are
frequently unable to adapt to the necessary environmental changes when the stressors are
extreme and when there is a lack of support systems. Nankani (2008) affirmed that the
Iu-Mienh refugees experienced a cultural shock in the United States.
Mahapatra (2008) indicated that the process of acculturation results in some
women adopting more independent ideologies and thus, males exert more effort to
control and perpetuate violence. Acculturation is defined as a process which cultural
change and adaptation occurs when two different cultures come in contact with one
another (Vang, 2006). Vang contended that the acculturation process depends on the
individuals’ or groups’ capacity to acculturate, and their opportunity to integrate into the
host country. Some men from these communities may engage in physical abuse as a
coping mechanism to environmental stress and changes (Chao, 2006). Mahapatra
declared that acculturative stress can increase the chances of domestic violence. A
research conducted by Christine Ho (1990) investigated attitudes towards domestic
violence among Southeast Asian refugees that includes Laotians, Khmer (Cambodians),
34
Vietnamese, and Chinese. Ho found the status of immigration, generation from
immigration, and years of residence in the United States affected Asian American’s
ability to assimilate and acculturate, as well as their ability to utilize community
resources. She further noted that a voluntary immigrant is more prepared for
immigration, has more economic and social resources, which places them to become
more assimilated to the Western culture and to utilize community resources. Nankani
(2000) inserted that a woman subjected to family violence feels lost because she does not
have an adequate support system and finds it difficult to build new relationships in a new
environment. In addition, women are often trapped and isolated in their homes due to not
knowing who to turn to and where to get help.
Language
Merlynn Fitzpatrick (2009) asserted that there has been limited written form of
communication within the Iu-Mienh culture, sacred books written in the ritual language,
and the different forms of Mienh language. She pointed out three forms of the Mienh
language. The first form of the Mienh language is the traditional Mienh language called
“mienh waac” which is used for everyday communication. The second form is borrowed
from the Chinese and is a song and literary language, “nzung waac” used in chants and
songs. The last form of the Mienh language is also borrowed from the Chinese and is a
spirit or ritual language, “zieh waac” used by the Iu-Mienh shaman during spirit worship
and traditional rituals. Since 1984, a unified roman orthography has been accepted and
used worldwide but due to the lack of organized implementation, majority of the Iu-
35
Mienh people still cannot read and write in Mienh (Yaangh, 2008). Fitzpatrick identified
that many Southeast Asian refugee adults have had difficulty adapting to life in America
due to illiteracy in their own language. She also mentioned that not only are the IuMienh people not literate in their own language but also the English language. She
described many Iu-Mienh refugees struggling to learn English in the traditional English
second language (ESL) classes in the United States because many were learning how to
use pens and pencils for the first time.
In a study conducted by Fam Chao in 2006 on culturally and linguistically
appropriate services for Iu-Mienh women victims of domestic violence, the participants
identified language and adaptation to mainstream culture as the most challenging barriers
for Iu-Mienh refugees in the U.S. A study by Murdaugh et al. (as cited in MontalvoLiendo, 2008), reported the results from the participants describing their inability to
speak English as one of the factors interfering with disclosure of domestic abuse.
Mahapatra (2008) noted that language barriers create difficulty for Southeast Asian
women to communicate their experiences of domestic abuse because some women would
seek help from members in their community as interpreters. She stated that in this
situation, information collected from the interpreters could be distorted due to the
interpreters’ unwillingness to deal with the abused women along with their attitudes and
personal biases against domestic violence. In other cases, information may also be
distorted due to lack of understanding or interpreting skills of a particular dialect the
woman speaks. Mahapatra also pointed out that these women may have feelings of
36
shame that prevents them from seeking help from people in their community. The
inability to communicate well or at all in English may cause frustration and anxiety for
many Southeast Asian women who are victims of domestic violence (Ly Daffon, 2001).
Due to the wide diversity of Asian languages, culturally specific domestic violence
organizations face the enormous task of providing a variety of multilingual staff and
interpreters (Kim-Marchant, 2000). Language plays an important role in communicating
essential needs because language barriers have primarily prevented women from seeking
intervention and receiving services (Yang, 2001).
Education Attainment
Many Iu-Mienh refugees came to the United States with minimal to no formal
education (Fitzpatrick, 2009). In their former country of Thailand, there is usually an
elementary school in the village but in order to attend junior high and high school they
have to travel hours to the nearby town or city (Yaangh, 2008). Yaangh mentioned that
most Iu-Mienh students attend elementary school to learn the basics of reading and
writing in the Thai language and after elementary school, the numbers of students
furthering their education gets slimmer and slimmer. There are many attributing factors
but one of the reasons presented by Yaangh is that Iu-Mienh people resides in villages
located in high mountainous regions that are difficult to reach and thus makes it hard to
establish schools. Fitzpatrick presented another factor which is the needs of the parents
to keep their children at home so they can help contribute to working in the farm, which
economic survival was depended upon on. On the other hand, in America, Fitzpatrick
37
contested economic survival was dependent upon their children to attend school and get
an education.
While in Southeast Asia, only a few Iu-Mienh refugees were educated and
literate, of these few, all were men (Yaangh, 2001). Many Iu-Mienh men were educated
for the purpose of reading religious shaman scriptures for religious practices (WalkerMoffat, 1995). Many Iu-Mienh individuals lack a basic understanding of the laws and
regulations of domestic violence. Some Iu-Mienh individuals have used their inadequate
knowledge of the law as an excuse to accept domestic abuse and practices while others
reference it for not knowing how to seek domestic violence assistance (Chao, 2006).
Mahapatra (2008) pointed out the vital role education can play in influencing Southeast
Asian help-seeking behaviors. She also mentioned that a woman’s education can
increase her decision making abilities to seek help outside the family, expanded a
woman’s awareness of her available options, speak out, and articulate her condition to
systems such as social workers, law enforcements, lawyers, and other agencies.
Socioeconomic Status
Many Iu-Mienh refugees lost possessions, land, and financial comfort
accumulated over generations in their native countries by coming to a county in exile
(Fitzpatrick, 2009). Fitzpatrick explained that many were unable to seek and obtain jobs
because the lack of transferable job skills, minimal formal education, very few
marketable skills, minimal English proficiency, and limited knowledge of the way of an
industrialized country. The skills that the Iu-Mienh people had were manual labor skills
38
such as slash-and-burn farming, fishing, hunting, and gardening (Yaangh, 2008). The
lack of marketable skills and only entry level manual labor jobs contributed to the IuMienh families to depend on federal refugee assistance or welfare as a means of financial
support (Chan, 1994; Chao, 2006).
Once arrived in the United States, the government assistances allowed the
families to adjust to the new environment, acquired employment skills, and learned
English (Yaangh, 2008). Although employment can be obtain such as janitorial and
assembly jobs, these jobs did not provide sufficient income to support their families. The
cause of domestic violence may be due to the attribution of stresses caused by poverty.
In their previous country, the Iu-Mienh men prided themselves on their abilities to
provide for their families. On the contrary, in the United States many Iu-Mienh men
become depressed and stress-out because they could not adequately provide for their
families (Yaangh, 2008).
Southeast Asian women may feel that because they are financially bounded to the
perpetrator, their only option is to stay in the battering relationship (Lee, 2000).
Southeast Asian women fear that if they seek outside help, they will lose everything and
possible alienation from the community (Mahapatra, 2008). Many abused women remain
in the batter relationship in order to feed their children and provide a shelter for their
children and themselves (Browne, 1987). Mahapatra mentioned that Southeast Asian
women may lack alternative support systems and their abusive husbands may be the only
means of support. On the other hand, Mahapatra added that a woman’s economic
39
independence can assist her in making the decision to leave or escape domestic violence.
Research has found that socioeconomic status and access to financial resources does not
guarantee escapement from domestic violence (Hattery, 2009). Many affluent battered
women in affluent households from sports, business, entertainment, and politics often
have the resources to leave but frequently do not because they may have many things to
jeopardize if they do leave. Regardless of socioeconomic status, Hattery provided a
common rationale that prevents many abused women from reporting their abuse is that
they love their partners and they believe that their partners will change.
Inadequate Culturally Sensitive Services
Mahapatra (2008) discovered in the literatures that in extreme situations, when
children are at risk and resources has exhausted, this may lead many Southeast Asian
women to seek outside or formal help. Battered Southeast Asian women who contact
police departments, shelters, or courts are frequently turned away or misunderstood due
to lack of Asian staff or lack of proper interpretation services (Pham &Teas, 1996).
Formal intervention such as women’s support groups, law enforcement, and court system
may not be viewed as appropriate for Southeast Asian Americans because of specific
cultural needs and ideologies (Yang, 2001). Thus, women are often unable to find
adequate help when they seek it (Mahapatra, 2008).
Research revealed that Chinese battered women’s reasons for the low utilization
of shelter services are: cultural dissimilarities, stigma of women’s shelters, language
barriers, food choices, and fear of fights among children (Lee, 2000). Lee cited results
40
from the Toronto Study and found that six out of fifty abused women who received
counseling services used shelter services, and only two women adapted to shelter living
without difficulty. In addition, a study conducted by Chao (2006) on culturally and
linguistically appropriate services for Iu-Mienh women victims of domestic violence,
revealed many abused Iu-Mienh women do not know how to access domestic violence
services nor do they know where to go to access culturally appropriate services for
domestic violence. Yang (2001) affirmed that therefore, many abused Iu-Mienh women
can only seek informal interventions in the form of support from families and friends,
which appears to be the only available outlet for many Iu-Mienh women.
Chao’s (2006) study also examined the participants’ recommendations and
suggestions for how domestic violence service agencies can best assist Iu-Mienh women
in abusive relationships. She found that the participants feel that domestic violence
service providers can better serve Iu-Mienh women by providing Mienh counselor or
someone who speaks Mienh so that effective communicate can occurred. The
participants revealed that they would seek service providers who have an understanding
of how the Mienh community viewed domestic violence and provided services such as
safety assurance where there is legal assistance with obtaining restraining order. Lastly,
the participants identified that financial and social support offered by service providers
can also assist a battered Iu-Mienh woman.
41
Summary
This chapter reviewed available literatures on the issue of domestic violence in
the areas of perceptions on domestic violence across diverse cultures, evolving domestic
violence policies and services at multi-levels, and domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh
community. The review of the literatures echoed the notion that there are sparse
empirical research conducted on domestic violence among the Iu-Mienh and Southeast
Asians population due to the private nature of domestic violence (Dutton, 2006).
