HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES FOR AN UNDERGRADUATE INTRODUCTION TO
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY CLASS
Jennifer Ann Racine
B.A., Arizona State University, 1998
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
PSYCHOLOGY
(Counseling Psychology)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2010
HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES FOR AN UNDERGRADUATE INTRODUCTION TO
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY CLASS
A Project
by
Jennifer Ann Racine
Approved by:
, Committee Chair
Emily A. Wickelgren, Ph.D.
_
Kelly A. Cotter, Ph.D.
, First Reader
, Second Reader
Rachel A. August, Ph.D.
Date
ii
Student: Jennifer Ann Racine
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
, Department Chair
Lisa M. Bohon, Ph.D.
Date
Department of Psychology
iii
Abstract
of
HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES FOR AN UNDERGRADUATE INTRODUCTION TO
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY CLASS
by
Jennifer Ann Racine
Research has found that classroom lessons that promote active learning increase the
quality and amount of student learning. Given the high demands on instructors, it is
difficult to find time to create specific activities for each topic in the subjects they teach.
Currently there are few resources for teaching an Introductory Sport Psychology class.
The purpose of this project was to create a handbook containing specific instructions for
engaging students in hands-on activities in an Introductory Sport Psychology class.
Sixteen plans for activities in major topics covered in Sport Psychology classes were
created. They were designed to engage students in active learning to increase the quality
of their learning, the amount of information they retain, and interest in the class.
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Emily A. Wickelgren, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thank you to my family for all of the support you have given me through this
journey. I owe my deepest gratitude to my son, who was my inspiration for this project,
and is my inspiration in life. He has sacrificed time with his mother to allow me to
complete my project. Hopefully one day he will benefit from all of my work. I thank my
brother for his support, encouragement, and strength, especially through life’s most
difficult times.
I am especially thankful to my supervisor, Dr. Emily Wickelgren, whose
encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final stages of this project
enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. This project would not have been
possible without her valuable input and assistance. Thank you to Dr. Kelly Cotter and Dr.
Rachel August for their work and time in helping me create a quality project.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................v
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
Background ..............................................................................................................1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................4
Group Work .............................................................................................................4
Assessment ...............................................................................................................8
Journal Assignments ................................................................................................9
Field Based Activities ............................................................................................12
Hands-on Exercises/Demonstrations .....................................................................14
Active Learning in Undergraduate Sport Psychology Classes ..............................16
3. PROJECT PROPOSAL.................................................................................................18
Appendix. Introduction to Sport Psychology Class Activities: A Collection of
Hands-on Activities for Major Topics in Sport Psychology............................22
References ........................................................................................................................166
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1.
Activity Types and Corresponding Strategies .......................................................24
vii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
One of the biggest tasks of a professor is assuring effective learning by his/her
students. Over time educators, including undergraduate college professors, have searched
for various ways that they could maximize learning. Fifty years ago information in
undergraduate college classes was primarily communicated through traditional lecture
(New York State Education Department, 2006). Students passively listened to their
professors telling them course material. In the 1960s researchers began to examine more
effective teaching methods that would engage their students and increase learning. What
they found is that when students actively took part in class, their quality of learning
increased. As a result, educators created student assignments and activities that facilitated
active student participation in their learning.
Learning may be defined as a change in behavior that results from a person’s
experience with his or her environment (Michael & Modell, 2003). Active learning is a
general term used to describe students engaging in activities and thinking about what they
are doing (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Activities promote higher-order thinking such as
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Analysis is a cognitive process that can be described
as differentiating between various things or pieces of information, finding meaningful
patterns, organizing patterns into clusters, or attributing one thing to another (Cruz, 2003;
Yoder & Hochevar, 2005). For example, people use analysis when they compare and
2
contrast two phenomena, such as hockey and baseball. The ability to retain and use
learned information may be facilitated by synthesis, which involves connecting newly
learned knowledge to prior knowledge (Michael & Modell, 2003). Football coaches use
synthesis when they formulate game plays based on what they know about their
opponent’s strategies. Evaluating information involves checking or critiquing information
(Cruz, 2003). This is commonly demonstrated when students make judgments about
information they learn.
In order to engage in these types of higher-order thinking, students must be
actively involved in their learning. The National Institute of Education reports that the
amount of student learning that occurs in an educational program is directly proportional
to quantity and quality of active student involvement in the program (Astin, Blake,
Bowen, Gamson, Hodgkinson, Lee et al., 1984). Studies have supported instructors’ use
of strategies that promote active learning, as they have found that students who engage in
it have been more successful in learning than their peers who have not (Bonwell & Eison,
1991).
Fortunately, teachers can plan tasks for students that will promote active learning
in their classrooms. When students are engaged in these activities the role of the
instructor changes from being the sole presenter of information to a guide who facilitates
learning while students are responsible for obtaining information (Messineo, Gaither,
Bott, & Ritchey, 2007). Research has shown that giving students responsibility for their
learning results in higher levels of learning. Active learning tasks help instructors assess
3
what information students are learning and what misconceptions students have about
class material (Graham, 2006). This allows instructors the opportunity to correct
misunderstandings more frequently than if they only give a few assessments over the
course of the semester. Active learning tasks include, but are not limited to, group work,
assessment, journal assignments, field based activities, and hands-on
exercises/demonstrations (Casem, 2006; Messineo et al., 2007).
4
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter explores the literature discussing the following active learning
themes: group work, assessment, journal assignments, field based activities, and hands-on
exercises/demonstrations.
Group Work
Michael and Modell (2003) suggest that active learning requires an interaction
either between students or between students and the teacher. The interactions serve as a
mechanism for building robust, correct mental models of information. This may be a
result of repeated information processing as thoughts are exchanged between people.
They also allow teachers the opportunity for assessment of student learning as students
demonstrate what they have learned and what they think about it. Instructors have an
extensive variety of activities or assignments that they may require of students while they
work in groups. For example, they may require students to form groups and answer
questions related to course content.
Active learning occurs when instructors present challenges to students’ mental
models in the form of questions. Michael and Modell (2003) state that students are more
likely to respond to questions from other students than they are to respond to questions
from the instructor. It is possible that students experience less anxiety about evaluation
when they respond to their peers as opposed to when they respond to their instructors
(Michael & Modell, 2003).
5
Group work allows students the opportunity to learn by communicating with
peers without risk of negative judgment by their instructors. Michael and Modell (2003)
suggest that after students have the opportunity to work in groups, the instructor poses
questions. Students are more likely to respond to questions directed toward the group
because if their responses are incorrect the negative feelings that may arise, such as
shame, are shared between all group members. As a result, the intensity of the negative
feelings experienced by each group member is significantly less than what an individual
would experience alone. A single student is not made to risk being wrong in front of his
or her class. Conversely, when groups respond to questions correctly, all of its members
gain positive feelings (Michael & Modell, 2003). For these reasons, assigning group
work, especially when class discussions will be held, is a way that instructors can
facilitate active learning in their classes.
A common problem with group work at the undergraduate college level is social
loafing. Some students believe that when they work in groups, already knowledgeable
students should or want to do most of the work. Others take group work as an opportunity
to decrease their efforts and let the other group members do the work. In order to
minimize social loafing, Hagen and Moffatt (1992) suggest that instructors have a
structure for group work that makes students interdependent and that holds each group
member accountable for a portion of the work. This may be accomplished by dividing
assignments into parts, or asking group members to estimate how much of the work was
done by each student. Many times group work consists of discussion of a course topic. In
6
this case instructors may chose to inform students that they are evaluated on their levels
of participation. Instructors who visit groups and log points or notes on participation are
likely to see higher levels of participation than those who do not.
Research on group work has shown that it has positive effects on students’
experiences with learning. Students have reported feeling like their overall learning
experience was greater during cooperative tasks, that they were more on task, and that
group work provided the optimal level of challenge and skill (Peterson & Miller, 2004).
Peterson and Miller conducted a study on 90 undergraduate students in an education
psychology class to investigate their cognitive, emotional, and motivational experiences
with learning in groups and as a whole class. All students experienced both conditions
and were asked to complete a survey. The researchers found that more students were
attending to class information during group work than during large-group instruction.
Students reported that quality of experience was higher during cooperative learning.
Interestingly, although students reported concentration was more difficult for them during
small group instruction, they did engage in higher levels of concentration in their small
groups than they did when they were working or receiving instruction as a class. Students
also felt more self-conscious during group work, possibly because they were under more
pressure to participate. While this may inhibit some students from participating in group
work, it may motivate others to study more than they otherwise would in order to provide
the group with useful information. Within the motivational dimension, students were
more engaged and attributed more importance to small group tasks than to whole class
7
instruction. They reported higher levels of challenge and skill during small group work.
In this study significant differences were not found between conditions on any of the
components of the emotional dimensions of class experience. Findings of this research
support the use of group work during class to engage students in their learning (Peterson
& Miller, 2004). It is important to note that in order to obtain these positive outcomes,
teachers should design group work assignments that students find challenging and at their
academic level.
The benefits of group work may be obtained with small numbers of students
working together in groups, or may be obtained by an entire class working together.
While many group assignments that promote active learning involve small groups within
the class, large group class discussions also require students to actively engage in
learning. Ullah and Wilson (2007) conducted a study in which active learning was
operationally defined as the extent to which students asked questions or contributed to
class discussions, and was measured by self-report on a Likert-type scale. Other factors
such as American College Testing (ACT) scores, the quality of students’ relationships
with faculty, and the quality of students’ relationships with peers were measured as well
in order to examine the relationship between them and academic achievement. Level of
academic achievement was indicated by cumulative student grade point average (GPA).
Among all the variables measured, researchers found that the one that had the most
influence on academic achievement was active learning. That is, students who reported
higher levels of in-class questioning and contributing their ideas to discussions had higher
8
GPAs (Ullah & Wilson, 2007). Results of this study support the inclusion of student
activities that promote active learning in lesson plans for undergraduate college classes,
including large group discussions.
Assessment
Among the many strategies that instructors may use to encourage active learning
is frequent assessment. Research has shown that frequent assessment promotes greater
learning in the classroom because it requires students to review information, understand it
to the extent that they can answer questions about it, and retain it long enough to recall
course content during assessments. Students who know they will be tested on a regular
basis may be more inclined to put effort into their assignments and take a more active
approach to their learning (Casem, 2006).
An active learning strategy that instructors can easily implement is student created
quizzes. Research has shown that students who create quiz questions have more success
in their classes than students who do not (Foos, 2002; Kerkman, Kellison, Piñon,
Schmidt, & Lewis, 2002). Kerkman et al. (2002) found that undergraduate psychology
students demonstrated significant improvement in the quality of multiple-choice quiz
questions that they wrote when they were asked to write brief explanations about why
answers were correct or incorrect. Researchers report that these explanations, where they
had to create an explicit statement about the relationship between the concept in the
question stem and response options, caused students to think on a higher level than
before. The researchers hypothesized that this would improve recall of information that
9
students wrote about. Kerkman et al. (2002) also conducted a study to determine if
students who wrote correct test questions every class period scored higher on quizzes
than those who did not. Results indicated that students who wrote correct questions did
score higher on quizzes than those who did not. Implications suggest that when students
explain the relationship between questions and responses, they engage in higher-level
thinking than when they are simply recalling information (Kerkman et al., 2002). This
finding is useful for instructors who assign test question writing in order for their students
to have a deeper understanding of course information.
While research on the academic effects of student-written test questions has
primarily involved multiple-choice questions, Foos (2002) conducted a study to examine
effects of writing various types of test questions on test performance. Findings support
the idea that students who take an active approach to their learning by writing various
types of test questions are more successful that those who do not. This type of active
learning approach is simple for instructors to assign, and research has overwhelmingly
supported its positive effects on learning.
Journal Assignments
Another method that instructors may use for increasing achievement by
encouraging students to take an active approach to their learning is writing assignments.
There are several benefits to journal assignments for both students and instructors.
Journal writing has been associated with increased learning and enjoyment of instruction
in college undergraduate classes (Bolin, Khramtsova, & Saarnio, 2005). It is a task that
10
helps students actively participate in their learning and can be used in almost all college
courses. Through the use of reflective thinking, journal assignments may help students
contextualize class information, helping them have a more meaningful understanding of
class information than they would have by simply memorizing information (Cisero,
2006). In addition to being an effective strategy for engaging students in active learning,
many journal assignments are simple for instructors to give and they provide qualitative
feedback on student learning. As most college courses require students to understand
information from textbooks as well as lectures, journals can be used to help students
construct meaning from the book and help instructors assess student learning from
reading assignments. While traditional multiple-choice exams may identify students’
control of the knowledge base, writing assignments such as journals may help instructors
gain an understanding about what information their students have learned in class, how
they apply it, and their values in relation to course content (Rotenberg, 2005). These
benefits will result in increased student learning.
Research has shown the academic benefits of journal assignments. Cisero (2006)
compared course performance between undergraduate students who were required to
complete journals and students who were not. Results indicated that students who were
required to complete journal assignments had higher exam scores than those who did not.
In addition, students who wrote in journals scored higher on the short-answer essay
portion of the exam than they did on the multiple-choice portion (Cisero, 2006). These
findings are consistent with other research results that indicate active learning techniques
11
promote higher-level thinking in students such as synthesis and evaluation of
information.