Researchers of cross-cultural studies on domestic violence indicated many abuse women
continue to suffer and live in silence behind closed boundaries of their culture and
traditions (Ho, 1990; Nankani, 2000; Song, 1987). These researchers noted that domestic
violence remains hidden among some individuals and families in the United States such
as Asians and Southeast Asians.
Over the course of the years, laws have been enacted to contribute funding for the
development of domestic violence programs and services throughout the United States
(Summers & Hoffman, 2002). For instance, in the 1970s, organizations and movements
brought the issue of domestic violence to public awareness (Dutton, 2006; Pham & Teas,
1996). Summers and Hoffman noted that many policies and services have been
implemented to provide support and services to victims of domestic violence which
includes program funds, public education, research, service hotlines, and shelters. Chao
(2006) explained that even with the enactment of new laws and developments of services,
in cities like Sacramento, there are very limited number of service available that serves
42
the Southeast Asian communities. Chao declared that My Sister’s House is the first and
only service provider that serves the Asian Pacific Islander women.
Domestic violence in the Asian communities is rarely explored due to the
difficulties and challenges that researchers encounter while trying to understand this issue
(Huisman, 1996). He identified some difficulties which included language barriers,
cultural misunderstandings, beliefs that wife battering is not a problem among Asians,
and reluctance to accept that wife battering exists in their communities and to report the
abuse. Huisman’s assertion is supported by other researchers’ findings, for example,
Pham and Teas (1996) found that a culture that practice patriarchal, aid in the
perpetuation of domestic violence due to the power differential between a man and a
women. Other literature reviews indicated that cultural beliefs and traditions are major
barriers that potentially hinder Iu-Mienh women from reporting and seeking domestic
violence services. Ly Daffon (2001) discovered low reporting and use of domestic
violence services was attributed to the pressure to prevent loss of face. Chao (2006)
affirmed that language and education are additional barriers that influence the underreporting and use domestic violence services. Chao identified that language is a barrier
because victims cannot adequately communicate with mainstream service providers to
voice their problem and also, education was found to be barrier due to the inadequate
knowledge of laws and available services.
The author’s aspiration is to provide literature review, in conjunction with
conducting a study, and to provide data collection to support service providers in gaining
43
an adequate understanding of how they can begin to address domestic violence within the
Iu-Mienh community. The literature review is the first step in developing a framework
for social workers and service providers to aid in initiating a dialog that addresses and
develops services to meet the needs of the Iu-Mienh community. Summers and Hoffman
(2002) asserted that it is essential to reach women who endure abusive relationships and
are reticent to seek support. They suggested that governments need to be active in
promoting public service programs to provide general education about domestic violence
and increase awareness of the problems and potential solutions.
44
Chapter 3
METHODS
Introduction
To reiterate, the aim of this research study is to investigate perceptions of IuMienh women on factors that hindered Iu-Mienh women from reporting and seeking
domestic violence services, along with their suggestions to improve domestic violence
services in the greater Sacramento region. The researchers hope to contribute to the
sparse literature and research available for the Iu-Mienh community in order to bring
forth attention surrounding the problem of domestic violence within this community.
The researchers also hope to gather information on domestic violence in this particular
cultural group to expand and inspire innovating programs and services that are culturally
and linguistically appropriate for the Iu-Mienh. The goal of the researchers is to gather
rich data collection for domestic violence servicers, policy makers, and paraprofessionals
who can be influenced to develop new services or modify existing domestic violence
services to meet the needs of this community. This chapter describes the research
methods used for this study, design of the research study, procedures of sampling, data
collecting for the research study, and the manner and protocols in which the ethical
concerns of the protection of the human subjects are addressed.
Study Design
This research study utilized an exploratory research design due to the sparse
information, literature, and research available on domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh
45
community. According to Marlow (as cited in Downing & Ith, 2009), exploratory
research generates initial insights into the fundamental nature of an issue that is relatively
new or understudied and provides additional knowledge about the issue for a deeper
understanding. A quantitative approach was utilized for the development of a
questionnaire to examine multiple variables that potentially represent Iu-Mienh women’s
perceptions on domestic violence. Due to the nature of the research study, the
questionnaire was not pre-tested for reliability coefficient. The questionnaire was
constructed to include scaling and closed-ended questions for the data collection method.
The questionnaire is composed with a total of 28 questions that are arranged logically and
are categorized into two parts, which included the demographic information and
questions regarding one’s perception of domestic violence. The first part of the
questionnaire includes close-ended questions about the participants’ demographic
background such as age, gender, birth place, residency status, religion, language, marital
status, education level, and employment. The second part of the questionnaire included
operational definitions and knowledge of domestic violence along with questions
regarding the participants’ perceptions of domestic violence in the context of cultural
beliefs, barriers, and services. For example, some questions asked the participants to
identify barriers of low-reporting and low-usage of domestic violence services, their
views on gender roles, and domestic violence services. The questions do not elicit
participants to disclose any personal experiences that pertain to domestic violence.
46
Sampling Procedures
The researchers began recruiting participants by randomly seeking prospective
participants in the researchers’ community, throughout the greater Sacramento region.
The recruitment proceeded with the use of snowball sampling to obtain additional
prospective participants for information and referrals provided by the participants who
have already been recruited to participate in the research study. According to Rubin and
Babbie (2011), snowball sampling is described as the process of accumulation as each
located participant suggests other participants. The researchers stated that snowball
sampling is commonly used in quantitative research. Rubin and Babbie emphasized that
it is often necessary to utilize this technique in researches on minority and oppressed
populations regarding sensitive issues and cultural concerns.
Participation in this research study was voluntary. This research study focused on
the recruitment of adult Iu-Mienh women with characteristics of currently not being
treated for domestic violence, never been victim of domestic violence or receiving mental
health services are eligible as participants. A total of fifty (50) Iu-Mienh adult women
between the ages of 21-50 years old were recruited for their participation in this research
study. All fifty participants were subjectively identified with the knowledge and skills to
speak, write, read, or understand English and no translation was necessary. No
inducement was provided to the participants.
47
Data Collection Procedures
The researchers of this study administered the questionnaire separately and each
researcher surveyed twenty-five (25) participants within the researchers’ community.
Prior to agreeing or consenting to participate in the research study, the researchers
explained to prospective participants about the research study, including the researchers’
purpose of conducting the study. After verbally expressing interest in participating in the
research study, each participant were asked to schedule an appointment at a convenient
and publicly safe place, such as Sacramento State University, local libraries, coffee shops
for the participants’ safety and confidentiality. Before administering the questionnaire,
the researchers present the consent form both verbally and written to all the prospective
participants in the language they preferred, Mienh or English.
The researchers went over the key aspects of the research study and the consent
form which covered the description and purpose of the research study, liability, duration,
risks, benefits, rights to confidentiality, voluntary participation, and a description of the
right to withdraw without consequences. The researchers also went over and provided the
participants with a copy of community resources, enlisted with available service
providers’ contact information including My Sister’s House, Asian Pacific Community
Counseling (APCC), Women Escaping A Violence Environment (WEAVE), United IuMien Community, Inc., and the Lao Family Community Development, Inc. for assistance
and services if participants experience any emotional discomfort as a result of
participating in the research study. The researchers also asked participants if any
48
clarifications or questions were needed and obtained the necessary consent through the
participants’ signatures to proceed with the procedures of administering the
questionnaire. The researchers gathered the completed questionnaires from participants
and compiled for the researchers to analyze the data together.
Protection of Human Subjects Procedure
In early October, 2010, the researchers drafted and submitted the Internal Review
Board (IRB) application along with the consent form and questionnaire to the thesis
advisor. In mid-October, 2010, the IRB application was approved by the authors’ thesis
advisor. Three copies of the application for Protection of Human Subjects was submitted
to Sacramento State committee and approved by the Division of Social Work as minimal
risk on November 16, 2010. The human subjects’ approval number is 10-11-46.
Participation in this research study was voluntary as the researchers have
informed the participants of the right to withdraw or decline to answer any of the
questions at any time without consequences. The researchers consider this study to have
minimal risk due to the sensitive topic and content of information on domestic violence.
The questionnaire has a potential for participants to feel guilty or embarrass from
answering the questions on their perceptions and general knowledge of domestic
violence. Prospective participants may have cultural beliefs that value interdependency
rather than independency which means the image of the family and/or community comes
before the individual. Domestic violence can be an issue that is viewed as a private issue
that should not be announced to the public because it may bring shame to the family.
49
Prospective participants may feel guilty for answering questions on domestic violence
and may be afraid that it might bring shame and embarrassment to their family and/or
community. The discomfort level anticipated for the participants are no greater than what
might be encountered during psychological examinations or encountered in daily life.
For the privacy and protection of the participants, identifiable information such as
identification card, social security number, street address, and phone numbers were not
collected. Only variables that pertain to the research objectives are collected, such as
demographic information of age, education level, language, residency status, and
employment status. Information on generalized knowledge and perceptions of domestic
violence with the content of cultural beliefs, barriers, and services are also collected. The
information collected are stored in a protected place, only accessible to the researchers.
Once the information is entered in to the computer program PASW, the original survey
packets are shredded or destroyed. Participants are informed that the final product only
included aggregate information shared by all of the participants. In case specific
information are quoted, the researchers will make sure that participants who provided the
information cannot be identified by any shape or form.
50
Chapter 4
FINDINGS
Introduction
The current study aims to investigate the perceptions on factors that hindered IuMienh women from reporting and seeking domestic violence services and ways to
improve domestic violence services in the greater Sacramento region. This chapter
includes data on the demographic and acculturation characteristics of the participants,
general perceptions on domestic violence, and suggestions and additional information to
improve domestic violence services.
Demographic Characteristics
The sample comprised of 50 (n=50) Iu-Mienh women currently living in the
greater Sacramento area of California. The ages of the participants ranged from 21-54
years of age. Among the participants, 80% (n=40) were 34 years old and younger and
20% (n=10) of the participants were older than 35 years (See Table 1).
Table 1
Participants' Age
Participants’ Age Frequency
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid Percent
21-27
28-34
35-41
42-48
23
17
6
2
46.0
34.0
12.0
4.0
46.0
34.0
12.0
4.0
46.0
80.0
92.0
96.0
49+
Total
2
50
4.0
100.0
4.0
100.0
100.0
W
51
hen examining the demographic characteristics of the participants’ country of birth, 56%
(n=28) indicated that they were born in Thailand, 24% (n=12) in the United States, 20%
(n=10) in Laos. After splitting the files, participants who were born in the United States
were the youngest (n=12) from the age range of 21-27. Those that were born in Laos
were the oldest (n=10), the age range of 28-54, and those born in Thailand comprised a
variation of all the ages in the ranges (n=28) (See table 2).
Table 2
Iu-Mienh Women's Country of Birth
Country of Birth
Valid Thailand
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
28
56.0
56.0
56.0
Laos
United States
10
12
20.0
24.0
20.0
24.0
Total
50
100.0
100.0
76.0
100.0
Table 3 displays the participants’ religious belief. Information obtained indicates
that 42% (n=21) identified their religion as Christian, 32% (n=16) as Buddhist, 8% (n=4)
as one of the two religions of Taoist and Shamanist, 2% (n=1) as Confucius, and the
remaining 8% (n=4) indicated that they did not identify with a religious group. After
splitting the files, majority of the participants who indicated Buddhism, 39% were born in
Thailand. Furthermore, majority of the participants who indicated Christian, 70% were
born in Laos, and 42% of the participants were born in the United States.
52
Table 3
The Participants' Religious Belief
Religious Belief
Valid Confucianism
Buddhism
Christian
N/A
Taoism
Shamanism
Total
Frequency
Percent
1
2.0
16
32.0
21
42.0
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
2.0
32.0
42.0
2.0
34.0
76.0
4
8.0
8.0
84.0
4
4
50
8.0
8.0
100.0
8.0
8.0
100.0
92.0
100.0
In regards to the participants’ marital status, most of the participants 44% (n=22)
indicated their marital status as single. Followed by 42% (n=21) of the participants
indicated their marital status as married. The remaining participants 6% (n=3) reported
divorced, 4% (n=2) has a boyfriend and 2% (n=1) separated (See Table 4). Examining
the highest level of schooling the participants obtained included, 46% (n=23) of the
participants reported high school graduate, 30% (n=15) reported college graduate, and
8% (n=4) of the participants indicated their highest level of schooling is some college
(See Table 5).
53
Table 4
Participants' Marital Status
Marital Status
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Single
22
44.0
44.9
44.9
Married
21
42.0
42.9
87.8
Divorced
3
6.0
6.1
93.9
Separated
1
2.0
2.0
95.9
Boyfriend
2
4.0
4.1
100.0
Total
49
98.0
100.0
Missing System
1
2.0
Total
50 100.0
Table 5
Participants' Educational Level
Educational Level
Valid
No formal education
Elementary school
High school graduate
College graduate
Some college
Some high school
Vocational school
Post-graduate
In college
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
Cumulative
Valid Percent Percent
1
2
23
15
4
1
1
1
1
2.0
4.0
46.0
30.0
8.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.1
46.9
30.6
8.2
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
49
1
50
98.0
2.0
100.0
100.0
2.0
6.1
53.1
83.7
91.8
93.9
95.9
98.0
100.0
54
Acculturation Variables
The degree and level of acculturation were assessed in the questionnaire.
Participants were asked a series of questions pertaining to language and language
utilization. Participants were asked about their primary language, majority of the
participants, 42% (n=21) indicated that Mienhglish (the usage of both the Mienh and
English language) is their primary language, while 38% (n=19) identified that Mienh is
their primary language and 18% (n=9) reported that English is their primary language
(See Table 6).
Table 6
Participants' Primary Language
Primary Language
Frequency Percent
Valid
English
9
18.0
Mienh
19
38.0
English and Mienh
21
42.0
Total
49
98.0
Missing System
1
2.0
Total
50
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
18.4
18.4
38.8
57.1
42.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
When participants were inquired about the ability and degree to speak another
language besides English, 16% of the participants reported they speak very well, 36%
reported that they speak well in their native language, whereas 34% reported that they are
able to speak somewhat well in their native language, and 14% reported that they do not
speak their native language well at all (See Table 7).
55
Table 7
Language
How Well I Speak in my
Valid
Cumulative
Native Language
Frequency Percent Percent
Percent
Valid Not well at all
7
14.0
14.0
14.0
Somewhat well
17
34.0
34.0
48.0
Well
18
36.0
36.0
84.0
Very well
Total
8
16.0
16.0
50
100.0
100.0
100.0
In addition to asking participants to rate how well they speak in their native
language, participants also rate how well they read in their native language if they read in
another language, besides English. More than half of the participants (64%) reported that
they did not know how to read well at all in their native language. Some of the
participants (16%) reported that they are able to read somewhat well, while other
participants (14%) reported that they read well in their native language. Only a few of
the participants (2%) indicated that they read very well in their native language (See
Table 8).
56
Table 8
Reading Proficiency
How Well I Read in my
Native Language
Valid
0
Not well at all
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
1
2.0
2.1
2.1
31
62.0
64.6
66.7
Somewhat well
Well
Very well
Total
Missing System
8
7
1
48
2
16.0
14.0
2.0
96.0
4.0
16.7
14.6
2.1
100.0
83.3
97.9
100.0
Total
50
100.0
Participants were also inquired about how well they can write in their native
language, if they wrote in another language besides English. A large majority of the
participants, 68% reported that they cannot write well at all in their native language,
19.1% indicated that they can write somewhat well, and 6.4% reported that they write
well in their native language (See Table 9).
57
Table 9
Writing Proficiency
How Well I Write in my
Native Language
Valid
0
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
1
2.0
2.1
2.1
Not well at all
Somewhat well
Well
Total
Missing System
Total
34
9
68.0
18.0
72.3
19.1
74.5
93.6
3
47
3
50
6.0
94.0
6.0
100.0
6.4
100.0
100.0
Table 10 displays the participants’ employment status. Information obtained
indicates that the majority of the participants, 85.7% indicated that they are currently
employed and 12.2% indicated that they are currently not employed.
Table 10
Participants' Employment Status
Employment Status
Valid
Yes
No
Decline to state
Total
Missing System
Total
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
42
84.0
85.7
85.7
6
1
49
1
50
12.0
2.0
98.0
2.0
100.0
12.2
2.0
100.0
98.0
100.0
58
Belief System
After the assessments of the participants’ demographic information, the following
topics were assessed: participants’ beliefs regarding who the primary support is for
victims of domestic violence, rating statements based on their cultural beliefs and values,
and what the barriers are for the non-reporting and under-utilization of domestic violence
services.
Participants were asked to identify whether the following people: immediate
family, extended family/relatives, friends, community, elders, and law enforcement were
primary supporters for victims of domestic violence. Among the participants, 60%
indicated that the primary supporter for victims of domestic violence were immediate
family, followed by friends (32%), extended relatives (16%), and the elders were the least
supporters (4%) of victims of domestic violence (See Table 11, 12,13,14,15, & 16).
Table 11
Immediate Family
Immediate Family
Valid
0
Immediate
family
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
1
2.0
30
60.0
31
19
50
62.0
38.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
3.2
3.2
96.8
100.0
100.0
59
Table 12
Extended Family
Extended Family/Relatives
Valid
Extended
family/relatives
Missing System
Total
Valid
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent
Percent
8
16.0
100.0
100.0
42
50
84.0
100.0
Table 13
Friends
Friends
Frequency
Valid
Friends
16
Missing System
34
Total
50
Valid
Cumulative
Percent Percent
Percent
32.0
100.0
100.0
68.0
100.0
Table 14
Community
Cumulative
Community
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Valid
Community
10
20.0
100.0
100.0
Missing System
40
80.0
Total
50
100.0
60
Table 15
Elders
Elders
Frequency
Valid
Elders
2
Missing System
48
Total
50
Valid
Cumulative
Percent Percent
Percent
4.0
100.0
100.0
96.0
100.0
Table 16
Law Enforcement
Cumulative
Law enforcement
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Valid
Law enforcement
5
10.0
100.0
100.0
Missing System
45
90.0
Total
50
100.0
Participants were asked to rate a series of statements based on their cultural
beliefs and values. The first statement presented was that men have a higher status than
women. The majority of the participants, 40% reported that they strongly agree and 18%
reported that they strongly disagree with the latter statement (See Table 17).
61
Table 17
Men Have a Higher Status Than Women
Men Have a Higher Status
Than Women
Valid Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent
9
18.0
18.0
6
12.0
12.0
8
16.0
16.0
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Cumulative
Percent
18.0
30.0
46.0
7
14.0
14.0
60.0
20
50
40.0
100.0
40.0
100.0
100.0
Table 18 displays participants’ response to the statement that a woman must obey
her husband, father, and elders. The data obtained indicates that the majority of
participants, 32.7% of the participants indicated that they strongly agree with this
statement. While 26.5% of the participants reported that they strongly disagree.
Table 18
Women Must Obey Her Husband, Family and Elders
A Woman Must Obey her
Husband, Father, and Elders
Valid
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
Cumulative
Valid Percent Percent
13
26.0
26.5
26.5
6
7
12.0
14.0
12.2
14.3
38.8
53.1
7
16
49
1
50
14.0
32.0
98.0
2.0
100.0
14.3
32.7
100.0
67.3
100.0
62
Table 19 displays the participants’ response to the statement, the wife is a
property of her husband, the responses for both beliefs agree and disagree came very
close. A total of 42.8% of the participants reported that they strongly disagree and
somewhat disagree. In comparison, a total of 36.7% of the participants reported that they
strongly and somewhat agree with this statement.
Table 19
Wife is Property of Husband
The Wife is a Property of her
Valid
Husband
Frequency Percent Percent
Valid
Strongly disagree
20
40.0
Somewhat disagree
1
2.0
Neutral
10
20.0
Somewhat agree
7
14.0
Strongly agree
11
22.0
Total
Missing System
Total
49
1
50
98.0
2.0
100.0
40.8
2.0
20.4
14.3
22.4
Cumulative
Percent
40.8
42.9
63.3
77.6
100.0
100.0
Table 20 displays the participants’ responses to the statement that men are head of
household and can freely abuse their wives. Approximately 20% (1/5) of the participants
reported that they strongly agree and somewhat agree with this statement. The other
participants, 56% reported that they strongly and somewhat disagree with the statement.
63
Table 20
Men are Head of Household
Men are Head of Household
and Can Freely Abuse Their
Wives
Valid Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
26
52.0
52.0
52.0
2
7
5
10
50
4.0
14.0
10.0
20.0
100.0
4.0
14.0
10.0
20.0
100.0
56.0
70.0
80.0
100.0
Table 21 displays participants’ responses on the statement, domestic violence is a
private matter and the outcome from the participants’ responses for both agree and
disagree came close. Majority of the participants, 42.8% reported that they strongly
disagree and somewhat disagree with the statement. 40.8% of the participants reported
that they strongly agree and somewhat agree that domestic violence is a private matter.