There are numerous writing assignments that require students to actively engage
in their learning. Instructors who assign journal entries have multiple options for topics
they would like students to write about. For example, Graham (2006) requires his
undergraduate social psychology class to apply recent course topics to their own lives,
other peoples’ lives, or current events and record them in their journals throughout the
semester. Graham asked his students to complete course evaluations and indicate the
extent to which they believed journal assignments helped them apply social psychology
concepts to everyday life. Students indicated that the assignments were very helpful.
Graham also observed that students who put more effort into their journal assignments
scored higher on exams. In addition to helping students have a deeper understanding of
social psychology concepts, journaling helped facilitate in-class discussions, and helped
the instructor recognize when students misunderstood information (Graham). Findings of
this study are congruent with other research that has shown student involvement, or
active learning tasks, result in better understanding of course material.
Active learning techniques are commonly used by many instructors ranging from
elementary school to college courses because research has found that their use increases
student learning and class enjoyment. Group work, assessment, and journal activities are
active learning strategies that can be applied to almost any class. They are useful for
engaging students in their course work, and are easy for instructors to implement. College
12
professors may choose to use these activities because they can easily be applied to
various classes. In addition, because these activities are so generalizable, they can be used
in conjunction with other strategies such as field-based activities or hands-on exercises,
which are specific to a particular topic.
Field Based Activities
Field-based instruction engages students in a learning process where knowledge is
created through real-world experience. It is a learner-centered form of active learning that
has been used to improve student learning outcomes (Davis, 1993). This includes
improving students’ retention of subject matter and increased problem solving skills. In
addition, field-based instruction facilitates students’ higher level thinking by their
application of class concepts to real-life situations (Kozar & Marcketti, 2008). Research
has also shown that students find more value in active learning strategies such as fieldbased assignments because they are better able to see how course material is relevant to
their futures. These assignments may take on various forms. In undergraduate psychology
courses, field-based assignments often involve applying course concepts to case studies.
In their ten suggestions for teaching psychology to medical students, Painter and Lemkau
(1992) explain that using case studies to demonstrate abstract concepts captures their
interest in these concepts. They have also found that students are more likely to respond
to theoretical discussions with enthusiasm after exploring case studies (Painter &
Lemkau, 1992). Field-based instruction could involve the incorporation of real-life
13
situations into daily lectures in order to give students a picture of what psychological
concepts look like.
Research has found that field based activities increase student understanding of
course content and facilitate higher quality student work. Kozar and Marcketti (2008)
conducted a study on field-based activities that were assigned to undergraduate classes.
Students reported having a more in-depth understanding of the course content, and
instructors saw improvement in the quality of student work after they had completed the
assignments. Researchers note the importance of exposing students to course content
before the field-based assignment, and then asking students to reflect on their experiences
(Kozar & Marcketti, 2008). This allows students to know what they will be exploring in
the field, and have a clear understanding of what they are expected to learn.
Many field-based assignments require a significant amount of research and
planning for instructors. A simple way around this is to place the responsibility of finding
real life examples of course concepts on the students. For example, students may be
asked to find actual events that demonstrate class concepts and describe how they are
connected in a written assignment. In order to study student outcomes for this type of
assignment, Lakin and Wichman (2005) conducted an experiment involving application
of social psychology concepts to real world situations. Students who completed the fieldbased assignment reported that it was easy for them to apply class concepts to actual
situations. Researchers found a relationship between this perception of ease and class
grade (Lakin & Wichman, 2005). In addition, by applying class information rather than
14
demonstrating that they can recall or understand it, students are engaging in higher-level
thinking. It is possible that students who engage in field-based activities such as this one
will better remember course information when they are finished with college and need to
apply it to their work.
Hands-on Exercises/Demonstrations
Hands-on activities and demonstrations help students connect class information to
their lives, which in turn results in learning and retention (Clump, 2006). When students
connect class information to their own lives, they are more likely to remember it.
Research on self-reference lessons and activities has shown positive learning outcomes.
A professor of an undergraduate psychology course conducted a class activity involving
all students to demonstrate a psychological concept. The class then had a discussion in
order to help students connect their own life experiences with results of the activity.
Students reported finding the demonstration enjoyable or very enjoyable, and they found
it to be useful for prompting them to think about the demonstrated psychological concept.
Most students reported that they learned more about this concept as a result of
participating in the activity (Clump, 2006).
Research has shown positive academic outcomes for students who participate in
hands-on activities. Ryan (2006) conducted a study on the effects of engaging students in
a hands-on activity in a psychology statistics course and found that students who
participated in hands-on activities scored higher on an exam than those who did not. It is
likely that the hands-on activity increased student learning on that topic which lead to
15
increased test scores. Most students reported understanding class information better after
participating in the activity, and reported that it was useful and fun (Ryan, 2006).
Findings in this study are consistent with other research that indicates hands-on activities
increase learning and course enjoyment.
The benefits of hands-on activities are so great that in 1996 a St. Louis School
District opened three hands-on, experiential learning schools (Harvey, Sirna, & Houlihan,
1999). Students engage in experiments and hands-on activities on a daily basis. Teachers
report that students take the lead in their learning, they actively ask questions, and they
contribute their ideas to the class. They use textbooks to find information that will be
applied to their work, but most information is acquired during their hands-on activities.
Principals of the three schools report that teachers must invest a significant amount of
time and effort into planning (Harvey et al., 1999). Although this may be an unappealing
requirement for instructors, the payoff is the high level of learning that occurs.
Standardized test scores are higher than those of students at other district schools.
Teachers report that participation is high because students are interested in and are
enthusiastic about their work. Teachers also say that retention of information is higher
than they have observed at traditional education settings (Harvey et al., 1999). It is not
surprising that by using activities to teach lessons, students enjoy school, are actively
involved in their learning, and are performing better than those in traditional school
models.
16
When instructors assign tasks that promote active learning, students are more
likely to internalize, retain, and understand class information (Bonwell & Sutherland,
1996). Although research has shown that students who engage in active learning tasks
have better academic outcomes than those who do not, there is not a significant
difference in outcomes between the various active learning tasks (Bonwell & Sutherland).
This means that instructors have countless assignments from which they can choose for
their students in order to facilitate deeper level thinking about course content. This in turn
results in longer retention of information, a more profound understanding of course
content, and students obtain skills that are an asset when they enter the work world.
Active Learning in Undergraduate Sport Psychology Classes
A difficult task for instructors is coming up with course specific active learning
strategies such as field-based activities or hands-on exercises or demonstrations. These
kinds of class activities require a significant amount of time and effort for instructors to
develop. Research has shown that they promote student enjoyment of class lessons, and
more importantly, they increase learning. As a result there is a demand for lesson plans
containing course specific activities. Most of these lesson plans that have been created for
courses at the undergraduate college level are dedicated to introductory or general
courses. For example Handbook of Demonstrations and Activities in the Teaching of
Psychology (1996) was written for introductory level psychology courses. Professors of
Introductory Psychology, Introduction to Research Methods, and History of Psychology
courses may directly apply these plans to their classes with few or no modifications. The
17
demonstrations and activities provided in this book will help students actively engage in
their learning and gain a better understanding of concepts in these classes.
Currently there is very little literature on course specific activities for an
undergraduate Sport psychology Class. Student Projects in Sport Psychology (Cratty &
Pigott, 1984) includes a variety of questionnaires that cover several areas in sport
psychology. The purpose of this book is to provide students with a template for
interviewing athletes so that they can learn about sport psychology concepts. This fieldbased strategy would be useful in helping students gain a clear idea of how these
concepts apply in the real world. This book however does not provide in-class activities
that students can engage in to better understand course-specific concepts. It is possible
that with a resource including field based experiences or hands-on activities for an
undergraduate sport psychology class, professors may increase student learning by
including these types of exercises in their lesson plans.
18
Chapter 3
PROJECT PROPOSAL
Given the popularity of sports in our country, sport psychology is an important
area within the field of psychology. Sports psychologists work with professional athletes,
adults who play sports for recreation, and children who are learning sports. They study
people’s behaviors in relation to sports and exercise and they identify principles and
guidelines that athletes can apply to increase their performance during sports and exercise
activities. Sport psychology is a highly applied field so psychologists must begin their
education early, during their undergraduate studies. Student sport psychologists study the
effects of psychological factors on physical motor performance and the effects of sports
or exercise on psychological development, health, and well-being (Weinberg & Gould,
2007). Sports psychologists are required to attain advanced degrees before they can
practice. This implies that during their later studies they will build upon information
learned as undergraduates. In order for this to happen, they must have a solid foundation
of knowledge that has been learned from their undergraduate courses. When students
have a strong understanding of undergraduate course information, the quality of learning
that occurs at the graduate level will be more profound, and this in turn will result in
more knowledgeable sports psychologists. Sports psychologists who have a better
understanding of psychological issues associated with athletics will be better prepared to
help their clients overcome mental difficulties they experience during sport activity.
19
Research has shown that active learning techniques facilitate higher levels of
learning and improved retention than traditional lecture. For this reason, when active
learning strategies are applied to undergraduate sport psychology classes, students should
be better prepared for advanced study in the field. There is currently limited information
on the application of active learning strategies in undergraduate sport psychology classes.
The purpose of this project is to create activities that promote active learning to an
undergraduate sport psychology class in order to improve the quality of student learning.
These lessons have been created for a hypothetical class. Currently, the Psychology
Department at California State University, Sacramento does not offer a sport psychology
class.
The project (see Appendix) consists of 16 complete lesson plans that include the
following elements:
1. Objective – what the student should be able to do or understand as a result
of the activity
2. Estimated Time
3. Rationale – justification for the objective
4. Anticipatory Set – an introduction that creates an organizing framework
for the information that will be studied. The anticipatory set also serves as
a hook to capture student attention and interest.
5. Materials – list of materials needed for the activity
20
6. Procedures – a chronological list of procedures for the activity, including
teaching instruction, modeling, checking for understanding, and
independent practice
7. Closure – review results of activity and original purpose of the lesson
8. Evaluation – method for determining if students acquired knowledge,
process, or skills intended in the activity
Activities were created for the following undergraduate sport psychology topics:
1. Personality and Sport
2. Motivation
3. Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety
4. Cooperation and Competition
5. The Effects of Feedback and Reinforcement
6. Team Dynamics
7. Leadership
8. Attention
9. Goal Setting
10. Concentration
11. Exercise Behavior and Adherence
12. Burnout
13. Children and Sport Psychology
14. Aggression
21
15. Character Development and Good Sporting Behavior
16. Arousal Regulation
22
APPENDIX
Introduction to Sport Psychology Class Activities: A Collection of Hands-on Activities
for Major Topics in Sport Psychology
Handbook of Sport Psychology Activities
To the Instructor:
This is a set of activities designed for an undergraduate Introductory Sport
Psychology class. They are designed to supplement lecture and make learning the
concepts in relation to real world situations easier. All activities include techniques for
engaging your students in active learning, which increases the quality and quantity of
their learning. The activities include various strategies such as group work, assessment,
journal writing, simulated field-based activities, and hands-on activities. See Table 1 for
strategies included in each activity.
The activity plans are written in lesson plan format, including estimated time,
materials, and step-by-step procedures. They include examples of wording to use when
presenting the activities, but these are only suggestions. Wording may easily be changed
as you see fit. As classes vary in size, time available, equipment availability, class ability,
and climate, these plans leave room for differences in these and other areas. They were
written with the average undergraduate college classroom in mind – one that has a white
or chalkboard, a television and DVD or VHS player, desks, and room for some
movement. Most activities require little or no instructor provided materials. In addition,
23
they may be modified as you see fit to accommodate unforeseen circumstances that may
occur, such as loss of class time.
With the limited amount of resources currently available for planning activities
for Introductory Sport Psychology courses, this collection was created to provide readily
accessible plans for enhancing learning of this intriguing subject.
24
Table 1
Activity Types and Corresponding Strategies
Personality
Group
Work
Assessment
X
X
Motivation
Journal
Writing
FieldBased
X
X
Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety
X
X
X
X
X
Cooperation and Competition
X
Effects of Feedback and
Reinforcement
X
Team Dynamics
X
X
Leadership
X
X
Communication
Goal Setting
X
X
X
X
X
Attention
X
X
X
Exercise Behavior and
Adherence
X
Burnout
X
Children and Sport Psychology
X
X
X
Aggression
X
X
X
Character Development and
Good Sporting Behavior
X
X
Arousal Regulation
HandsOn
X
X
X
X
X
25
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Personality and Sport Activity ...........................................................................................26
Motivation Activity............................................................................................................34
Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety Activity................................................................................42
Cooperation and Competition Activity ..............................................................................53
Effects of Feedback and Reinforcement on Motivation Activity ......................................61
Team Dynamics Activity ...................................................................................................70
Leadership Activity............................................................................................................82
Communication Activity....................................................................................................92
Goal Setting Activity .........................................................................................................98
Attention Activity ............................................................................................................105
Exercise Behavior and Adherence Activity .....................................................................116
Burnout Activity ..............................................................................................................124
Children and Sport Activity .............................................................................................132
Aggression Activity .........................................................................................................142
Character Development and Good Sporting Behavior Activity ......................................148
Arousal Regulation Activity ............................................................................................155
26
Personality and Sport Activity
Objective
This lesson will assist students with using five personality theories to interpret sports
related behaviors.