64
Table 21
Domestic Violence is a Private Matter
Domestic Violence is a Private
Cumulative
Matter
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid
Strongly disagree
15
30.0
30.6
30.6
Somewhat disagree
6
12.0
12.2
42.9
Neutral
8
16.0
16.3
59.2
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Missing System
Total
11
22.0
22.4
81.6
9
49
1
50
18.0
98.0
2.0
100.0
18.4
100.0
100.0
Table 22 displays the data from the next statement that domestic violence problem
should be resolved in the home. Majority of the participants 41.7% reported that they
strongly disagree and somewhat disagree. The other participants, 27.1% reported that
they strongly agree and somewhat agree with this statement.
65
Table 22
Domestic Violence Resolved at Home
Domestic Violence Problem
Should be Resolved in the
Home
Valid
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Missing System
Total
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
12
24.0
25.0
25.0
8
15
6
7
48
2
50
16.0
30.0
12.0
14.0
96.0
4.0
100.0
16.7
31.3
12.5
14.6
100.0
41.7
72.9
85.4
100.0
Table 23 displays the participants’ responses from the statement that support from
the family will be lost if domestic violence is reported. Majority of the participants,
42.9% indicated that they strongly agree and somewhat agree with this statement. The
other participants, 36.7% indicated that they strongly disagree and somewhat disagree
with the statement.
66
Table 23
Loss of Family Support
Support From the Family Will
be Lost if Domestic Violence
Valid
Cumulative
is Reported
Frequency Percent Percent
Percent
Valid
Strongly disagree
12
24.0
24.5
24.5
Somewhat disagree
6
12.0
12.2
36.7
Neutral
10
20.0
20.4
57.1
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Missing System
Total
7
14
49
1
50
14.0
28.0
98.0
2.0
100.0
14.3
28.6
100.0
71.4
100.0
Majority of the participants, 42.9% reported that they strongly agree and
somewhat agree with the statement that disclosing information about the abuse will bring
dishonor to the family. 36. 7% of the participants reported that they strongly disagree
and somewhat disagree with this statement. The data collected for this statement is
displayed in Table 24.
67
Table 24
Disclosing Information Will Bring Dishonor to Family
Disclosing Information About the
Abuse Brings Dishonor to the
Family
Strongly disagree
Valid
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
11
22.0
10
20.0
9
18.0
5
10.0
14
28.0
49
98.0
1
2.0
50
100.0
Valid
Percent
22.4
20.4
18.4
10.2
28.6
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
22.4
42.9
61.2
71.4
100.0
Table 25 displays participants’ responses to the last statement that victims of
domestic violence are encouraged to remain in the relationship. Majority of the
participants, 58% indicated that they strongly disagree and somewhat disagree with this
statement. The other participants, 34% indicated that they strongly agree and somewhat
agree with the statement.
68
Table 25
Victims are Encouraged to Remain in Relationship
Victims of Domestic
Violence are Encouraged to
Remain in Relationship
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly disagree
21
42.0
42.0
42.0
Somewhat disagree
8
16.0
16.0
58.0
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
4
8.0
8.0
66.0
6
11
50
12.0
22.0
100.0
12.0
22.0
100.0
78.0
100.0
The next section of the questionnaire assessed what the participants think is/are
the general reasons for Iu-Mienh women to not report incidences of domestic violence
and seek services. The following is a list that was presented to the participants: religious
beliefs, fear of family dishonor or shame (See Table 26), fear for personal and/or children
safety (See Table 27), fear of the law (See Table 28), lack of financial resources (See
Table 29), lack of community resources (See Table 30), lack of information about
services (See Table 31), and lack of family support (See Table 32). 82% of the
participants indicated that the primary reason victims do not report incidences of
domestic violence or seek services is due to the fear of bringing dishonor or shame to the
family (See Table 26). The secondary reason, 70% of the participants indicated why
victims did not report incidences of domestic violence or seek services is due to the fear
for personal and children safety (See Table 27). The least reason, 46% of the participants
69
indicated that victims did not report incidences of domestic violence or to seek services is
the fear of the law (See Table 28).
Table 26
Fear of Family Dishonor for not Seeking Services
Fear of Family
Dishonor or
Shame
Valid Yes
No
Total
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
41
82.0
82.0
9
50
18.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
82.0
18.0
100.0
100.0
Table 27
Fear for Personal or Children Safety to not Seek Services
Fear for
Personal or
Cumulative
Children Safety Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Percent
Valid Yes
35
70.0
70.0
70.0
No
Total
15
50
30.0
100.0
30.0
100.0
100.0
Table 28
Fear of the Law not to Seek Services
Fear of the Law Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Valid Yes
23
46.0
46.0
No
Total
27
50
54.0
100.0
54.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
46.0
100.0
70
Table 29
Lack of Financial Resources not to Seek Services
Lack of Financial
Resources
Valid
Yes
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
25
50.0
51.0
51.0
No
Total
Missing System
Total
24
49
1
50
48.0
98.0
2.0
100.0
49.0
100.0
100.0
Table 30
Lack of Community Resources not to Seek Services
Lack of
Community
Resource
Valid Yes
No
Total
Frequency
Percent
Cumulative
Valid Percent Percent
24
48.0
48.0
48.0
26
50
52.0
100.0
52.0
100.0
100.0
Table 31
Lack of Information About Resources not to Seek Services
Lack of
Information
Cumulative
About Services Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes
27
54.0
54.0
54.0
No
Total
23
50
46.0
100.0
46.0
100.0
100.0
71
Table 32
Lack of Family Support not to Seek Services
Lack of Family
Cumulative
Support
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes
32
64.0
64.0
64.0
No
18
36.0
36.0
100.0
Total
50
100.0
100.0
Inferential Statistics
Table 33 is a chi-square test of independence between religious status and
whether participants’ knew someone from their community who has experienced
domestic violence.
72
Table 33
Crosstabs Between Religious Beliefs and Knowing a Victim of DV
Do you know someone from your
community who has experienced
domestic violence?
Decline
Yes
No
to state
Total
What is Confucianism Count
your
% of Total
religion? Buddhism
Count
% of Total
Christian
Count
% of Total
N/A
Count
% of Total
Taoism
Count
1
2.0%
8
16.3%
14
28.6%
3
6.1%
4
0
.0%
7
14.3%
6
12.2%
1
2.0%
0
0
.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
0
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
8.2%
2
4.1%
32
65.3%
.0%
2
4.1%
16
32.7%
.0%
8.2%
0
4
.0%
8.2%
1
49
2.0% 100.0%
Shamanism
Total
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
5.873a
7.622
.397
49
Asymp. Sig.
df
(2-sided)
10
.826
10
.666
1
.529
1
2.0%
15
30.6%
21
42.9%
4
8.2%
4
73
As displayed on Table 33, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s religion and knowing a victim of domestic
violence. Results indicates that the participants’ religion did not dictate whether the
participant knew someone who had been in a domestic abuse relationship (chi-square =
5.873, df = 10, p > .826).
Table 34 is a chi-square test of independence between religious status and barrier
for not reporting and seeking domestic violence services.
Table 34
Crosstabs Between Religious Status and Religious Beliefs not to Seek Services
Religious beliefs is the
general reason for not
reporting incidences of dv
and seek services
Yes
What is
your
religion?
Total
Confucianism Count
% of Total
Buddhism
Count
% of Total
Christian
Count
1
2.0%
8
16.0%
13
0
.0%
8
16.0%
8
1
2.0%
16
32.0%
21
% of Total
Count
% of Total
26.0%
2
4.0%
16.0%
2
4.0%
42.0%
4
8.0%
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
3
6.0%
2
4.0%
29
58.0%
1
2.0%
2
4.0%
21
42.0%
4
8.0%
4
8.0%
50
100.0%
N/A
Taoism
Shamanism
Total
No
74
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
1.961a
2.349
.061
df
Asymp. Sig. (2sided)
5
.855
5
.799
1
.806
50
As displayed on Table 34, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s religion and that the religious belief is a reason
for victims to not report incidences of domestic violence and seek services. Results
indicates that no matter what the religion was, participants still indicated that the religious
belief is not a reason for not reporting incidences of domestic violence and seeking
services (chi-square = 1.961, df = 5, p> .855).
Table 35 is a chi-square test of independence between participants’ religion and a
barrier not to report incidences of domestic violence and seek services is the lack of
family support.
75
Table 35
Crosstabs Between Religion and Lack Family Support Barrier to not Seek Services
Lack of family support is
the general reason for not
reporting incidences of dv
and seek services
Yes
No
What is
your
religion?
Total
Confucianism Count
% of Total
Buddhism
Count
% of Total
Christian
Count
% of Total
N/A
Count
% of Total
Taoism
Count
1
2.0%
9
18.0%
16
32.0%
2
4.0%
3
0
.0%
7
14.0%
5
10.0%
2
4.0%
1
1
2.0%
16
32.0%
21
42.0%
4
8.0%
4
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
6.0%
1
2.0%
32
64.0%
2.0%
3
6.0%
18
36.0%
8.0%
4
8.0%
50
100.0%
Shamanism
Total
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
df
a
5.525
5.817
.294
50
5
5
1
.355
.324
.587
76
As displayed on Table 35, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s religion and the lack of family support as one of
the barriers not to report or seek services for domestic violence. Results indicated that no
matter what the religion was, participants reported that some think that it is a barrier and
others reported that it was not a barrier (chi-square = 5.525, df = 5, p> .355).
Table 36 is a chi-square test of independence between religious status and the
immediate family as a primary supporter for victims of domestic violence.
Table 36
Crosstabs Between Religion and Primary Support is Immediate Family
What is your Confucianism Count
religion?
% of Total
Buddhism
Count
% of Total
Christian
Count
% of Total
N/A
Count
% of Total
Taoism
Count
% of Total
Shamanism
Count
% of Total
Total
Count
% of Total
Immediate family
No
Yes
0
1
.0%
3.2%
0
9
.0%
29.0%
1
14
3.2%
45.2%
0
1
.0%
3.2%
0
2
.0%
6.5%
0
3
.0%
9.7%
1
30
3.2%
96.8%
Total
1
3.2%
9
29.0%
15
48.4%
1
3.2%
2
6.5%
3
9.7%
31
100.0%
77
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Value
1.102a
Asymp. Sig.
df
(2-sided)
5
.954
Likelihood Ratio
1.487
5
.915
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
.020
1
.888
31
As displayed on Table 36, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s religious belief and the immediate family as the
primary supporter. Results indicated that the participants from the multi-religious groups
reported that immediate family is a primary supporter for victims of domestic violence
(chi-square = 1.102, df = 5, p > .954).
Table 37 is a chi-square test of independence between religious status and fear of
family dishonor or shame as a barrier to reporting and seeking domestic violence
services.
78
Table 37
Crosstabs Between Religion and Family Dishonor Barrier not to Seek Services
Fear of family
dishonor/shame is the
general reason for not
reporting incidences of dv
and seek services
Yes
What is your Confucianism
religion?
Buddhism
Christian
N/A
Taoism
Shamanism
Total
No
Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
1
2.0%
13
26.0%
19
38.0%
3
6.0%
0
.0%
3
6.0%
2
4.0%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
16
32.0%
21
42.0%
4
8.0%
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
3
6.0%
2
4.0%
41
82.0%
1
2.0%
2
4.0%
9
18.0%
4
8.0%
4
8.0%
50
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
df
Pearson Chi-Square
4.288
a
5
.509
Likelihood Ratio
3.946
5
.557
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
1.301
1
.254
50
79
As displayed on Table 37, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s religious belief and the fear of family dishonor
or shame as a barrier to reporting or seeking domestic violence services. Results indicate
that no matter what the religion was, participants still indicated that fear of family
dishonor or shame is not a reason for not reporting incidences of domestic violence and
seeking services (chi-square = 4.288, df = 5, p > .509).
Table 38 is a chi-square test of independence between participants’ residency
status and the immediate family as the primary supporter.
Table 38
Crosstabs Between Residency Status and Primary Supporter the Immediate Family
What is Your Residency Status?
U.S. Citizen
Total
Count
% of Total
Naturalized Citizen Count
% of Total
Refugee
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Immediate family
No
Yes
1
3.2%
0
.0%
0
.0%
1
3.2%
20
64.5%
8
25.8%
2
6.5%
30
96.8%
Total
21
67.7%
8
25.8%
2
6.5%
31
100.0%
80
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
.492a
.795
.409
df
2
2
1
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
.782
.672
.522
31
As displayed on Table 38, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s residency status and the immediate family as the
primary supporter. Results indicates that no matter what the residency status was,
participants still indicated that immediate family is not the primary supporter for victims
of domestic violence (chi-square = .492, df = 2, p > .782).
Table 39 is a chi-square test of independence between residency status and that
fear of the law is a reason for victims to not report incidences of domestic violence and
seek services.
81
Table 39
Crosstabs Between Residency Status and Fear of Law Barrier to not Seek Services
What is your
residency
status?
U.S. Citizen Count
% of Total
Naturalized
Citizen
Refugee
Immigrant
Other
Total
Fear of the law is a reason
for not seeking services
Yes
No
14
18
28.0%
36.0%
Count
Total
32
64.0%
5
7
12
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
10.0%
3
6.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
23
14.0%
0
.0%
2
4.0%
0
.0%
27
24.0%
3
6.0%
2
4.0%
1
2.0%
50
% of Total
46.0%
54.0%
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
6.555a
8.834
.419
df
4
4
1
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
.161
.065
.517
50
As displayed on Table 39, the chi-square test of independence shows no
association between the participant’s residency status and that fear of the law is a reason
for victims to not report incidences of domestic violence and seek services. Results
82
indicated that no matter what the residency status was, participants still indicated that the
fear of the law is not a reason for not reporting incidences of domestic violence and
seeking services (chi-square = 6.555, df = 4, p > .161).
Table 40 is a chi-square test of independence between participant’s primary
language and that fear of the law is a reason for victims to not report incidences of
domestic violence and seek services.
Table 40
Crosstabs Between Language and Fear of Law Barrier not to Seek Services
Fear of the law is the
general reason for not
reporting incidences of
dv and seek services
Yes
No
What is your
English
primary language?
Mienh
English
and
Mienh
Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Total
6
3
9
12.2%
8
16.3%
9
18.4%
6.1%
11
22.4%
12
24.5%
18.4%
19
38.8%
21
42.9%
23
26
49
46.9%
53.1%
100.0%
83
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
1.725a
1.741
.677
Asymp. Sig.
df
(2-sided)
2
.422
2
.419
1
.411
49
As displayed on Table 40, the chi-square test of independence shows no
association between the participant’s primary language and that fear of the law is a reason
for victims to not report incidences of domestic violence and seek services. Results
indicated that no matter what the primary language was, participants still indicated that
the fear of the law is not a reason for not reporting incidences of domestic violence and
seeking services (chi-square = 1.725, df = 2, p > .422).
Table 41 is a chi-square test of independence between participant’s primary
language and lack of family support is a reason Iu-Mienh women do not report incidences
of domestic violence and seek services.
84
Table 41
Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Family Support Barrier to not Seek Services
Lack of family support
is the general reason
for not reporting
incidences of dv and
seek services
Yes
What is your
English
primary language?
Total
Count
No
Total
7
2
9
% of Total
Mienh
Count
% of Total
English and Count
Mienh
% of Total
Count
14.3%
14
28.6%
10
20.4%
31
4.1%
5
10.2%
11
22.4%
18
18.4%
19
38.8%
21
42.9%
49
% of Total
63.3%
36.7% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
df
a
3.915
3.938
3.696
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
2
.141
2
.140
1
.055
49
As displayed on Table 41, the chi-square test of independence shows no
association between the participant’s primary language and that lack of family support is
a reason for victims to not report incidences of domestic violence and seek services.
Results indicated that no matter what the language was, participants reported that some
85
view lack of family support a barrier and others did not find it as a barrier (chi-square =
3.915, df = 2, p > .141).
Table 42 is a chi-square test of independence between the participants’ primary
language and the lack of information about services as a reason for not reporting and
seeking domestic violence services.
Table 42
Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Service Information a Barrier not to Seek
Services
Lack of information
about services is the
general reason for not
reporting incidences of
dv and seek services
Yes
No
What is your
English
primary language?
Total
Count
Total
7
2
9
% of Total
Mienh
Count
% of Total
English and Count
Mienh
% of Total
Count
14.3%
9
18.4%
10
20.4%
26
4.1%
10
20.4%
11
22.4%
23
18.4%
19
38.8%
21
42.9%
49
% of Total
53.1%
46.9%
100.0%
86
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
2.704a
2.858
1.130
Asymp. Sig.
df
(2-sided)
2
.259
2
.239
1
.288
49
As shown in Table 42, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is no
association between the participant’s primary language and the lack of information about
services. Results indicate that despite the primary language, participants still indicated
that the lack of information is not a reason for not reporting incidences of domestic
violence and seeking services (chi-square = 2.704, df = 2, p> .259).
Table 43 is a chi-square test of independence between the participants’ highest
level of schooling and the lack of family support as a reason for not reporting and seeking
domestic violence services.
87
Table 43
Crosstabs Between Language and Lack of Family Support a Barrier to not Seek Services
Lack of family support
is the general reason for
not reporting incidences
of dv and seek services
Yes
No
What is your
primary language?
Total
English
Count
Total
7
2
9
% of Total
Mienh
Count
% of Total
English and Count
Mienh
% of Total
Count
14.3%
14
28.6%
10
20.4%
31
4.1%
5
10.2%
11
22.4%
18
18.4%
19
38.8%
21
42.9%
49
% of Total
63.3%
36.7%
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
3.915a
3.938
3.696
df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
2
.141
2
.140
1
.055
49
Presented on Table 43, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is no
association between the participant’s education levels and the lack of family support.
Results indicate that no matter what the education level was, participants still indicated
88
that the lack of lack of family support is not a reason for not reporting incidences of
domestic violence and seeking services (chi-square = 3.915, df = 2, p> .141).
Table 44 is a chi-square test of independence between the participants’ highest
level of schooling and the lack of financial resources is the general reason for not
reporting and seeking domestic violence services.
89
Table 44
Crosstabs Between Schooling and Lack of Financial Resources a Barrier to not Seek
Services
What is your
highest level of
schooling?
Elementary
school
Count
% of Total
High school
Count
graduate
% of Total
College graduate Count
% of Total
Some college
Count
% of Total
Some high
school
Vocational
school
Post-graduate
In college
Total
Lack of financial
resources is the general
reason for not reporting
incidences of dv and
seek services
Yes
No
2
0
4.2%
.0%
7
16
14.6%
33.3%
11
4
22.9%
8.3%
3
1
6.3%
2.1%
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
% of Total
Count
0
.0%
1
2.1%
1
2.1%
0
.0%
25
% of Total
52.1%
1
2.1%
0
.0%
0
.0%
1
2.1%
23
Total
2
4.2%
23
47.9%
15
31.3%
4
8.3%
1
2.1%
1
2.1%
1
2.1%
1
2.1%
48
47.9% 100.0%
90
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
13.729a
16.295
.611
df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
7
.056
7
.023
1
.434
48
As displayed on Table 44, the chi-square test of independence indicates that there
is no association between the participant’s education levels and the lack of financial
resources. The results indicate that regardless of the education level, participants still
reported that the lack of financial resources is not a reason for not reporting incidences of
domestic violence and seeking services (chi-square = 13.729, df = 7, p> .056).
Table 45 is a chi-square test of independence between the participants’ highest
level of schooling and the lack of community resources is the general reason for not
reporting and seeking domestic violence services.
91
Table 45
Crosstabs Between Schooling and Lack of Community Resources Barrier not to Seek
Services
Lack of community
resource is a reason for
not seeking services
Yes
No
What is your
highest level of
schooling?
Total
No formal
education
Total
Count
% of Total
Elementary
Count
school
% of Total
High school
Count
graduate
% of Total
College
Count
graduate
% of Total
Some college Count
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
7
14.3%
9
18.4%
3
0
.0%
1
2.0%
16
32.7%
6
12.2%
1
1
2.0%
2
4.1%
23
46.9%
15
30.6%
4
% of Total
Some high
Count
school
% of Total
Vocational
Count
school
% of Total
Post-graduate Count
% of Total
In college
Count
% of Total
Count
6.1%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
23
2.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
26
8.2%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
49
% of Total
46.9%
53.1% 100.0%
92
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
9.975a
12.016
.888
Asymp. Sig.
df
(2-sided)
8
.267
8
.150
1
.346
49
As displayed on Table 45, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s education levels and the lack of community
resources. Results indicate that despite what the education level was, participants still
indicated that the lack of community resources is not a reason for not reporting
incidences of domestic violence and seeking services (chi-square = 9.975, df = 8, p>
.267).