Estimated Time
25 minutes
Rationale
In order to interpret how personality influences behavior in sports, psychologists must
have an understanding of various theories of personality. This basic understanding
provides a template for treatment planning for behaviors or psychological factors that
compromise athletic performance.
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “After having read the chapter on personality and sport psychology, what
information do you think is important for a sports psychologist to already know before
he/she meets the client?”
Write correct responses on the board.
Instructor: “One of the many things that psychologists must know in order to
conceptualize a client’s case is information about the client’s personality. In order to
27
make this information useful the psychologist should already have an idea of how he or
she believes personality functions. Some psychologists believe that personality is
influenced by subconscious forces while others believe that it is a response to
environmental stimuli. The theoretical orientation that a psychologist believes in often
determines how he or she approaches treatment. So, today we’re going to study the
various personality theories that have been applied to sport behavior. To make it
interesting, we’re going to do this by playing a Price is Right type game.”
Materials
1. 25 pieces of 11” x 14” paper (preferably thick paper)
2. Thick, bold colored markers (writing needs to be visible from a distance)
3. Tape
4. Typed sports related cases:
a. Bobby is a wide receiver for a college football team. His record for completed
plays, (catching the ball when the quarterback throws it toward him), is very high
when games take place at his home stadium. His rate of completed plays is less
than half when he’s at an opponent’s stadium, playing a game away from home.
Bobby reports that at home games, the cheers from the audience help motivate
him to play well. The sounds of the opposing team’s fans distract him and he
believes this is why he is not able to catch the ball as often when he is playing
away games.
28
b. Christine is a competitive swimmer for her college team who usually places in
the top three. She engages in meditation before each race in order to focus her
thoughts and energy on that race. Lately she has not been placing and she believes
that she needs more time to meditate before each race. There are times when she
is not able to do so because the team arrives to the pools where they will race very
shortly before the competitions begin. When asked about differences in
performance between the times that she does meditate and the times she does not,
Christine reports there is no difference.
Procedures
1. Prior to class start time, set up two tables/desks and the front of the room. Place them
at opposite ends, so that one is to your right, the other to your left. Tables/desks are not
directly aligned with each other because students will be running across the front of the
room from this table to the other side of the room (next to the opponent’s table). They
will run past each other in opposite directions without the likelihood that they will run
into each other. Place 10 pieces of 11” x 14” paper on each table, and a few bold colored
markers on each table.
2. Instructor: “We’re going to play a game that involves two teams of five people in each.
For those of you who are not on a team, you must support one or the other from your seat
in the audience. Who would like to participate?” Select 10 students and randomly assign
29
them to tables on either side of the room. Divide remaining class members in half (each
side of the room is rooting for the team whose table/desk is on their side) and inform
them that they are to assist when requested. Encourage audience to shout out answers and
cheer for their team.
3. Instructor: “Your first assignment is to list the five personality theories that were
discussed in your textbook. You will write one on each card, in large print – fill the card.
So, when you’re finished with this task, you will have five cards filled out in front of you.
Please help each other out, and just like the Price is Right, you can confer with the
audience because their participation is encouraged!” Visit both tables to ensure they are
following directions correctly and have identified all five theories.
Students: Work together as a group, consulting with their audience if necessary, and
filling out 11” x 14” paper.
4. Instructor: “Once you have completed your cards, please take them to the other side of
the room, near your opponent’s base, and tape them to the wall in a vertical column (one
on top of the other – instructor demonstrates). They should be in order, starting at the top
with the theory that attributes personality to internal factors the most, and at the bottom
the theory that attributes personality to external factors the most.”
Psychodynamic
Trait
30
Interactional
Phenomenological
Situation
Check for accuracy.
Students: At least one student from each team walks to the other side of the room and
tapes cards up in order.
5. Instructor: “Before we begin the game let’s review how each theory conceptualizes
personality. For example, one theory says, ‘Personality is a dynamic set of processes that
are determined by the unconscious…’ Which theory conceptualized personality in this
way?” Psychodynamic
Students: Respond to this question.
Instructor: Review the four other theories: Trait – units of personality are stable and
caused by internal forces, role of outside stimuli is minimal; Interactional –
situation/environment and traits both determine behavior; Phenomenological – a person’s
understanding and interpretation of self and situation and the environment determine
behavior; Situation – behavior is determined mostly by stimuli/environment, not internal
traits
Instructor: “What are some differences you notice between the five conceptualizations?
What are some aspects that overlap?”
31
6. Instructor: “Our game will require you to think about what you have learned. There is
a lot of room for creativity, but you must relate what you write to what we have
discussed. First, you will be given a hypothetical sports related case (pre-typed, as listed
in materials section). Those of you on teams may discuss the case; those of you in the
audience may either work alone, or get into pairs to discuss the case. Your job is to
imagine yourself as a sports psychologist who is seeing this client and views personality
through the lens of one of the five theories. What might you say to this athlete? I’ll give
you an example. If my case included a wide-receiver on a football team who was
dropping the ball on a regular basis at away games because of the noise from the crowd, a
comment that a sports psychologist may make is, ‘You are having difficulty because the
audience is shouting loudly. What does this loud shouting mean to you?’ What theoretical
orientation would that sports psychologist likely come from?
Phenomenological
You will repeat this for each of the five personality theories that we have reviewed today.
Do you have any questions?”
Students: Write down five questions or comments that would be heard from a
psychologist from each theoretical orientation. Students in audience write on paper,
student participating in game write on 11”x14” paper.
Instructor: Check for accuracy
32
7. Stack papers in random order and hand them out to opposite team turned upside down
so that students cannot see them.
Instructor: “Now it’s time to play the game. What each team will do is form a line, with
the first person in line facing the five personality theories that were tapped onto the
opposite wall. The other four players will line up behind this person. When I say ‘go’ the
first person will pick up the top paper, read the statement or question, and run to the other
side of the room and tape it next to its corresponding theory. The person may ask for help
from the audience if he/she doesn’t know where the statement or question belongs. When
it has been taped up, the player runs back to the line and tags the next player who will
pick up the next paper and do the same. The first team to finish will be the one with all
five questions/statements correctly placed next to their theories, and returns to base. If
any of the questions/statements are placed incorrectly, I will let you know after the fifth
person has gone. At this point any one team member may return to the board and switch
them around. If that team member does not get it right, another may try again once he/she
has returned to base. Are there any questions?” The purpose of this game is to reinforce
students’ abilities to connect real life statements or questions from sport psychologists to
various personality theories. In this way, theory is demonstrated in concrete examples.
8. Begin game and watch both teams to ensure correct placement of cards.
33
9. Once race is finished, Read each paper and corresponding question or statement aloud.
Students return to their desks.
Closure
Instructor: “The purpose of this activity was to help you gain an understanding of the five
theories of personality that have been applied to sport psychology. Hopefully you are
now able to interpret sports related behaviors through the lens of each theory.”
Evaluation
Instructor: “I’d like to know if this game helped you learn about various personality
theories used in sport psychology. I’m going to give you a short quiz that I will keep just
for reference. You will receive the exact same quiz at the beginning of next class that will
count toward your grade.”
Quiz will ask students to list five personality theories, define theories in their own words,
and list a hypothetical statement/question from the perspective of each theory. Instructor
will compare scores on quizzes to check for understanding on quiz given at the end of the
activity, and to promote reviewing information learned in class and retain it until next
class.
34
Motivation Activity
Objective
Demonstrate the concept of motivation, including its components, by exploring students’
own motivation during an activity.
Estimated Time
15 minutes
Rationale
Sport psychologists must understand their clients’ motivations for engaging in their
chosen sport or exercise activity. Motivation involves the extent to which a person seeks
out challenges, persists in the face of adversity, and performs up to ability level on a
reasonably consistent basis (Williams, 2010). In this activity students will perform a task
and then examine their level of motivation on it.
Anticipatory Set
In order to maximize the effectiveness of this activity, the true intent will not be disclosed
until after students have completed it.
Instructor: “Today we’re going to do an activity to get your brains going. The level of
difficulty of the task is up to you. Before I present the task to you, how many of you plan
on continuing on to graduate school? The task that I will give you is very similar to part
35
of the GRE test that you must take in order to apply for graduate school. The analytical
section of this test requires you to complete logic problems. I have four different levels of
these problems – elementary school level, jr. high school level, high school level, and
college level. The college level problem is a modified problem taken from the LSAT, a
test required for application to law school. It is considered very difficult.”
Ask who would like problems at each level and distribute them to students.
Materials
1. Copies of logic problems, quantity of each = number of students in class (may be typed
on half sheets of paper):
Elementary level problem:
Brown, Jones and Smith are a swimmer, a golfer, and a runner. The runner, who is an
only child, earns the least money. Smith, who married Brown's sister, earns more than the
golfer. What is each person's job?
Jr. high level problem:
Five athletes all have their birthday in a different month and each on a different day of
the week. Using the clues below, determine the month and day of the week each athlete’s
birthday falls.
Paula was born in March but not on Saturday. Abigail's birthday was not on Friday or
Wednesday. The girl whose birthday is on Monday was born earlier in the year than
36
Brenda and Mary. Tara wasn't born in February and her birthday was on the weekend.
Mary was not born in December nor was her birthday on a weekday. The girl whose
birthday was in June was born on Sunday. Tara was born before Brenda, whose birthday
wasn't on Friday. Mary wasn't born in July.
High school level problem:
Each year during the holiday season, many of the local youth sports teams sponsor annual
events to raise money. Each event always has a bake sale including bakery goods that are
donated by generous people in the town. Each year, Martha and her friends bake an extra
pie during their usual holiday baking frenzy to donate to one of these annual events. They
each select a different event to donate their pies to and generally each makes a different
flavor too. Determine the full name of Martha and her friends, the type of pie each made,
the sports team each donated the pie to, and the event that each team sponsored.
1. Madeline’s last name wasn’t First. The bake sale was sponsored by the Little Dribblers
basketball team.
2. The pecan pie was not donated to the Dragonfire soccer team. Melony, whose last
name wasn’t Bay, donated her pie to the Cal Ripken Little League.
3. Ms. Stewart, whose first name wasn’t Martha, made the apple pie but she didn’t bring
it to the craft fair.
4. Mary Lewis didn’t donate her pie to the bake sale. The Cal Ripken Little League did
not receive a pecan pie.
37
5. The pumpkin pie was donated to the YMCA flag football team but they didn’t hold a
pancake breakfast.
6. Martha brought her pie to the spaghetti dinner. The rhubarb pie was brought to the
craft fair.
Difficult (LSAT) level problem:
A particular sports complex hosts various sports games Tuesday through Sunday. The
complex is closed on Monday. Five sports — soccer, hockey, lacrosse, rugby, and
football — are played each week according to the following restrictions:
Hockey is played on three days each week, but never on Friday.
Lacrosse is played on one day each week.
Rugby is played on three days each week, but never on consecutive days.
Hockey and soccer are both played on Saturday and Sunday.
Football is played five days each week.
No more than three different games are played on any given day.
Question 1:
On which of the following pairs of days could the game schedule be identical?
A. Friday and Sunday
B. Tuesday and Wednesday
C. Saturday and Sunday
D. Wednesday and Friday
38
E. Thursday and Friday
Question 2:
Which of the following is a complete and accurate list of the days on which hockey and
lacrosse may both be played?
A. Tuesday, Thursday
B. Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday
C. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday
D. Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday
E. Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday
Question 3:
If rugby is played on Saturday, it could be true that
A. soccer and rugby are both played on Sunday.
B. soccer and hockey are both played on Tuesday.
C. lacrosse and hockey are both played on Sunday.
D. football and soccer are both played on Saturday.
E. lacrosse and soccer are both played on Friday.
Question 4:
Which of the following statements provides sufficient information to determine on which
three days hockey is played?
A. rugby and lacrosse are played on the same day
B. lacrosse and soccer are both played on the same day
39
C. football is played on Saturday, and lacrosse is played on Tuesday
D. rugby is played on Saturday, and soccer is played on all but one of the six days
E. football is played on Sunday, and soccer is played on Tuesday and Thursday
Procedures
Pass out sheets of paper with logic problems on them.
Instructor: “This will be a timed activity. Please do not begin reading your problem until
I say ‘go.’ Periodically, I am going to ask you to measure your level of effort in working
on this task. If you are completely engaged in doing so and are working to your highest
ability level, please rate yourself as a 10. If you are not even looking at the problem or
thinking about it, please rate yourself as a 0. If you are somewhere in between, please rate
yourself accordingly. Please write these scores on the right margin next to the typed
problem. You are encouraged to use a separate piece of paper to create grids in order to
help you solve the problem. Are there any questions?”
Answer any questions but do not reveal how much time students are given.
Instructor: “Go.” (timing begins)
Students: Work on logic problems.
At 1 minute: “Please rate the level of effort that you are applying to your work at this
time on the scale from 1 - 10. Please write your number on the right margin next to the
problem.”
40
At 2 minutes: “Please rate the level of effort you are applying to your work at this time on
the scale from 1 - 10. Please write your number on the right margin next to the problem.
Usually those who are capable of completing these problems successfully are almost
finished.”
At 3 minutes: “Please rate the level of effort you are applying to your work at this time on
the scale from 1 - 10. Please write your number on the right margin next to the problem.”
At 4 minutes: “Please rate the level of effort you are applying to your work at this time on
the scale from 1 - 10. Please write your number on the right margin next to the problem.
Hopefully by now you are fairly confident that you have the correct answers. You still
have some time so feel free to check your work.”
At 5 minutes: “Please rate the level of effort you are applying to your work at this time
on the scale from 1 - 10. Please write your number on the right margin next to the
problem. When you have done this, please put your pencils down. Time is up.”
Closure
Instructor: “What do you think was the purpose of this activity? Can you identify
concepts that were either measured or presented? The first measure taken was the level of
challenge that you were willing to accept. What do you think was the second? What do
you think we were measuring every minute when I asked you to quantify your effort
level? The purpose of that was to see if you were performing to the best of your ability at
that time. In this activity, what are some things that could cause your ability level to be
41
optimal (the best that it can be)? What are some things that would cause your ability level
to be poor? What do you think was the last concept that was presented in this activity?
What did you think about my comments about where you should be in the problem? How
many of you were affected by that? Those comments were supposed to represent
adversity. If you were working to your best ability level and continued to do so even
though I made these stress-inducing comments, you were demonstrating persistence in
the face of adversity. So, in this activity you were allowed to select your level of
challenge, rate your performance level, and were given a stressor which may have had an
adverse effect on your performance. When you consider these three things together, what
would you say this activity was about? Yes, motivation! What do you think someone
with high motivation did on this activity? What do you think someone with low
motivation did on this activity?”
Evaluation
Students write down the three parts of motivation and how they were measured or
presented in this activity and submit for credit toward participation grade.
References
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
42
Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety Activity
Objective
Facilitate understanding of various anxiety and performance theories by applying them to
an in-class activity.
Estimated Time
45 minutes
Rationale
Sport psychologists must have a thorough understanding of the effects of arousal, stress,
and anxiety on performance. Part of their job is to determine the levels of arousal, stress,
and anxiety that the athlete experiences surrounding performance. Next, sport
psychologists study athletes’ physical and cognitive reactions to these emotional states.
Finally, they help the athletes control their levels of arousal, stress, and anxiety in order
to reach the ideal level of emotions where they perform best (Williams, 2010). In this
activity, students will examine seven theories that describe the effects of arousal, stress,
and anxiety on performance. Students will engage in tasks with varying levels of anxiety
provoking conditions. They will then be asked to consider how to apply a theory to their
experiences. All seven theories will be reviewed and then students will be asked to select
which theory is most congruent with their experiences.
43
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Today we’re going to break up into three groups and do activities that require
you to use motor skills. You will be putting balls into a cup. As you are doing this,
pretend as if you are on the 18th green at the U.S. Open and if you make your shot, you
will win this competition. At one of the stations, you will receive points for your
successful putts. Hopefully you’ll enjoy this activity.” (Students will not be told about
applying theories to these activities because knowing this while engaging in the activity
may influence their emotions.)
Materials
1. Three golf putters/clubs (or any items that can be used to knock a ball into a cup as
long as all three are similar)
2. Three paper/Styrofoam/plastic cups
tape
3. 11”x14” paper (preferably thick, strong)
4. Markers
5. Paper (students provide)
6. Pen/pencil (students provide)
44
Procedures
1. Before class, set up 3 different “putting greens.” Lay cups on their sides and then tape
them down (so that a ball can be hit into them). If the cups are thick, (so that it would be
difficult to get the ball up and into the cup), cut the cup open from top to bottom and then
tape the cup on the ground so that the ball easily rolls into it. In the first putting station,
mark the starting place (where the ball will rest) around 3 feet in front of the cup. In the
second putting station, mark the starting place around 6 feet in front of the cup, and in the
third, mark the starting place around 12 feet away from the cup.
2. Instructor: “Before I break you into groups for the activity I need two volunteers to run
two of the stations.”
If students do not volunteer, ask specific students if they would be willing to help out.
Take students outside of classroom.
Instructor: “You will be in charge of stations one and two. At station one the students
will putt the ball from about three feet away from the cup and at station two they putt
from about 6 feet away. If a student putts and misses the cup, have him or her return the
ball to the starting place and then get back to the end of the line. The next student in line
will then attempt to putt the ball into the cup. At station one only, once all students have
putt the ball into the cup, walk them over to station three and have them watch the
students there attempt to putt. Do you have any questions?”
45
3. Count students off by three.
Instructor: “Ones go to station one, twos go to station two, and threes go to station three.”
4. Students engage in activity at each station.
Instructor (at station three): “You will receive points for your performance at this
station.”
Guide students to get into a line and take turns attempting to putt the ball into the cup.
5. After 5-7 minutes, Ask groups to switch.
Instructor: “Ok class, we’re going to switch stations. Those of you at station one will go
to station two, those of you at station two will go to three, and you guys here at station
three will go to station one.”
6. Students engage in activity at new stations for about 5-7 minutes and then switch again
so that all students experience each station.
7. After last session is over, ask students to return to their seats.
8. Class discussion. Instructor: “What are some differences between the stations? Were
your stress or anxiety levels different at each of the stations? What were specific things
46
that caused these differences? Do you think that your stress or anxiety level affected your
performance?”
9. Instructor: “Now what we’re going to do is get into seven groups and apply the various
theories that you read about in your text book to your experiences here today. You may
use your book to review the theories. I’m going to give you a few pieces of 11”x14”
paper and some markers. On one sheet of paper, please write the name of the theory that
your group was assigned and on another couple or few pieces, please write a brief
description of the theory. We’re going to tape all of these up on the wall because you will
be applying the activity to one theory in your group, but you need to know how to apply
activities to all theories. This will require you to participate in your group work and then
listen to the other groups when they explain their work. I’ll roam around to help.”
Count off students to seven.
Instructor: “Ones will apply Drive Theory to their experiences, twos will apply InvertedU Hypothesis, threes - Multidimensional Anxiety Theory, fours - Individualized Zones of
Optimal Functioning, fives - Catastrophe Model, sixes – Reversal Theory, and sevens –
Anxiety Direction and Intensity View. Go ahead and get into your groups and get
started.”
Walk around, visit with groups, and help as requested or needed.
47
Possible Reponses
Drive Theory – According to Drive Theory, the more anxious people became, the
better they perform. We were most anxious in station three because of factors
such as: audience, evaluation (points), and highest level of difficulty. So
according to drive theory, we should have performed best in station three, where
we were putting 12 feet away from the cup. Social facilitation theory is a type of
drive theory. It states that people do tasks to their ability level when they have an
audience. This means that people who know how to do a task well will succeed
when they are in the presence of others (as an audience or participating in the
task with them). Those who have not mastered a task will perform poorly.
Research does not support drive theory.
Inverted-U Hypothesis – This theory explains performance in terms of arousal or
anxiety level. It states that when a person is not aroused or anxious at all, he/she
is too relaxed and does not perform the best that he/she can. When the level of
arousal or anxiety is at a medium level, performance is best. When the levels are
high, performance is compromised. So according to this theory, we should have
performed best at station two, where we were putting six feet away from the cup.
According to this theory, from this distance we were challenged a little to give us
some arousal or anxiety, but not so much that we weren’t able to do well.
48
Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning – In this theory, people have a
range of anxiety where they perform best. For some, low levels of anxiety would
result in the best performance. For others it would be high, and for some, it would
be a moderate level range of anxiety. This model also includes ranges of other
emotions such as determination, pleasantness, and laziness. This model has good
support in research literature. So according to this model, each student would do
best at whatever station caused anxiety within his or her optimal functioning
zone.
Multidimensional Anxiety Theory – This theory differentiates between cognitive
state anxiety, which involves thoughts such as worries, and somatic state anxiety,
which involve physical reactions such as muscle tension. This theory states that
cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance. The more a person
worries or is mentally anxious, the worse he or she will perform. Somatic state
anxiety is related to performance in an inverted-u pattern. So, low and high levels
of somatic state anxiety cause lower levels of performance, and moderate levels of
somatic anxiety cause optimal performance. According to this model, a student
would perform best at the station where he or she experiences some physical
symptoms of anxiety, and low levels of worry or cognitive state anxiety.
49
Catastrophe Model – This model states that physiological arousal is related to
performance in an inverted-u pattern only when the athlete has low cognitive
state anxiety. When the athlete experiences cognitive anxiety just above the
optimal level, performance is compromised at a very steep declining rate (thus the
name “catastrophe”). The level of somatic anxiety affects performance differently
based on the level of cognitive anxiety. According to this theory, we should have
performed best at the stations where our levels of cognitive anxiety were at
optimal levels thus our somatic anxiety levels were at optimal levels as well. Once
we started worrying too much, the physical effects of anxiety would have
compromised our performance at a high level, causing us not to succeed in the
task.
Reversal Theory – This theory states that performance depends on a person’s
interpretation of his or her arousal level. One person who is not aroused might
interpret this as boredom and not perform well, while another person may
interpret this as being relaxed and will perform optimally. Another component of
this theory, (the reversal part), is that athletes quickly change their
interpretations about their levels of arousal. For example, one moment a golfer
may believe that her high arousal is pleasant excitement, and in another moment
may perceive it as unpleasant anxiety. So according to this theory, students
should have performed best at whatever station they had positive feelings about
50
their level of anxiety, no matter what it was. If I believed that the anxiety I was
feeling at the third station was energizing, I would have done better there than if I
believed that it would cause me to mess up.
Anxiety Direction and Intensity View – This theory is similar to reversal theory in
that it states that performance is affected by how people interpret their anxiety
symptoms. It differs from reversal theory because it includes the intensity of a
person’s anxiety as a function of the anxiety-performance relationship. Factors
such as trait anxiety and self-esteem influence the amount of stress that an athlete
will experience. In addition, a person’s perception of control over coping with a
challenge or succeeding at it helps determine whether his or her anxiety will be
perceived as facilitative or debilitative. So, in this activity, a person who is
experiencing low to moderate anxiety and has positive beliefs about it will
perform better than someone who is experiencing a high level of anxiety and has
negative beliefs about it.
9. Ask each group to tape their theory and definition/explanation on the wall and discuss
it and then apply it to the activity. Students choose a representative from their groups to
share with the class.
10. Class discussion
51
Instructor: “Based on your opinion, which theory fits your experience with this activity
best? Which fits the worst? Have you had any experiences that contradict any of these
theories?”
Closure
Instructor: “In this activity you engaged in tasks that provoked varying levels of anxiety.
Then we applied the seven theories that were presented in our text to our experiences on
these tasks. It is your job to understand these theories and how a sport psychologist would
apply various situations to them. Today all of you will receive the same amount of points
for your participation at station three and in this activity and class discussion. What did
you guys think of this activity?”
“Next class you will take a quiz where you will be asked to: 1) Identify a personal
experience involving anxiety and performance; 2) Apply the seven theories to your
experience, and 3) Select the theory that best explains your performance.”
Evaluation
At the beginning of the next class period, put the 11”x14” papers with the theory names,
but not the theory descriptions back up on the wall and ask students to describe a personal
experience where they had to perform a task, preferably sports or exercise related. Then
students must apply how their levels of anxiety related to performance, according to each
of the seven theories. For those theories not supported by their experiences, students must
52
indicate how they were not, demonstrating that they understand each theory. Students
will then identify the theory that they believe best explains their performance in relation
to their level of anxiety.
References
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
53
Cooperation and Competition Activity
Objective
Students will gain an understanding of cooperative vs. competitive situations through a
class activity. They will apply research findings to their experiences in both situations.
Students will also gain an understanding of their optimal personal performance situation
(either cooperative or competitive).
Estimated Time
50 minutes
Rationale
Early sport psychology research has yielded mixed findings on the extent to which
competitive and cooperative situations affect performance. Recently researchers have
found that cooperative situations result in better athletic performance than highly
competitive events (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). In order to help an athlete maximize his
or her performance, a sport psychologist must understand the nature of the sport that the
athlete engages in, and the athlete’s response to competitive and cooperative situations. In
this activity students will review research on competition and cooperation and gain an
understanding of their responses to each of these situations.
54
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “We’re going to start today’s class by playing some games. You will receive
points based on your performance in each game.” (Instructor will not disclose purpose of
activity until the end of class.)
Materials
1. Three baskets/plastic bins/wastebaskets (must be new or sanitized) – all three must be
the same
2. scratch paper (if available to instructor), if not, students will use their own paper
3. Two timing devices (most students will have these on their cell phones), or classroom
clock with third hand
4. student journals (or paper)
Procedures
1. Before class obtain permission to use another classroom and keys, if necessary.
2. Before class mark where the two baskets (or other form of containers) will be placed in
the classroom by making x’s on the floor with masking tape. Place baskets at least five
feet apart. Use masking tape to mark starting places, around 10 feet away from each
basket. Mark where one basket will be in the other classroom and mark starting place
55
with masking tape. Place one desk next to each starting place, (where paper balls will be
placed).