Table 46 is a chi-square test of independence between the participants’ highest
level of schooling and the fear of the law is a barrier for not reporting and seeking
domestic violence services.
93
Table 46
Crosstabs Between Schooling and Fear of the Law a Barrier to not Seek Services
Fear of the law is the
general reason for not
reporting incidences of
dv and seek services
Yes
No
What is your
highest level of
schooling?
Total
No formal
education
Total
Count
% of Total
Elementary Count
school
% of Total
High school Count
graduate
% of Total
College
Count
graduate
% of Total
Some college Count
0
.0%
2
4.1%
11
22.4%
6
12.2%
2
1
2.0%
0
.0%
12
24.5%
9
18.4%
2
1
2.0%
2
4.1%
23
46.9%
15
30.6%
4
% of Total
Some high
Count
school
% of Total
Vocational
Count
school
% of Total
Post-graduate Count
% of Total
In college
Count
% of Total
Count
4.1%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
23
4.1%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
1
2.0%
0
.0%
26
8.2%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
1
2.0%
49
% of Total
46.9%
53.1% 100.0%
94
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson ChiSquare
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
df
a
7.488
10.168
.017
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
8
.485
8
1
.253
.898
49
As displayed on Table 46, the chi-square test of independence shows that there is
no association between the participant’s education levels and fear of the law as a reason
for not reporting and seeking services. Results indicate that no matter what the education
level was, participants still indicated that fear of the law is not a reason for not reporting
incidences of domestic violence and seeking services (chi-square = 7.488, df =8, p>
.485).
Additional Findings
Participants were asked whether or not they know someone from their community
who has experienced domestic violence. The majority of the participants, 65.3% reported
that they know someone and 32.7% indicated that they do not know someone who has
experienced domestic violence (See Table 47).
95
Table 47
Known a Victim of Domestic Violence
Known a Victim of
Domestic Violence
Valid
Yes
No
Decline to state
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency
32
16
1
49
1
50
Percent Valid Percent
64.0
65.3
32.0
32.7
2.0
2.0
98.0
100.0
2.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
65.3
98.0
100.0
The results from the open-ended question regarding ways Sacramento County can
improve services to domestic violence victims has been organized into three themes:
creating and expanding services, community outreach, and laws and policies. Thirty of
the participants provided responses.
The primary suggestions from the participants, 43% (13 out of 30), reported that
the existing domestic violence services needs to be improved by expanding existing
services and/or creation of new services. One participant stated “it will help Mien
community and Mien people a lot if we have Mien interpreters everywhere. It is
frustrating and [there is a] loss [of] confidence of services and system.” Some of the
participants reported that there needs to be “more Mien speakers to help translate and
explain what kind of help there is out there for domestic violence victims.” Participants
reported that there are “not enough bilingual services” and that “services should be
provided in multiple languages besides the most commonly spoken.” Other participants
believe that the development of support groups could be effective. One participant
96
reported that there should be “anonymous domestic violence groups” and another
participant stated that “I think they should have a support group available to train and
educate the Iu-Mienh women.” There are specific programs participants reported that
they would like to see such as “offer programs to educate women and help them find jobs
to gain independence from their husbands” and “seminars should be held to the older
generation about domestic violence and how they can support their children if they are in
a violent relationship.” Participants also wanted to create more “centers made for not
only domestic violence but for family support and family counseling” and “advocate
programs available at schools, colleges and hotlines.”
The secondary suggestions from the participants, 37% (11 out of 30), reported
that community outreach is another way to improve services to domestic violence
victims. Participants reported that “county should reach out to the Mien community and
inform community about available resources” and “to provide more public and media
advertisements to inform the community and public in regards to services and
preventions.” One participant suggested “Mien news flash on TV, radio or newspaper
and it should be in Mien not Laos or Thai.” Another participant reported that “it would
help if we (Mien people) had our own Mien news that can educate older generations who
can’t speak or understand English to notify police or how to protect themselves from
domestic violence.” Other suggestions for community outreach reported by participants
are to “have presentations in Mien and conferences to Mien community to raise
awareness” and to also “have domestic abuse literature and materials available in Mien.”
97
Participants expressed the need for “more or continual outreach, advertise services in
Mien” and believe we should have our Mien victim of abuse to speak out to our Mien
community about seeking help and how to report about violence.”
Participants’ least reported (10%, 3 out of 30) suggested ways to improve services
to domestic violence victims is to improve or create laws and policies. Participants
reported that there should be “a similar law like the three strikes specifically for domestic
violence” to “punish the suspects.” One participant reported that new laws can help
“keep the abusers away from the victims and make them serve more time for domestic
violence.” Another participant suggested victims of domestic violence to “report all
abuse to law enforcement no matter how minor you think it is [because] there’s always an
interpreter so report it.” Only one participant reported that “Sacramento County already
has a good system for domestic violence and that people just choose not to use the
resources available”.
98
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
This research study stemmed from the researchers’ personal interest in developing
a greater understanding of their culture to aid in identifying the factors that hindered IuMienh women from reporting and seeking domestic violence services. Another purpose
that also inspired this research study is to contribute to the sparse researches available on
domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community. A number of significant findings
emerged from this research study, corresponding and contrasting to general themes in the
literature review. The implications at the micro and macro levels for social work practice
are also examined. Concluding with the limitations of the research study is discussed
along with suggestions for future research.
Major Findings
The first major finding from this current research is that domestic violence does
occur in the Iu-Mienh community. Data from the study revealed that more than half of
the participants (65%; n=32) had knowledge of someone from their community who has
experienced domestic violence. This data supports research findings from Ho (1990,
Kim-Goh and Baello (2008), Song (1996), and Yick (2008) whom asserted that domestic
violence is indeed a significant issue in Asian communities. Echo throughout the
literature review is the fact that there is still a paucity of research examining domestic
violence within the Iu- Mienh community (Yick & Oomen-Early, 2008). Researchers
have noted this limitation is the root of the problems that contribute to our limited
99
understanding. The major finding aid and contribute to knowledge-base on domestic
violence in the Iu-Mienh community and the data from this research is crucial to bringing
forth attention surrounding the problem on domestic violence within this community.
The second major finding from this current research is that domestic violence in
the Iu-Mienh community is influenced by cultural beliefs and traditions. Majority of the
participants reported that they strongly agree on the patriarchal statements. Over half the
participants, 54% reported that they somewhat agree and strongly agree with the
statement that men have a higher status than women. Regarding the statement that the
wife is a property of her husband, 36.7% of the participants stated that they somewhat
agree and strongly agree with the statement. Indication of agreement with the perception
that the wife is a property of her husband is a potential risk for some Iu-Mienh women to
not report their abuse or seek help. Guided by the Feminist Theory, it has been cited that
Iu-Mienh families have rigid patriarchal attitudes and cultures in which the roles of
women are devalued (Chao, 2006). The feminist theory contends that issues of gender
and power are the root of intimate partner violence and the subordination of women to
male authority (Yick, 2007). This data brings to light the patriarchal orientation and
practices are a barrier for some Iu-Mienh women to seek help and utilize domestic
violence services. Researchers asserted that women who accept patriarchal norms may
delay active coping or help seeking and may be at greater risk for the abuse to continue
(Ahmad, Riaz, Barata, and Stewart, 2004).
100
The third major finding from this current research study is that 82% of the
participants report fear of bringing shame and dishonoring the family as the general
reason for Iu-Mienh women to not report incidences of domestic violence and seek
services. Follow by the fourth major finding which over half of the participants, 60%
indicated that the immediate family is the primary supporter for victims of domestic
violence. These can be factors that hinder reporting and seeking domestic violence
services because previous research stated in Chapter 2 in which Chao (2006) found that
the family encourage the victim to work it out and advise the victim to not involve the
law enforcement. This factor is linked to the cultural beliefs that each individual is
responsible to bring honor to the family and a way to avoid shaming the family is not to
disclose one’s experiences of domestic violence to the general community (Brown &
Shalett, 1997; Nankani, 2000). It seems that victims are encouraged and taught to be
mindful of how their behavior will reflect the greater family and community and thus it’s
a cycle that feed to perpetuation of domestic violence.
Social Work Implications and Recommendations
The social work profession is committed to enhancing the wellbeing of society
and its people by addressing social problems that affect the lives of people who are
vulnerable and oppressed (National Association of Social Workers, 2011). Thus, it is
crucial to address social issues, such as domestic violence, affecting society and the
quality of life for many victims of domestic violence. The current data from this study is
empirical evidence and knowledge for the social work profession to aid with promoting
101
social justice and change within this particular community and the society abroad. In
addition, it’s important for social workers to be mindful of this issue and the needs in
these communities. Changes are needed in both the micro and macro level of practice in
order to cultivate open disclosure and help-seeking behaviors within the Iu-Mienh
community.
At the micro level of practice, it is important for social workers to be considerate
and sensitive of the cultural values, traditions, beliefs, and background. Thus, social
workers should not make generalizations about a racial group but rather understand the
person as a whole by examining the other subsystems such as their family support
systems, which are interconnected with the individual. Findings from Chapter 4
indicated the importance of the family as a primary supporter of victims of domestic
violence and the influences of the family on the individual to make decisions in domestic
violence situations. By examining the beliefs and values of the family, social workers
can gain a deeper understanding to the behavior and thought of the individual. Findings
on the importance of family and family honor could be the framework for social workers
in assessment and development of treatment for individuals. For instance, social workers
could increase family involvement during the assessment phase and also encourage
family members to participate in the treatment planning process which can help improve
rapport building with Iu-Mienh victims of domestic violence.
Another implication is for social workers to advocate and become effective
leaders in creating change within the structure of the agency. Participants stated that one
102
of their needs is to improve existing services and/or creation of new services to become
more culturally sensitive to the needs of the Iu-Mienh community. Chao (2006) and
Yang (2001) found that the current domestic violence services do not meet the needs of
domestically abused Iu-Mienh women because they do not provide a place for an
adequate safe haven or financial assurance for the abused Iu-Mienh women to safety and
successfully escape their abusive situations. Social workers could start with advocating
for more Iu-Mienh interpreters to bridge the language barrier gap to seek and utilize
services. Other ways social workers can improve current services is to develop programs
such as the following: support groups, independent skill buildings, and outreach in the
community. Support groups are vital to have because individuals are able to share their
stories and seek support from outside the community. Individuals could also share and
spread information about other available resources within the community. Programs that
are aimed to help individuals to develop independent skills such as workshops to find a
job, can be beneficial because research has found that victims of domestic violence
remain in the relationship due to relying on the perpetrator for financial support. After
the establishment and improvement of services, it is vital for social workers to engage in
community outreach to spread the word about the services available.