3. Before class talk with assistant or a student volunteer.
Instructor (to assistant or volunteer student): “You will run a competitive game. Divide
students up into two groups and have them form two single file lines. Tell students that
the winner of each game will receive a bonus participation point. Use your phone,
another student’s phone, or the classroom clock to time each pair for one minute (time
may be shortened for larger classes). Have the two students at the end of the line come to
the baskets and count the number of successful shots. Students may have a ball in their
hands when you say start, but must not pick up another until the first has landed. Have a
piece of paper out to record names and number of baskets. Once a minute is up, call time
and ask counters for scores. Make sure to announce the scores and the winner of each
game. Once everyone has competed, have students rearrange themselves in line so they
will be competing with someone else. Run through the timed competition again.”
4. Instructor (to class): “In today’s game you will be shooting baskets with paper balls.
Before we begin the game, I need each of you to crumple up some paper into little balls.”
Hand out scratch paper or ask students to use their own paper. Total number of balls
needed are around 100, so the number that each student must crumple depends on how
56
many students are in the class (e.g. if there are 20 students, each crumples five pieces of
paper).
5. Instructor: “I’m going to count you off by threes. Ones will bring their paper balls to
this basket (instructor holds up first basket), twos to this one (instructor holds up second
basket), and threes to this one (instructor holds up third basket). Count off students.
Students: Place paper balls in appropriate baskets.
6. Instructor: “Now I will count you off by twos. Ones will stay in this classroom and
twos will go into another classroom.” Give teaching assistant or student volunteer one
basket with paper balls and he or she goes to the next room to begin activity.
7. Dump paper balls on desks next to starting places, and then place baskets on their
spots.
8. Go to other classroom and tell students, “In this game you will be shooting baskets for
bonus participation points. Each of you will shoot for one minute at a time. The total
number of baskets scored by each one of you will be recorded. I will need one volunteer
for each person’s turn to count baskets. That person will tell you your score only so that
you will know it. I will not write your name down, but will write your score and once
everyone has gone, I will sum the scores. If all of your scores combined reaches a certain
57
number or more, you all will receive bonus points. So the goal of this game is to score as
many points as you can, collectively, as a team. I will not tell you what number your team
is trying to reach until the end because I don’t want you to worry about it. Just do your
best.” (Total number of baskets for bonus points equals number of students in group
times seven).
The reason that students will be told their individual scores is so that they may compare
their performances in the competitive and cooperative situations.
9. Instructor: “Who would like to go first?”
Have volunteer stand at starting place.
Instructor: “You may pick up a piece of paper and toss it when I say ‘go’. You may not
pick up the next one until the one before it has landed - either in the basket or on the
floor.”
Starts time, say, “Go!” and student begins game.
10. At the end of the minute call time, student score keeper tells student number of shots
made. Record this number only (not student’s name).
11. Once all students in the cooperative condition have had an opportunity to play, and all
students in the other classroom have played twice, ask students to switch stations.
58
12. When students have finished at their second stations, everyone returns to the
classroom.
Instructor: “What do you think this activity was about? Early on when researchers began
measuring sports behaviors, Triplett found that cyclists performed better when they were
racing against others than when they were simply racing against the clock. How many of
you performed better when you were competing against each other? Later on, another
researcher by the name of Deutsch found that people who had to compete against each
other were more self-centered, directed their efforts toward beating others, had group
conflict, closed communication, and mistrusted each other more. The cooperation group
on the other hand, communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and
performed better on the task. Was this true for any of you? More recently research has
found that people perform better in cooperative situations. At the same time, a healthy
sense of competition, that is where winning is not all that matters, contributes to better
performance as well. Competition in of itself is not a positive or negative experience.
What makes it a positive or negative experience is how the adults in your life treated
competition when you were younger. If your coach or parent told you that loosing meant
failure, you may have grown to avoid competitive situations. On the other hand, if you
were told that playing a challenging team is a way to push yourself to play your best and
can be a learning opportunity, you may see competition as beneficial – no matter what the
outcome.”
59
13. Instructor: “Now I would like you to take out your journals and answer the following
questions.”
Write questions on board:
1. Were your experiences consistent with Triplett’s or Deutsch’s findings?
2. Why do you think you performed better in one condition than another (other than
practice effects)?
3. Which condition did you most enjoy?
4. What is your attitude about competition?
5. What is your attitude about cooperation?
Students write in journals (or paper) for five to ten minutes and then submit them for
grading.
Closure
Instructor: “Today we engaged in competitive and cooperative games. We talked about
theories on the effects of competition and cooperation. Hopefully through our class
discussions and journals you were able to identify your attitudes about competition and
cooperation, and identify in which situation you perform best.
Evaluation
Journals will be graded for thoughtful responses.
60
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
61
The Effects of Feedback and Reinforcement on Motivation Activity
Objective
Students will apply knowledge about the effects of feedback and reinforcement on
motivation to case studies. They will review various effects and then identify specific
interventions that sport psychologists may use to help athletes who require changes in
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Estimated Time
30 minutes
Rationale
One important job of sport psychologists is identifying athletes’ source of motivation.
Intrinsic motivation has been linked to better performance, longer duration of
involvement in sport, effort and energy exhibited, and enjoyment of the sport (Weinberg
& Gould, 2007). Ideally, a sport psychologist would help athletes decrease external
motivation and increase intrinsic motivation. Methods for doing so will be explored in
this activity.
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Today we are going to review intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and how
they are affected by feedback and reinforcement. As you may know, coaches, parents,
62
significant others, and teammates play an important role in how an athlete is motivated to
play his or her sport. What we’re going to do today is review how a sport psychologist
would help an athlete reach an optimum level of motivation by working with him or her
and those important folks who influence his or her feelings about sport. The good thing is
that you get to be the sport psychologist and create interventions for specific case
studies.”
Materials
1. Paper and pencil or pen (provided by student)
2. Case studies, multiple copies of each, typed on half sheets:
1. Jake is a quarterback for a Pac 10 college football team. He performs well during all
games and his team is headed for the Rose Bowl. He seeks help from a sport psychologist
because he is feeling an overwhelming amount of pressure from his coach, father, and
others to win. Jake reports that football is very important to him, but the stress that is
brought on by these people is making the game not as enjoyable as it once was. During
the intake session he makes statements about how he wishes that his team were not going
to the Rose Bowl because the entire focus of that event for his coach and father is
winning. Jake knows that if his team does win this game, his NFL offers will increase
dramatically, including the amounts offered for contracts. Although he feels privileged to
63
be in his situation, he would prefer to go back to the old days when he was playing for
fun, success, and the enjoyment of competition.
2. Frank is a swimmer for the U.S. Olympic Swim Team. Since he has become a member
of this team, he has worked harder than ever. His lap times have improved in all
categories, and he is happier than he has ever been in his life. He sees the Olympics as the
ultimate form of competition and validation for his hard work throughout his life. He
seeks help from a sport psychologist because he wants to do everything he can to ensure
that he will not choke at the most important moment of his life – when he competes in the
Olympics. Frank reports that he has choked in the past and is afraid that he will do so
again because this competition means everything to him. If he wins, it will be the
ultimate proof that his work was worthwhile. While Frank is not paid for being on the
Olympic Team, he has received offers for endorsements by private companies such as
Adidas. He is not interested in these endorsements because competing is all about the
feeling he gets when he wins.
3. Sarah is a high school student on her school’s ski team. She was taught to ski at a
young age because her family enjoys the sport and goes on a regular basis during ski
season. Sarah joined the team because she wants to be part of the group and enjoys the
success when she improves her time. Sarah is seeking help from a sport psychologist
because she is questioning whether or not she would like to remain on the ski team. The
64
team has advanced in the high school level finals, and Sarah states that she would prefer
to stay home and be warm rather than deal with traffic, the cold weather, and the intense
competition. Her parents are generally emotionally supportive and allow her to make
decisions for herself. Since they are such avid skiers, however, she is concerned that she
will be letting them down because she does not want to compete any more this season.
Procedures
1. Ask students to get into pairs.
2. Instructor: “The first thing we will do is review methods for increasing and decreasing
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. We will do this as a large group before you are asked
to work in your pairs for the applied part of this activity. Please write these down on
paper so that you may use them as a guide during your work. What are some ways that a
sport psychologist would increase internal motivation?” Write responses on board:
Possible Answers
a. Promote perception of competence on challenges the athlete faces
through practice and successful experiences
b. Verbal and non-verbal praise
c. Vary content and sequence of practice drills
d. Democratic team, involve members in decisions
e. Set realistic, individualized performance goals
65
f. Promote flow experience by matching challenge and skill, helping
athlete reach optimal arousal level before performance, physical and
mental preparation, and positive team interactions
g. Extrinsic rewards that are informational (tell the athlete that they are
successful at something specific)
3. Instructor: “What are some ways that a sport psychologist would decrease internal
motivation?” Write responses on board:
Possible Answers
a. Instill fear of failure or reinforce it
b. Autocratic coaching
c. Punishment used more than positive reinforcement
d. Verbally/emotionally attack person, not behavior
e. Increase experiences with failure
f. Foster hierarchy within the team
g. Foster conflict within the team
h. Crease stressful performance environment
i. Increase extrinsic rewards that are controlling (for non-specific
behaviors or for wins)
66
4. Instructor: “Do you think it would be ethical for a sport psychologist to promote any of
these things? Why do you think it is important for you to identify them? Have you seen
coaches or leaders doing these types of things? Does anyone want to share?”
5. Instructor: “What are some ways that a sport psychologist would increase external
motivation?” Write responses on board:
Possible Answers
a. Giving monetary or physical rewards such as scholarships, cash, or
cars
b. Talk person into engaging in activity because it is “good” for him
or her (not because the person wants to engage in the activity)
c. Set up success at a task or activity that the person is engaging in for
the sake of success at something (not particularly the sport itself or for
the enjoyment of the activity)
d. Tell the athlete that others will like or respect him or her more if
they participate in the sport
6. Instructor: “Do you think that is would be ethical for a sport psychologist to attempt to
increase external motivation? Why? How common do you think it is for athletes to be
motivated by external feedback or rewards? Do you think this affects their internal
motivation?”
67
7. Instructor: “What are some ways that a sport psychologist could decrease external
motivation?” Write responses on board:
Possible Answers
a. Decrease monetary or physical rewards
b. Decrease positive feedback from others (who are significant to athlete)
c. All things listed in increasing internal motivation list
8. Instructor: “Now I’m going to pass out the case studies. You will have the same one as
other groups, so when time is up, I will ask you to share what you have written with the
class. Your job is to pretend that you are a sport psychologist. Using the general methods
of increasing and decreasing internal and external motivation, you are to list at least three
specific things that you would do to implement these interventions. For example, if I
wanted to increase a swimmer’s internal motivation by using verbal and non-verbal
praise, I would talk with the coach and others who evaluate the swimmer’s performance
on an informal basis. I would ask them what the swimmer is currently working on and for
a list of his or successes toward that goal. Then I would give the coach specific
verbalizations or non-verbal gestures that he/she could use as encouragement such as,
‘Your lap time has improved today.’ Please be as specific as possible. Also, you may
want to organize your paper in the same way that we did on the board, with sections for
each type of intervention.”
68
Students work in pairs.
9. Instructor: “Which groups had the case study about Jake?”
Ask for examples for increasing and decreasing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for
each of the three case studies and write them on the board. A student from each group
responds.
Closure
Instructor: “Today we reviewed methods for increasing and decreasing internal and
external motivation. What were some of the interventions that you think would affect
your motivation? Have any other of you or someone you know experienced this kind of
feedback or reinforcement? Did it affect you or the other person the same or differently?
At the beginning of our next class you will be given a quiz where you will be asked to
identify three interventions for each of the four motivation goals that we discussed today
- increasing internal motivation, decreasing internal motivation, increasing external
motivation, and decreasing external motivation.”
Evaluation
At the beginning of the following class period students will be given the quiz.
69
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
70
Team Dynamics Activity
Objective
Students will identify the following aspects of team dynamics in the movie “Miracle”:
theory of team development, group roles, team climate, social support, coaching,
teamwork, team motivation, and developing group success.
Estimated Time
Three hours (two class periods)
*alternate plan (45 minutes):
Assign steps one through six for homework. Students are to look up concepts and watch
the movie on their own for homework. When they return to class, the lesson will pick up
at procedure number seven.
Rationale
Team dynamics play an important role in athletes’ performances. Research has shown
that athletes who are on teams with positive dynamics demonstrate better performance
than those on teams with negative dynamics, even when individual ability is equal (Horn,
2002). Sport psychologists who work with athletes who play team sports must analyze
several aspects of team dynamics in order to design interventions that will improve
performance. Students will analyze the team dynamics in the movie “Miracle” that
contributed to positive changes in team performance and lead the team to success.
71
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Today we’re going to carefully examine team dynamics. You are going to be
asked to identify eight aspects of team dynamics in a case study. This will be a lengthy
assignment that will require two class periods and a lot of work on your part. The good
news is that I believe that you will get a lot out of it and that you will enjoy it. The case
study about team dynamics that we will use is the movie “Miracle.”
Materials
1. Movie “Miracle”
2. Typed questions, one on each half-sheet of paper, one per student:
1. Based on what you saw in the movie, what theory of team development best
explains how this team grew together? Explain.
2. Identify group roles that were demonstrated in this movie. After each role
listed, identify if it was a formal or informal role.
3. In your own words, describe the team climate. How did it change over time?
4. List at least three kinds of social support that were demonstrated in this movie
and give an example of teach.
5. List at least five ways that Coach Brooks built his team.
6. According to research findings, with a team such as this one, what is more
important – high individual ability or successful teamwork? Explain.