On the macro level of social work practice, social workers can expand outreach to
the larger community and society by educating people about domestic violence in the IuMienh community. Participants expressed for the increase of more domestic violence
prevention efforts and services through public and media advertisements such as Mienh
103
newsletters, radio, television premiers, and educational conferences to educate the IuMienh about services. Community outreach in the form of education will serve as early
prevention and intervention to many Iu-Mienh domestic violence victims. Outreaching to
the community as a whole promotes awareness and alleviates the incidences of domestic
violence in the Iu-Mienh community and the society.
Collaboration with domestic violence and social service organizations is another
implication for social workers to improve existing domestic violence services. Social
workers can collaborate with domestic violence shelters to advocate and coordinate
appropriate safety services for Iu-Mienh women and their children. As discussed in
Chapter 2, currently there is only one primary domestic violence organization in the
greater Sacramento area, My Sister’s House which provides domestic violence related
services primarily to the Asian Pacific Islanders (API) and SEA community. It is crucial
to increase shelters to include comprehensive services where social workers can provide
immediate crisis intervention, counseling, and case management to victims and families
of domestic violence to gain safety and stability. Additional collaboration to improve
services includes reevaluating existing laws and policies to implement more effective
laws and policies to protect victims of domestic violence. Participants stated that there
needs to be laws, such as the “three strikes” law or jail time to hold perpetrators
accountable for the abuse. Active social and political actions to reform laws and policies
are critical for social workers to attain one of the core values listed in the social work
Code of Ethics-social justice and social change. Collaboration is crucial to enhance the
104
knowledge and skills of social workers in order to work effectively with domestic
violence victims in the Iu-Mienh community.
Lastly, it is an implication for social workers to conduct research as it is one of
the social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the profession. As pointed out in the major
finding, literature and research on domestic violence and the Iu-Mienh are sparse. Social
workers can begin promoting research early at the graduate level by encouraging social
work graduate students to research on domestic violence and the Iu-Mienh to increase
empirical knowledge and make available to the social work profession. Promoting early
research fosters a proliferation of reliable knowledge that is current and emerging to
enhance understanding of domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community as well as
fueling the development of domestic violence services and the field of social work.
Through community outreach with education, building partnerships with domestic
violence organizations in the community to implement effective policies, and promote
research, domestic violence awareness and the disclosing of domestic violence
experiences can be increased. Domestically abused Iu-Mienh women can feel less
intimidated about seeking help with support and empowerment of culturally competent
and accessible domestic violence services. Additional research on domestic violence on
the Iu-Mienh would cultivate and facilitate comprehensive outreach and educational
efforts to overcome barriers of underreporting and underutilization of social services.
105
Limitations and Suggestion for Future Research
After the completion of the data collection and analysis, the researchers identified
several limitations to the current research study. The first two limitations are the sample
size (n=50) and the ages of the participants. The majority of the participants were in the
age range of 21-34. Due to the limitations of the sample size and age range of the
participants, the results cannot be generalized to the Iu-Mienh population as a whole.
The researchers recommend for future researches to increase their sample size and also
collect data from different generations to gather a richer data to aid in understanding
domestic violence within the Iu-Mienh community.
The time frame allotted to completing the research study and the barrier of getting
it approved through the Internal Review Board (IRB) created another limitation to the
current research study. It is recommended that researchers invest more time in collecting
data and increasing the sample size. It is also recommended that researchers assess the
validity and reliability of the questionnaire by conducting a pre and post test. Due to the
limitation of getting the research study approved through the IRB, the questions on the
survey were modified to meet the requirements to acquire the protection of human
subject approval. Through this process of editing the questions, the researchers noticed
that some of the questions needed clarification in order for participants to answer the
question as it was meant to be. Due to the misunderstanding of some of the questions,
the researchers had to omit the data because analyzing the data would have been invalid.
There is possibility that the disposed data could contribute to the major findings in this
106
current research to gain better understanding of the issue and the Iu-Mienh community
along with enhancing future research.
The purpose of the research was to increase research knowledge pertaining to
domestic violence in the Iu-Mienh community. The researchers hope that the literature
reviews and the findings from this research study help shine a light on this issue and
influence the development of future researches that can continue to contribute to our
knowledge and understanding of domestic violence within the Iu-Mienh community and
Southeast Asian communities. This research study and previous researches are just in the
beginning stage of unfolding the layers to understand this underserved and vulnerable
community. The researchers hope that this research study has contributed to providing a
voice to the Iu-Mienh people and the field social work.
107
APPENDIX A
Consent to Participate in Research
108
Consent to Participate in Research
You are being asked to participate in a research study being conducted by Fey Saechao
and Koy Saechao, two graduate students in the Division of Social Work at California
State University, Sacramento. The study will investigate the perceptions that hinder IuMienh women from reporting and seeking domestic violence services, and their views
about domestic violence.
In case you are willing to participate in the research project, you will be asked to
complete a questionnaire containing (28) questions, including background information
(i.e. age, education level, language, residency status, and employment status, your
perceptions of domestic violence, and suggestions on how to improve domestic violence
services). Either before completing the questionnaire or while completing it, you have
the right to stop or decline answering any of the questions or to discontinue your
participation at anytime without penalty or denial of services. The questionnaire can
require up to 30 minutes of your time to complete.
During the participation in this study, it is possible that you may experience mild
emotional discomfort. In case this occurs, you are encouraged to contact any of the
service providers listed on the back of this form. One of these sources will help find a
counselor to assist with your emotional distress.
Overall, you may not personally benefit from participating in this research study.
Though, it is hoped that by contributing your perceptions regarding domestic violence,
the new knowledge gained from this research project can contribute to new innovative
social services for the Iu-Mienh community and underserved communities. We want to
assure you that the final product will only include aggregate information shared by you
and other participants. There will be no individual information that can identify you in
any shape or form.
Your participation in this study is completely confidential. The questionnaires will be
viewed only by the two researchers and their Project advisor (Dr. Serge Lee).
Information obtained will be kept at a safe place and only accessible to the researchers.
The consent form and the questionnaire will also be kept separately in order to help
protect your identity. Once the information has been recorded into a computer software
program, the original survey packets will be shredded or destroyed by June 7, 2011.
We greatly appreciate your participation; unfortunately, we cannot provide you any
compensation for your participation in this study. However, knowledge shared by you
109
will become most valuable to the field of evidence-based literature and social work
practice.
After participating in the research project and if you are interested in the results of the
study and/or have any questions, you can contact the researchers, Fey Saechao by email
at faet5@aol.com or by phone at (916) 239-5369 and Koy Saechao by email at
k_rock_oiy@yahoo.com or by phone at (916) 475-3645, you may also contact our
Project Advisor, Dr. Serge Lee by email at lees@saclink.csus.edu or by phone at (916)
278-5820.
Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agreed to participate in
the research study.
_____________________________________
Signature of Participant
____________________
Date
110
APPENDIX B
Domestic Violence Contacts
111
Domestic Violence Contacts
As stated above, after participating in the research project, in case you need any
professional help, please contact any of the sources below. They have professional staff
members that are knowledgeable about the Iu-Mienh and other Southeast Asian cultures.
My Sister’s House
3053 Freeport Blvd., #120
Sacramento, CA 95818
Business Office: (916) 930-0626
Fax: (916) 930-0086
24 Hour Multilingual Help Line: (916) 428-3271
Website: http://www.my-sisters-house.org/
Women Escaping A Violence Environment (WEAVE)
1900 K Street
Sacramento, CA 95811
Business Line: (916) 448-2321
Crisis Line: (916) 920-2952
Website: http://www.weaveinc.org
Asian Pacific Community Counseling (APCC)
5330 Power Inn Rd., Suite A
Sacramento, CA 95820
Phone: (916) 383-6783
Fax: (916) 383-8488
Website: http://www.icdri.org/api/api/asian_pacific_community_counseli.htm
United Iu-Mien Community, Inc.
6000 Lemon Hill Ave
Sacramento, CA 95824
Phone: (916) 383-3083
Website: http://www.unitediumien.org/
Lao Family Community Development, Inc.
6901 Stockton Blvd., Suite 340
Sacramento, CA 95823
Phone: (916) 393-7501
Website: www.laofamilynet.org
112
Hmong Women’s Heritage Association (HWHA)
2245 Florin Road
Sacramento, CA 95822
Phone: (916) 394-1405
Fax: (916) 392-9326
Website: http://www.hmongwomenheritage.org/
La Familia Counseling Center, Inc.
5523 34th Street
Sacramento, CA 95820
Phone: (916) 452-3601
Website: http://www.lafcc.com/
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APPENDIX C
Questionnaire
114
Questionnaire
NO: _______
Demographic Information:
1. What is your age?
a. 21-27
b. 28-34
c. 35-41
d. 42-48
e. 49+
2. What country were you born in?
a. Thailand
b. Laos
c. United States
d. Other: ___________
3. What is your residency status?
a. U.S. Citizen
b. Naturalized Citizen
c. Refugee
d. Immigrant
e. Other: ___________
4.
If not a U.S. citizen, how long have you been living in the U.S.?
a. 0-2yrs
b. 3-5 yrs
c. 6-8 yrs
d. 9+ yrs
5.
What is your religion?
a. Confucianism
b. Buddhism
c. Animism
d. Christian
e. Other (Specify): __________
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6. What is your primary language?
a. English
b. Mienh
c. Thai
d. English and Mienh
e. Other (Specify): ______
7. If speaking other language at home beyond English, how well do you speak your
native language?
a. Not well at all
b. Somewhat well
c. Well
d. Very well
8. If you read in another language besides English, how well can you read in your
native language?
a. Not well at all
b. Somewhat well
c. Well
d. Very well
9. If you write in another language besides English, how well can you write in your
native language?
a. Not well at all
b. Somewhat well
c. Well
d. Very well
10. What is your marital status?
a. Single
b. Married
c. Divorced
d. Widowed
e. Separated
f. Other: _________
11. What is your highest level of schooling?
a. No formal education
b. Elementary school
c. High school graduate
d. College graduate
e. Other: _________
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12. Are you currently employed?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Decline to state
Perceptions of Domestic Violence:
13. Do you know someone from your community who has experienced domestic
violence?