72
7. According to researchers, what is the single best way to develop team
motivation? How did this happen in the movie?
8. Your book has identified six ways to develop group success. List each one and
give an example of each from the movie.
Procedures
1. Hand out half-sheets of paper.
Instructor: “I’m giving you eight half-sheets of paper. Please take one and pass the rest
around. Each half-sheet contains one question that I would like you to answer. Since we
will be using two class periods for this, you have time to give thoughtful and thorough
answers. Please write your name on the back of each half-sheet.”
2. Instructor: “Take a minute to look over the questions so that you can think about them
as you’re watching the movie.”
Allow students time to look over questions.
3. Instructor: “As you’re watching the movie, feel free to take any notes that you would
like.” Play movie.
73
4. (When 1st class period ends) Instructor: “For homework you are to look up the
concepts in the questions and write any definitions or notes that would help you answer
them. Feel free to start answering any questions for which you already have responses.”
5. (Next class period) Instructor: “Today we’re going to finish the movie and then you
will have time to respond to the questions. After that we will form eight groups, one for
each question. Each group will review answers and choose the top three. Your grade will
be based on the quality of your work, not on the groups’ selections. We will be doing the
group work to share what others had to say.”
6. (After movie ends) Instructor: “Take 20 minutes to finalize your answers. Please make
sure your name is written on the back of each sheet.” Students write responses on halfsheets.
7. (After 20 minutes) Instructor: “I’m going to count you off by eight. The first group
will review answers for question number one and will meet here (point to one corner of
classroom). The second group will review answers for question number two and will
meet here (point to area near first group).” Point out where each group will meet and then
counts off students. Students move to their areas.
74
8. Instructor: “Please place your half-sheets that are your group number on a desk in your
area, face up. Then walk around the classroom placing your other sheets on the
corresponding piles. So group one will have a pile of half sheets with questions one on
them, another group will have a pile of half sheets with questions two on them, and so on.
After you are finished distributing your sheets, please return to your group.” Students
place questions in appropriate piles and return to their groups.
9. Instructor: “In good faith I am asking you to review answers only and not look at
students’ names on the backs of papers. Also, I am trusting you to be thoughtful in
considering the top three responses, without any bias. You will have 10 minutes in your
groups to read all answers and as a group determine the top three.” Students work in
groups.
10. Instructor: “As we are discussing the answers, feel free to write any notes that you
would like. If there’s something that you didn’t include in your response, you may write
it down and turn it in for consideration toward this assignment’s grade. Group one, what
were the top three responses?” A student representative from each group reads the three
responses that were chosen by the group. Make comments as necessary and ensure that
the following information was covered in each response:
75
Possible Answers
1. Based on what you saw in the movie, what theory of team development best
explains how this team grew together? Explain.
Linear Perspective
a. forming (team members familiarize themselves with each other, social
comparisons, determining roles) In the movie the players engaged in formal (on
ice after fight), and informal (in locker room during try-outs) introductions.
Players told each other their names and where they came from (what team they
played for).
b. storming (resistance to leader and control by the group, and interpersonal
conflict)
c. fight between Robbie and Jack (old rivalry)
d. Jimmy’s refusal to complete test
e. team’s comments about coach
f. norming (hostility replaced by solidarity and cooperation, conflicts resolved
and sense of unity forms)
g. Conehead line (pass, shoot, score)
h. Robbie and Jack supportive of each other
i. team members tell coach they are family (when someone is threatened to be
replaced with a new guy)
76
j. coach doesn’t allow media to make a hero out of one player because they are
all
responsible for their success
k. performing (team members band together to channel energies for success)
l. Olympic victories (undefeated)
2. Identify group roles that were demonstrated in this movie. After each role
listed, identify if it was a formal or informal role.
a. Buzz, Pav & Bah – Conehead line (forwards – formal role)
b. Rizzo – team captain – formal role, mediator – informal role, leader – informal
role
c. Jimmy Craig – goalie – formal role
d. All team members – comedians (humor was a source of bonding)
e. Coach Craig Patrick – assistant coach – formal role, emotional support –
informal role
f. Coach Brooks – Coach (Autocratic leadership style) – formal role
3. In your own words, describe the team climate. How did it change over time?
Team was willing work hard, and then had difficulties understanding coach’s
behaviors. Team grew emotionally cohesive (because of coach’s challenges), then
cohesion spread to their performance. Team began trusting coach, understanding
77
reasons for his behavior. Coach’s words meant more to them. Team grew
confident and performance increased.
4. List at least three kinds of social support that were demonstrated in this movie
and give an example of teach.
a. Listening support – team members gathered outside of practice and game time.
They got to know one another on a personal level, outside of their roles as players
(going out for beer, party).
b. Emotional support – provided by Coach Patrick. Players gave each other
emotional support with positive verbal comments (before game against Sweden).
c. Task-Appreciation support – Coneheads giving specific positive reinforcement
to each other (e.g. “Nice pass!”)
d. Task-Challenge support – Coach challenged Jimmy’s performance, noting that
he has watched him before and Jimmy is not performing his best.
e. Personal-Assistance support – Coach Brooks talks with Jimmy about family
(mother’s death).
5. List at least five ways that Coach Brooks built his team.
a. Allowed team members to verbalize feelings
b. Hard training
c. Did not accept loss (Norway)
78
d. Insisted on team dedication (stopped rigorous drills after Rizzo proclaimed his
dedication)
e. Insisted on 100% effort (at various times throughout movie told players they
were not giving 100%)
f. Strategically set up conditions where team would grow cohesive (bring in
outsider)
g. Encouraged teamwork (Conehead line, Johnson and O. C.)
6. According to research findings, with a team such as this one, what is more
important – high individual ability, or successful teamwork? Explain.
Successful teamwork. Research has found that individual skill is essential to the
success of a team, but without teamwork, the team will not be successful. In many
high-level organized sports, such as Olympic teams, individual skill is around the
same level across all teams. What makes teams successful is their level of
teamwork. Coach Brooks insinuated this when he discussed the high skill level of
the 1976 Olympic hockey team during the Committee meeting.
7. According to researchers, what is the single best way to develop team
motivation? How did this happen in the movie?
A unifying team goal that all agree on. Coach Brooks focused team efforts on
beating Russia (studied films of games, created strategies, trained hard so that U.
79
S. team could keep their energy up throughout the entire game, pep talks –
“Someone needs to take down this undefeated team and you guys are going to do
it.”
8. Your book has identified six ways to develop group success. List each one and
give an example of each from the movie.
a. Emphasize pride in the team – Coach asks who they play for (correct response
is not the college team they came from, but “‘United States of America!”)
b. Ensure each team members’ contribution is valued and recognized by coach
and teammates - During press conference coach discussed success as a result of
each team member’s contribution.
c. Emphasis on good leadership – Team eventually understood coach’s strategies
were uniting them as a team. Coach insisted on hard training (first meeting),
100% effort (talk with Jimmy and O. C.), and teamwork (told players individual
ability is not enough).
d. Develop task and social cohesion – Players used strategies which required
teamwork (pass, shoot, score). Players socialized outside of practice and game
time (bar, party). Players used humor to bond (locker room, party).
e. Encourage unified commitment to team effort – Coach kept team together
although outsider played better because they insisted they were better together as
80
a family. Coach kept injured player when he could have traded him out because
he wanted to keep the team together.
f. Use effective communication to keep all members feeling part of team – Pep
talk before game against Russia.
11. Once class discussion is complete, collect all half-sheets and notes.
Closure
Instructor: “In this lesson we discussed several aspects of team dynamics. Do any of you
believe or have experience showing that any of these dynamics are essential to team
success?” Students who volunteer share responses.
Evaluation
Students’ responses on half sheets will be graded for content and effort. Each response is
worth up to 12.5 points (100 points total). Instructor will also include additional notes
submitted by students when considering grades. Responses on notes are weighted at 50%
of responses on half-sheets. For example, if a student does not answer the question on the
half-sheet (0 points = 0%), but provides a thorough answer on notes, he or she will
receive 6.25 points = 50%.
81
References
Horn, T. (2002). Advances In sport psychology. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics
Publishers, Inc.
82
Leadership Activity
Objective
Students will demonstrate knowledge learned about leadership by creating a story about a
case study about a coach.
Estimated Time
45 minutes
*Alternative plan listed after evaluation (20 minutes)
Rationale
There are several leadership qualities that affect team performance. When sport
psychologists work with team sports athletes, leadership must be considered a factor in
their levels of performance. There are several theories on leadership, and research has
shown that many factors determine whether or not a leader is effective in guiding his or
her team to victory (Williams, 2010). In this activity, students will examine various
factors and demonstrate their knowledge about effective (or ineffective) leadership by
creating a case study.
83
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Today you’re going to apply what you have learned about leadership by
creating a story. You will work in teams of two to create a fictitious coach and you are
allowed to be as creative as you would like (without getting offensive).”
Materials
Paper and pencil/pen (student provided)
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today’s activity could be fun, depending on how creative you are. Your
job is to write a story about a hypothetical coach. You will address the following
elements in your story (write the following on the board):
1. Describe the coach (gender, age, general personality characteristics)
2. Describe the team (type of sport, age of athletes, performance level, etc.)
3. Leadership qualities the coach possesses (e.g. integrity, flexibility, loyalty,
confidence, accountability, preparedness, patience, intelligence, optimism,
motivation)
4. Relationship or task oriented leader
5. Style of decision making
6. Breakdown (by percentage) of time spent engaging in various coaching
behaviors (e.g. instructing, motivating, scolding and reinforcing information,
84
scolding (alone), praising, encouraging, statements of discipline)
Instructor: “You will receive credit for your story if you clearly state information for
items one and two and demonstrate information in items three through six in the coach’s
behaviors. You simply can not say ‘Coach Smith had an autocratic-consultative decision
making style.’ You would have to tell about an event that demonstrates this. After each
sentence that addresses the items, please use parenthesis to indicate what you are
attempting to demonstrate. For example, if you tell us about a situation where the other
team did not have enough players, and coach asked his team to vote on whether or not
they wanted to send one of their teammates to the other team so that they could play, after
this you would write ‘group style of decision making’ in parenthesis.”
“You could create a coach who is a terrible leader. You could tell stories about behaviors
that are detrimental to a team, but please don’t include any serious abuse. For example, if
you wanted to demonstrate that a coach lacked some important leadership qualities, you
could include within your story a time when he made a bet against his own team. This
would demonstrate his lack of loyalty, confidence, and honesty – all good leadership
qualities. Feel free to use any real life experience you have had with leaders or coaches,
including stories that you have heard about pro athletes. You will have 25 minutes to
write your stories with a partner. After that I will collect stories and read them aloud. As
a group we will identify the information you are asked to include about each coach.”
85
2. Students get into pairs and write stories. Walk around to ensure that students are
completing the assignment correctly.
3. Collects stories and ask for a student volunteer to write on the board.
4. Instructor: “As I’m reading these stories, please listen for descriptions of the items you
were supposed to address. When I read one, please say what it is that was addressed
aloud. Our recorder (at the board) will list the leadership trait, style, orientation, and
breakdown of time spent in coaching behaviors on the board.”
5. Read stories. Students identify when trait, style, orientation have been described.
Recorder writes these on the board.
Closure
Give feedback to class about stories (creative, well-thought out, descriptive – what ever
adjectives may be used to describe them).
Instructor: “Did any of you apply situations that you have experienced or heard of in
your stories? Without any identifying information, unless it is something that was in the
news, does anyone want to share their experiences or stories that they used for this
assignment?”
86
Evaluation
Students submit their work and those who covered all items required receive full credit.
*Alternative plan
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Today you’re going to review a vignette that describes a coach. You will
work in teams of 5 to identify the coach’s leadership characteristics.”
Procedures
1. Before class type two vignettes and run several copies of each:
Vignette #1: John M. is a 32-year-old coach for a professional football team. His team
has gone to its conference playoffs every year, but does not win. The team has won more
games than most others. John is a big guy, but is not intimidating to most people because
he often has a smile on his face. John has always been open to interviews and has been
cordial with the press, but when a reporter made a racial slur against four of his players,
John screamed at him and instructed him to leave the stadium immediately. The press
often quotes John as predicting that his team will win their next game. When his team
does not win, John admits that he must revise his coaching strategy. When John was
offered more money to coach for another team, he refused it because he wanted to stay
with his team. When John considers plays for an upcoming game, he does not consult
87
with his coaching staff. He believes it’s easier for him to make the decisions. The players
consider him to be a friend because he cares about them. John uses standard playbook
strategies and has never come up with inventive tactics. Although he coaches one of the
most successful teams of his time, John is always willing to learn more about football.
Vignette #2: Bob B. is a 50 year old coach for a professional baseball team. His team
won the World Series three years ago, but after several changes, including injuries and
key players leaving, the team is close to last place. Bob asks his players to put forth
maximum effort. They practice more than the average team in their league, and the
players often complain that by the end of the evening, they’re too tired to perform well.
Bob is known for being tough on his players, but at the same time they respect him. He
has been coaching since the end of his playing career, which ended shortly after college.
He knows the game well. Bob is concerned that his team is in a downward spiral and his
response is to increase practice time and engage his players in more difficult drills. He
shouts at his players when they make errors, usually put-down remarks, and then asks
them how they are going to do it next time. When he’s putting together the game line-up,
he consults with his coaching staff and allows players to share their opinions. At one
time, one of his players asked to play a different position. Bob allowed him to practice
that position for a few weeks and then put him in a game. When the player did not do
well, Bob returned him to his old position.
88
2. Instructor: “Please break into groups of five.” Randomly distribute vignettes to groups,
but be careful to distribute an equal number of both vignettes.
3. Instructor: “Please have one member of your group work as the recorder and write
down notes that will be submitted for credit. Make sure all of your names are on that
paper. After you read the vignettes, please do the following as a group (write the
following on the board):
1. Describe the coach (gender, age, general personality characteristics)
2. Describe the team (type of sport, age of athletes, performance level, etc.)
3. Leadership qualities the coach possesses (e.g. integrity, flexibility, loyalty,
confidence, accountability, preparedness, patience, intelligence, optimism,
motivation)
4. Relationship or task oriented leader
5. Style of decision making
6. Create a fictional breakdown (by percentage) of time that you believe this
coach would spend engaging in various coaching behaviors during a practice (e.g.
observing, instructing, motivating, scolding and reinforcing information, scolding
(alone), praising, encouraging, statements of discipline)
4. Ask groups to share their work:
89
Possible Answers
For vignette #1 (answers may vary):
1. John M. is a friendly, happy 32 year-old male.
2. He coaches a top-ranked professional football team.
3. John is friendly, loyal, by the book, confident, patient, and intelligent (because
he’s always willing to learn from others)
4. Relationship orientation
5. Autocratic decision making style
6. Hypothetical breakdown of coaching behaviors during practice (higher
percentage of time on instruction and positive coaching behaviors, lower
percentage of time on scolding):
40% instruction
30% observation
10% motivation
10% praising
5% correcting
5% scolding
For vignette #2 (answers may vary):
1. Bob B. is a motivated, hard-working 50 year old male.
90
2. He coaches a professional baseball team that was on top, but is now one of the
worst ranked.
3. Bob is serious, impatient, motivated, knowledgeable, and respected
4. Task oriented leader
5. Democratic decision making style
6. Hypothetical breakdown of coaching behaviors during practice (higher
percentage of time on scolding and instruction, less time on motivation and
praising):
50% scolding and reinforcing information
30% observation
20% instructing
5. When all groups have shared their work, they pass in their papers.
Closure
Instructor: “Have any of you had coaches who stand out in your memories for their good
or bad qualities?” Students who volunteer share their stories. The purpose of this activity
was to help you see what the various leadership qualities look like in a real person.
Evaluation
Students submit their work for participation credit.
91
References
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
92
Communication Activity
Objective
Based on the process of communication, students will categorize various types of
breakdowns in communication, and describe how they can be resolved.
Estimated Time
30 minutes
Rationale
Communication is an essential part of team sports. Communication between coaches and
athletes, and between athletes themselves must be clear in order for a team to be
successful. When working with athletes, sport psychologists learn how they communicate
with each other, with their coaches, and with other significant people who are involved in
their sport. A sport psychologist may help athletes improve their performance by teaching
them how to enhance communication (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). One way this could be
done is to observe athletes in their natural settings and assess for communication
breakdowns. Identifying where breakdowns occur requires an understanding of the
process of communication. In this lesson, students will view miscommunications between
people, and identify where the problem occurred and how it could be resolved.
93
Anticipatory Set
Tell a personal story about a time you experienced miscommunication.
(Example) Instructor: “A while ago when I took my son for a haircut, he asked the
beautician to cut the sides short and leave the top and back long. Normally they do a great
job at this salon, so I don’t even look up while they’re cutting his hair. Well this time was
different! When my son came over to me, he had very short hair on top and on the back
of his head, and long hair on the sides! I couldn’t believe that she cut his hair this way;
she did the exact opposite of what he asked for! Have any of you ever had a
miscommunication that was very problematic for you?” As students share stories, either
mentally note them or write down notes so that class can discuss them later.
Instructor: “Today we’re going to look for miscommunications in case studies. These
case studies will be movies.”
Materials
Movies: (Movie scenes were selected that contain breakdowns in one of each of the five
steps in the process of communication. Any movies containing these breakdowns may be
used)
1. Ocean’s Eleven
2. The Client
3. Office Space
4. SpongeBob SquarePants, Season 2, Episode: Krusty Love
94
5. Paper and pencil/pen (student provided)
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today we’re going to apply what you have learned about communication
to situations from movies. Your job will be to watch and identify where the breakdown in
communication occurs. You will then categorize the breakdown into one of the five steps
of the process of communication. In order to do this, you need to know the process of
communication. Who can list the steps in this process?”
Answers
1. Decision to send a message
2. Sender encodes the message
3. Channel through which the message is transmitted to receiver
4. Decoding of the message by the receiver
5. Internal response by the receiver to the message
2. Instructor: “Can anyone give an example of how a breakdown in communication can
occur during the first step in the communication process?” Discuss all five steps and
identify examples of how breakdown can occur.
Examples
1. Decision to send a message: A child received a bad grade on a test and does
not tell her parents. She has decided not to communicate with them.
95
2. Sender encodes the message: A husband asks his wife why she is upset with
him. She feels angry with him, but does not tell him why because she doesn’t fully
understand why. Although she would tell him exactly what happened that caused
her anger, she is experiencing the feeling and her brain is not translating her
thoughts into words.
3. Message is channeled to receiver: When Henry’s boss hands him a stack of
paperwork, he says, “Thanks,” and rolls his eyes. Henry’s boss does not see this
visual expression of sarcasm, (where Henry is communicating his true feelings),
and thinks Henry is grateful for the extra work.
4. Decoding of the message by the receiver: When Kathy tells her friend about her
problem, he immediately begins to think about how to solve the problem and tunes
out listening to her entire explanation.
5. Internal response by the receiver to the message: After playing a good game
but losing, Tyler’s coach tells him that he did “alright.” Although his coach
intended to let Tyler know that his performance was fine, because he lost the
game, Tyler interprets that word as not very good.
3. Instructor: “Now that you have an understanding of the process of communication, I’m
going to show you the first movie clip. Once the clip is over, please write down three
things” (write the following on the board):
1. The breakdown in communication (what was said and reaction)
96
2. The step in the process of communication where breakdown occurred (list one
of the five that we just discussed)
3. How this breakdown could be fixed or could have been avoided
4. Show movie clips and then give students 3-5 minutes to write after each.
1. Ocean’s Eleven – Scene 3 (7 min. 70 sec. – 8 min. 07 sec.)
(Breakdown between Rusty and bartender, step 4 message not decoded by
receiver)
2. Ocean’s Eleven – Scene 20 (1 hour 4 min. 0 sec. – 1 hour 4 min. 42 sec.)
(Breakdown between Rusty and Linus, step 3 – message not properly transmitted)
3. The Client – Scene 13 (32 min. 20 sec. – 37 min. 52 sec.)
(Breakdown between Roy and Reggie, step 1, decision to send inaccurate
message)
4. Office Space - Scene 20
(Breakdown between Tom & others, step 5 communication not interpreted as
intended)
5. SpongeBob – Season 2, disk 3 (second episode, 2 min 15 sec – 3 min 15 sec)
(Breakdown between Mr. Krabs and Mrs. Puff, step 2 message not encoded
properly by sender)
5. Group discussion – review scenes and student responses
97
Closure
Instructor: “So, now that you have taken time to study each of the steps in the
communication process, where do you think there was a breakdown in communication in
the story I told you at the beginning of class?” Review all stories told by student and asks
students to identify breakdown of communication and identify the step where it occurred.
Evaluation
Test students on the five steps of the communication process and give an example of
each.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
98
Goal Setting Activity
Objective
In order to demonstrate understanding of goal setting theory, students will create goals
for themselves. Students will create three types of goals (outcome, performance, and
process), they will identify how they have addressed factors that will increase likelihood
of goal setting effectiveness, and they will identify how they will address some factors
that may hinder progress toward goals.
Estimated Time
30 minutes
Rationale
Research has overwhelmingly showed that goal setting improves athletes’ performance
(Williams, 2010). Effect sizes of research on goal setting have ranged from moderate to
very high. From little league to professional athletes, goals give people direction and help
them focus on their actions that lead to improved performance. Sport psychologists must
have an understanding of research findings on goal setting in order to help athletes use
this performance enhancing strategy effectively. The most common focuses of research
on sports related goal setting has been on the effectiveness of various types of goals,
factors that enhance goal setting, stages of goal setting, and common problems that
99
hinder progress on goals (Williams, 2010). Students will apply information learned about
these areas when they set their own goals.
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “Have any of you ever set goals for yourselves? Were you able to meet your
goal? What factors helped you meet your goal(s)? Were there factors that prohibited or
made it difficult for you to reach your goals?”
Materials
1. Paper and pencil/pen (student provided)
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today we’re going to apply information that you have learned about goal
setting to yourselves. You are going to write your own goals. Let’s quickly review
various principles of goal setting that you will be expected to apply to your goals.”
Review the following information:
Three types of goals:
1. Outcome – focus on competitive result of an event, usually winning (example:
Student will earn at least a B+ in class.)
2. Performance – focus on achieving a standard, usually independently of other
competitors, usually in comparison with previous performances (example:
100
Student will maintain focus during class lectures, without allowing mind to
wander, at least 80 minutes out of 90 minutes of class time.)
3. Process – focus on actions an individual must engage in during performance to
execute or perform well (example: Student will study for 90 minutes a day, 5 days
per week.)
Factors that enhance goal setting effectiveness (in sport):
1. Set target dates
2. Specify behavior and if possible quantify it (e.g. 5 times per week, 10 seconds
faster)
3. Set goal at moderate difficulty level where person is challenged, but goal is not
impossible
4. Set long and short term goals
5. Set a variety of goals – performance, process, and outcome goals
6. Set practice and competition (performance) goals
7. Record goals (e.g. write them down)
8. Develop goal achievement strategies
9. Consider personality and motivation
10. Assess/foster goal commitment
11. Establish goal support
12. Evaluation and feedback
101
13. Predict possible barriers and address how they may be minimized/avoided
For class activity item 6 will not be included.
Factors that may prohibit or interfere with goal attainment:
1. Not setting specific goals
2. Setting too many goals too soon
3. Failing to adjust goals when needed
4. Personal issues (external) such as stress, fatigue, academic pressures, lack of
time, other commitments or responsibilities, social relationships
5. Personal issues (internal) such as lack of confidence, low sense of self-efficacy
6. Lack of feedback/evaluation on goal progress
2. Instructor: “Now that we have reviewed these factors, it’s time to write your goals. In
this activity, you will write three goals for yourself that you will share with a group and
then turn into me to be graded. Your grade will be based on the quality of your work and
on including all assigned parts. Considering the factors that we have reviewed, you
should write one performance goal, one process goal, and one outcome goal. At least one
of your goals should be short term and at least one should be long term. You have around
10 minutes.”
Write the following on the board:
102
Goals:
1. Performance
2. Process
3. Outcome
Students write goals.
3. Instructor: “Now that you have written your goals, please chose one goal and list
twelve of the factors that enhance goal effectiveness, and then write how you have/will
address them. For example, for number one, you could write a date by which you would
like to accomplish your goal. For number two you may write “see goal” if you have
quantified your goal.” Write the 12 factors (listed above) on the board as students are
writing.
4. Instructor: “After you are finished writing, you will get into groups of six. Please take
turns, each of you sharing one goal and then listing three (of the 12) factors that will
increase the likelihood of your goal attainment. Ask your group to identify any strategies
that may help you reach your goal. Each group member must think of at least one. Next,
select three of your group members to each present to you a factor that may
prohibit/interfere with goal attainment. Address each factor aloud within your group, and
then write them down. The three group members must ask questions specific to the goal.
103
For example, if the goal is to earn 90% on each exam in a particular class, it is not
sufficient to ask, ‘How are you planning on adjusting the goal when needed?’ An
acceptable question may be ‘How will you adjust your goal if you get sick and are not
able to study for an exam?’ Write the following on the board:
Group Work
1. State one of your goals
2. List three factors that will increase likelihood of goal attainment
3. Ask group members to identify strategies to help you reach your goal
4. Ask three group members to present you with a problem that may
prohibit/interfere with goal attainment.
Students get into groups and discuss goals.
Closure
Instructor: “Would anyone like to share a goal that they wrote today?” Students who
volunteer share goals. “I wish you all luck in achieving your goals and I look forward to
reading them. Please turn in your work.”
Evaluation
Grade students’ goals based on: 1. accuracy on writing three various types of goals; 2.
explanations of how 12 factors that enhance goal setting effectiveness are addressed; 3.
104
explanations of how at least 3 factors that may prohibit or interfere with goal attainment
are addressed.
References
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
105
Attention Activity
Objective
Students will identify four types of attention and engage in class activities that require
each type. Students will also apply their understanding of concentration to sports
scenarios.
Estimated Time
50 - 60 minutes
*Alternative plan (30-40 minutes): Conduct external broad and external narrow
(procedures three and four) with entire class. Multiple stations of internal narrow and
internal broad activities (procedures five and six) may be set up so that groups will only
have to switch once.