(Domestic violence is any forms of physical, sexual, emotional, psychological,
and economic abuse).
a. Yes
b. No
c. Decline to state
14. Whom do you believe is/are the primary supporter(s) for victims of domestic
violence?
a. Immediate Family
b. Extended family/relatives
c. Friends
d. Community
e. Elders
f. Law enforcement
g. Other (Specify): ___________________
15. On the items below, using a scale from 1 (highest barrier) to 5 (lowest barrier),
place the number next to the items that you believe served as barrier for the
reporting of domestic violence in your community.
_____ Language barrier
_____ Socioeconomic Status
_____ Education
_____ Cultural beliefs and value
_____ Lack of cultural sensitive services
_____ Other (Specify): _____________________________________________
16. Below are several statements about cultural beliefs and cultural values. Please
rate the statements using a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree),
based on your cultural beliefs and values.
1= Strongly disagree
2= Somewhat disagree
3= Neutral
4= Somewhat agree
5= Strongly agree
117
1
2
3
4
5
Men have a higher status than women
A woman must obey her husband, father, and elders
The wife is a property of her husband
Men are head of household and can freely abuse
their wives
Interdependence influence a woman’s ability to
disclose information about her abuse
Individuals are responsible for bringing honor to the
family
Domestic violence is a private matter
Domestic violence problem should be resolved in
the home
Support from the family will be lost if domestic
violence is reported
Disclosing information about the abuse will bring
dishonor to the family
Victims of domestic violence are encouraged to
remain in the relationship
17. What do you think are the general reasons for Iu-Mienh women individuals not to
report incidences of domestic violence and seek services? (Please check all boxes
that apply).
□ Religious beliefs
□ Lack of financial resources
□ Fear of family dishonor/shame
□ Lack of community
resources
□ Fear of the law
□ Lack of information about
services
□ Fear for personal/children safety
□ Lack of family support
□ Other:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
18. Please explain how you would like Sacramento County to improve services to
domestic violence victims. Thank you for your time. We greatly appreciate your
participation.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
118
APPENDIX D
Protection of Human Subjects
119
Protection of Human Subjects
Request for Review by the Sacramento State
Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects
Submit 11 copies of this form and any attachments to the Office of Research Administration,
Hornet Bookstore, Suite 3400, mail code 6111. Please type your responses or use a word
processor. Handwritten forms will be returned without review.
Project Title: Iu-Mienh Women Perceptions Toward Under-reporting and Under-Utilization of
Domestic Violence Services.
Funding Agency (if any): ____N/A__________________________________________________
Name(s) and affiliation(s) of Researchers: Fey Saechao & Koy Saechao
Mailing address (or Department and campus mail code):
4320 78TH Street Sacramento, CA 95820
3261 Irvindale Way Antelope, CA 95843
(916) 239-5369; faet5@aol.com
(916) 475-3645; k_rock_oiy@yahoo.com
Telephone and e-mail address for researcher
Dr. Serge Lee__________________________
Name of faculty sponsor (for student research)
1.
11/01/2010
Anticipated starting date
leesc@csus.edu___________
E-mail address of sponsor
Who will participate in this research as subjects (e.g., how many people, from what source,
using what criteria for inclusion or exclusion)? How will you recruit their participation
(e.g., what inducements, if any, will be offered)? How will you avoid any conflict of
interest as a researcher?
The prospective participants will include fifty (50) Iu-Mienh adult women between
the ages of 21-50 years old. The participants will be recruited throughout the greater
Sacramento region. The Snowball sampling will be used to recruit the participants. Only
adult Iu-Mien women who are not currently being treated for domestic violence, never been
victim of domestic violence or receiving mental health services are eligible as participants.
No inducement will be provided.
120
2.
How will informed consent be obtained from the subjects? Attach a copy of the consent
form you will use. If a signed written consent will not be obtained, explain what you will
do instead and why. (See Appendix C in Policies and Procedures for examples of consent
forms, an example of an assent form for children, and a list of consent form requirements.
Also see the section on Informed Consent in Policies and Procedures.)
The researchers will inform each of the prospective participants verbally and written
in Mienh and English, regarding the voluntary nature of the research project. Before
administering the questionnaires, the researchers will verbalize the purpose of study,
duration of the questionnaire, confidentiality issue, and the voluntary nature for
participating in the research project. After the subject has verbally agreed to participate in
the research project, the participant will be asked to sign a written consent form. The
researchers will keep one copy and the other copy will be given to the participant for her
record. Attached is a copy of the consent form.
3.
How will the subjects’ rights to privacy and safety be protected? (See the section on Level
of Risk in Policies and Procedures. For online surveys, also answer the checklist questions
at the end of Appendix B in Policies and Procedures.)
For the privacy and protection of the prospective participants, identifiable information
such as identification card, social security number, street address, and phone numbers will
not be collected. Only variables that pertain to the research objectives will be collected.
For example: age, education level, language, residency status, and employment status; and
information on generalized knowledge and perceptions of domestic violence with the
content of cultural beliefs, barriers, and services will be collected. Upon obtaining the
information, it will be stored in a protected place, only accessible to the researchers. Once
the information is entered in to the computer program PASW, the original survey packets
will be shredded or destroyed. The participants will be informed that the final product will
only include aggregate information shared by all of the participants. In case specific
information are quoted, the researchers will make sure that participants who provided the
information cannot be identified by any shape or form.
4.
Summarize the study’s purpose, design, and procedures. (Do not attach lengthy grant
proposals, etc.)
Study Purpose
The aim of this exploratory research study is to investigate perceptions from Iu-Mienh
women about factors that hindered Iu-Mienh women from reporting and seeking domestic
violence services, and their views about domestic violence.
Research Design
Through a Snowball sampling, prospective participants who are Iu-Mienh adult
women between the ages of 21-50 years will be recruited. The two researchers developed
and designed a quantitative approach questionnaire that examines various variables that
might be representative of Iu-Mienh women’s views about domestic violence. The
121
questionnaire was not pre-tested for reliability coefficient. Questions are arranged logically
starting with demographic information leading to questions regarding one’s perception of
domestic violence. The questions won’t elicit participants to disclose any personal stories
regarding domestic violence.
Data Collection Procedures
The researchers will begin recruiting participants by randomly seeking prospective
participants in the researchers’ community and proceed with the recruitment through the
use of Snowball sampling to obtain additional prospective participants from information
and referrals provided by the participants who have already been recruited to participate in
the research study. There will be a total of fifty (50) Iu-Mienh adult women between the
ages of 21-50 years old, recruited for their participation in this research study. Before
agreeing to participate in the research study, prospective participants are explained to about
the research study. Once agreed to participate in the research project, each participant will
be asked to give a time and place that is convenient for the participant to meet with the
researchers. The place to meet and administer the questionnaire must be at a public place
that is outside the participant’s home such as Sacramento State University, local libraries,
and coffee shops for the participants’ safety and confidentiality. Before administering the
questionnaire, the researchers will present the consent form both verbally and written in
Mienh to all the prospective participants. The researchers will go over the confidentiality
issue and make it clear to the prospective participants that no identifiable information such
as their name, address, or social security number will be obtain and that any information
gathered will be remain only in the possession of the researchers and will be shredded and
destroyed after the information has been recorded in a computer software program, used to
analyzed the data. The researchers will also go over the rights of the participants such that
they have the right to decline answering any of the questions or to discontinue their
participation at anytime. Also, included with the consent form is a list of service providers’
contacts information whom the participants may contact if they experience any emotional
discomfort as a result of participating in this study. Before administering the questionnaire,
the researchers will go over the available service providers and also provide participants a
copy of the list of service providers such as Women Escaping A Violence Environment
(WEAVE), My Sister’s House, Asian Pacific Community Counseling (APCC),
United Iu-Mien Community, Inc., and the Lao Family Community Development,
Inc.
5.
Describe the content of any tests, questionnaires, interviews, etc. in the research. Attach
copies of the questions. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any, is involved in their use?
The first part of the questionnaire includes close-ended questions about the
participants’ demographic background such as age, gender, birth place, residency status,
religion, language, marital status, education level, and employment. The second part of the
questionnaire will include an operational definition of domestic violence along with
questions regarding the participants’ perceptions of domestic violence in terms of cultural
beliefs, barriers, and services. For example, some questions asked the participants to
122
identify barriers of low-reporting and low-usage of domestic violence services, their views
on gender roles, and domestic violence services. The researchers’ anticipate that minimal
risk can be involved due to the participation of this research because the research study is
intended to only examine the views and perceptions of domestic violence.
The prospective participants may have cultural beliefs that value interdependent rather
than independent which means the image of the family and/or community comes before the
individual. Domestic violence can be an issue that is viewed as a private issue that
shouldn’t be announced to the public because it may bring shame to the family. Prospective
participants may feel guilty for answering questions on domestic violence and may be afraid
that it might bring shame and embarrassment to their family and/or community.
6.
Describe any physical procedures in the research. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any,
is involved in their use? (The committee will seek review and recommendation from a
qualified on-campus medical professional for any medical procedures.)
There are no physical procedures in the research. Questionnaires will be selfadministered with participants writing down their answers therefore, no risk of discomfort
or harm is involved.
7.
Describe any equipment or instruments and any drugs or pharmaceuticals that will be used
in the research. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any, is involved in their use? (The
committee will seek review and recommendation from a qualified on-campus medical
professional for the use of any drugs or pharmaceuticals.)
The two instruments used to complete the questionnaires are paper and writing
utensils. The statistical program called SPSS and a calculator are the only two instruments
used to tabulate the results from the questionnaires. The researchers have concluded that
the instruments used in this research will cause no discomfort or harm to the participants.
8.
Taking all aspects of this research into consideration, do you consider the study to be
“exempt,” “no risk,” “minimal risk,” or “at risk?” Explain why. (See the section on Level
of Risk in Policies and Procedures.)
The researchers consider this study to have minimal risk. Participants could feel
guilty or embarrass from answering the questions about their perception on a sensitive
topic, domestic violence. But the discomfort level anticipated for the participants are no
greater than what might be encountered during psychological examinations or encountered
in daily life.
________________________________
Signature of Researcher
____________________
Date
________________________________
Signature of Researcher
____________________
Date
123
________________________________
Signature of Faculty Sponsor
(for student research)
____________________
Date
Signature of your department or division chair confirms that he or she has had an
opportunity to see your human subjects application.
________________________________
Signature of Department/Division Chair
____________________
Date
124
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