Rationale
Concentration or attention is one of the most important factors that affect performance in
sport (Williams, 2010). Fortunately it is a skill that may be learned and improved with
training and practice. Sport psychologists assess the attentional requirements of their
clients, in the various situations they encounter. The first step in training athletes to have
better control over their concentration is to help them identify various attentional styles
and when to use them (Horn, 2002). Sport psychologists must have an understanding of
these four attentional styles and apply the style that will maximize performance levels in
106
various situations. For this reason students will engage in activities that require each of
the four attentional styles and then identify which of these is required for various sports
scenarios.
External attention requires that a person is focused on his or her environment. He or she
is not attending to thoughts or feelings. The opposite is true of internal attention. The
person is focused on his or her thoughts or feelings and is not fully aware of events in the
environment. The external-narrow attentional style occurs when a person is directing
attention outward, to a specific object in the environment. Golfers engage in this type of
attention when they are lining up a putt. The external-broad attentional style occurs when
a person is attending to several occurrences in the environment simultaneously. This
commonly occurs in sports such as football or hockey, where athletes must attend to
several things happening at the same time. Internal-narrow attentional style involves
focusing on a particular thought or feeling. For example, a baseball player who is up to
bat may be thinking to himself, “I can’t miss,” and may be focused only on this thought
rather than what he sees in front of him. Internal-broad attentional style is used when
athletes create plans, strategies, or conceptualize games. It requires focus of attention to
be on multiple thoughts or feelings all at once.
107
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “What are some things that are easy for you to concentrate on? What are some
things that are more difficult for you to attend to? Do you think that activities that require
certain types of attention are easier for you than ones that require other types of
attention?”
Materials
1. Two baskets (plastic bins, or other object that can serve as a basket)
2. Paper balls (created by students)
3. Number grids, 3 different types, one of each type for each student in class
4. Two copies of a typed conversation script for external narrow activity:
Person 1: “Did you hear about the possibility of tuition going up again next
semester?”
Person 2: “No! Are you kidding me? Do you know by how much?”
Person 1: “Well, they’re not certain, but it looks like it’s going to be between 25%
and 50%. I don’t know what I’m going to do if that happens.”
Person 2: “I just can’t afford that.”
108
Person 1: “Oh! They’re also talking about increasing the cost of parking permits
to $475. I guess the thinking behind that one is that driving to school is a luxury,
and if students can afford cars and insurance, then they can afford to buy a permit.
They also want to encourage students to take public transportation.”
Person 2: “That’s just crazy. I wonder how many students are going to end up
dropping out?”
Person 1: “Well, I don’t know about that, but I have heard that the school needs to
do something because there’s such a huge deficit in the budget that next semester
they don’t know how they’re going to accommodate the students who are
currently enrolled. I guess increasing our costs is better than eliminating our
programs.”
Person 2: “I don’t know if I agree with that. At the rate we’re headed, I wonder if
college going to get so expensive that only the affluent can afford it.”
Person 1: “Speaking of that, did you hear that student loans are going to be
reduced too?”
109
Person 2: “What? Do you know how much they’re going to be reduced by?”
Person 1: “Not exactly. But you know how right now many students receive loans
that cover more than just tuition? Supposedly that is going to change.”
Person 2: “So, they’re only going to loan you the amount of your tuition?”
Person 1: “Yeah, something like that. I guess the government and banks are not in
positions right now to loan money. They don’t want to completely eliminate
financial aid, but we’re not going to be able to borrow as much.”
Procedures
1. Ask for four student volunteers who would like to run a station. Once volunteers have
been selected, addresses the class.
2. Write the following on the board:
External-narrow
External-broad
Internal-narrow
Internal-broad
110
Instructor: “Today we’re going to do an activity to help you learn about the different
ways that people concentrate. Our text identifies these four (points to board). Please get
out a piece of paper and write your own definition for each of these four types of
attentional styles. While you are doing this, I’m going to talk with my four volunteers
about the activities.”
3. Tell first and second volunteers, “You will run the external narrow activity. Do not tell
the students that this is the type of activity they are doing because they will have to
identify it on their own later. Here are three different number grids (10x10 squares with
numbers 0-99 written in random order in each square). You will give students 1.5
minutes to cross out numbers, in consecutive order, starting from 0. At the 30 second
mark, have a conversation so that the students can hear you. Your conversation is
supposed to serve as a distraction. Continue talking until the 1.5 minutes is up and then
call time. Remember where you stopped your conversation, as you will pick it back up
later. Have students indicate how many numbers they crossed out. Do this again twice
more using the two other number grids (different number grids are used to minimize
practice effects). On the second and third trials, continue your conversation at the 30
second point.” Hand each assistant or volunteer a conversation script.
4. Tell third volunteer, “You will run the external broad activity. For this one you can go
outside of the classroom, to the quad, or wherever you would like where there are many
111
things to see. Have students bring a notebook with paper to write on, and a pencil or pen.
Once you arrive at your desired location, notice what two colors there are a lot of, in
different places, in the area (think to yourself, do not say the colors aloud). You will be
asking students to name as many things as they can that are of, or contain a certain color,
so try to pick colors that are on several different things. The colors can be on anything
that is stationary (e.g. not a student who is walking by). Once you find an area, sit down
with the students and ask them to take three minutes to notice all things that are or
contain one of the colors that you have chosen. They are not allowed to write them down.
Once the three minute mark is up, ask students to move to a different location, away from
the first so that it is not in sight. Then ask them to write down as many things as they
could remember that are of the second color that you chose. This activity is meant to test
external, broad concentration because although they were focused on one thing, they are
being asked to recall information about other things that were important as well.”
5. Tell forth volunteer, “You will run the internal narrow station. You will set up the
basket and have your first group members create several paper balls to shoot into the
basket from about 10 feet away. Give each person 45 seconds to shoot. Every 20 seconds
ask, ‘What are you thinking about?’ Record responses for each student so that you will
have three from each one. Also record the number of baskets made (you may ask one of
the other students to count for you). Once you have done this for all students in the group,
tell them that they will be shooting again, but this time they must think of one thing to
112
focus on that they believe will help them increase the number of baskets they will make.
It could be the motion of their arm as they are shooting, the motion of the ball, or a word
or phrase such as ‘into the basket.’ Every 20 seconds ask what they are thinking about
and record responses. Also record number of baskets they make. When time is up, make
sure students know how many baskets they made during both trials.”
6. Run the internal broad station. Have students shoot baskets for 45 seconds and then ask
them to identify all thoughts and feelings they experienced during the activity. Have them
do this after the 45 second period is up. After all students have had a turn, ask them to
identify which thoughts and feelings were helpful to their performance and which were a
hindrance on their performance. Ask students to shoot again, this time focusing on all of
the thoughts and feelings that help their performance, while blocking the negative
thoughts.
7. Return to class and review the four attentional styles with the class.
8. Instructor: “I’m going to count you off by fours so that we have four teams.” Once
students are counted off, tell them to go with student leaders.
9. Students engage in activities at their stations for around seven minutes, then switch
stations (ones go to station two, twos go to station three, etc.)
113
10. Once students have participated in all three stations, they will return to class and sit
with their team.
11. Instructor: “Did you enjoy the activities? Which ones were you most successful at?
Are there any that you did not enjoy doing?” Class discussion.
12. Instructor: “Which station involved using an external-narrow attentional style?
Why?” Instructor repeats questions for external-broad, internal-narrow, and internalbroad attentional styles.
Answers
External-narrow – 0-99 grid
This task required you to focus attention on a specific task and ignore other
external stimuli such as a conversation. You should also have ignored any
thoughts or feelings occurring at the time in order to engage in the task.
External-broad – color recall
In order to recall objects of a certain color, you had to have paid attention to
many things in your environment.
Internal-narrow – basketball with questioning every 20 seconds
By asking what you are thinking, you guys began to cue into a thought occurring
at a particular moment in time.
114
Internal-broad – basketball with questioning after 45 seconds
You were asked to attend to all thoughts that were occurring during this time
period.
13. Instructor: “Your final task in this activity is in the form of a game. You and your
team will be asked to identify as many sports situations for each attentional style as you
can think of in two minutes. For example, when it is time to think of sports situations that
require internal-narrow attentional style, I may list running a race. For external-broad
attentional style, I may list playing a hockey game. For external-narrow I may list the
very start of a hockey game, when players must focus on the puck for that moment before
movement begins. Any questions?”
14. Place a star next to attentional style on the board that students should focus on for
their list. After two minutes, review each team’s list.
Closure
Instructor: “Who has learned what attentional style works best for them? Do you think
it’s possible to improve your attention skills that require other styles? This is a task that
sport psychologists engage in. They help athletes improve the attentional styles that are
required for all situations they encounter in their sport.”
115
Evaluation
Test students on the four attentional styles. Give various sports situations and ask them to
provide the correct attentional style required for maximum performance in each.
References
Horn, T. (2002). Advances In sport psychology. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics
Publishers, Inc.
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
116
Exercise Behavior and Adherence Activity
Objective
Students will create exercise adherence interventions for people who are in various stages
of exercise behavior.
Estimated Time
30 minutes
Rationale
Exercise is an important part of many people’s lives. Among its many benefits it has been
found to reduce stress and depression, increase self-esteem, provide people with
opportunities to socialize, and reduce risk of cardiovascular disease. Research has shown
that over 50% of those who begin an exercise program end up dropping it within six
months (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). In order to help people continue their exercise
programs, helpers must match their interventions to the behavior stage that the exercisers
are in. In this activity, students will create appropriate interventions based on stages of
exercise behavior.
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “By show of hands, how many of you have ever tried to establish a regular
exercise routine? Keep your hand up if you are still engaged in that routine. In sport and
exercise psychology it is important for us to understand how we can help people and
ourselves if we choose, to adhere to exercise routines.”
117
Materials
1. Several 11”x14” pieces of paper (six per group, several groups, depending on class
size)
2. Several markers
Procedures
1. Instructor: “According to the Transtheoretical Model of exercise behavior, people
move through six stages in a cyclical manner. Research has shown that many
interventions that attempt to help people adhere to exercise programs do not work
because they do not target the stage that the person is in at that time. Today we’re going
to break into groups and you will create interventions for people at the various stages of
exercise. First let’s review the six stages:”
A. Precontemplation Stage – People in this stage are not thinking about an
exercise routine for themselves. They may feel like they can not change their
habits, they may be demoralized by past attempts, or they may be defensive
because they believe that having a regular exercise routine is typical of those who
conform to social pressure to stay thin.
B. Contemplation Stage – People in this stage have thought about starting an
exercise program and intend to do it within the next six months.
118
C. Preparation Stage – People in this stage have begun to exercise, but do not
follow a strict routine. Sometimes people in this stage have created a plan our
routine for themselves, and have practiced it a few times, but have not been able
to stick to it on a regular basis. At this stage, exercise has minimal positive
effects.
D. Action Stage – People in this stage exercise regularly (one definition of
regularly is at least three times per week, for 20 minutes or more). They have
been adhering to an exercise schedule for less than six months. This is the most
fragile stage, as most people drop their routines during this time. It is the time
when people have to make the most adjustments, (mentally, physically, in their
life schedules, etc.) and this may not be tolerable to some.
E. Maintenance Stage – People have been exercising regularly for over six
months. People in this stage are vulnerable to drop-out because they usually have
lost their initial passion for changing their habits. They may become bored or
experience an injury that causes them to quit their routines. In addition, life events
may cause people who need to take breaks from their routines to handle these
situations, and they may not return back to their exercise programs.
119
F. Termination Stage – People who have been exercising regularly for over five
years. People in this stage are usually resistant to barriers that have caused others
to drop out of their exercise programs. After five more years in this stage, people
usually adhere to exercise programs of some sort for life.
2. Instructor: “Several studies have been conducted on interventions to help people
adhere to their exercise programs. Results of many of these studies have found that when
interventions are geared toward the stage of exercise that the person is in, he/she is more
likely to adhere to the exercise program (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). When interventions
are mismatched with exercise stage, people drop out at the same rate as when there is no
intervention in place. Research has also found that the longer people exercise, the more
intrinsic motivation takes over and less outside influence is needed to keep the person
motivated (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).”
3. Instructor: “I’m going to count you off into groups of six and then please sit with your
group.”
4. Pass out 12 pieces of 11”x14” paper and a few markers to each group.
Instructor: “Your first task is to write an example of a person who is in one of the
exercise stages. You will do this for all six stages. For example, for the precontemplation
stage you may write, ‘Tony works five days a week and then comes home and watches
120
television until he goes to bed. On the weekends he does some household chores, visits
with friends, and watches television. He is not concerned with changing his routine in any
way.’ On the back of your paper, write ‘Precontemplation Stage’ so that we know the
stage that you intended to demonstrate.”
Students work in groups to create very brief case studies of people who are in the various
stages of exercise.
5. After 5 to 10 minutes, ask groups to share examples of people in various stages (e.g.
“Group two, please tell us about your person who is in the action stage.”) As students are
describing their case studies, check for understanding of the various stages and clarify
how the group has demonstrated characteristics of each stage in their case studies.
6. Instructor: “Now let’s quickly review interventions that have been successful with
people in the various stages of exercise:”
A. Behavior modification approaches (best for precontemplation stage) - may
include cues such as setting out work-out clothes or motivation posters. May
include verbal, physical, or symbolic prompts that cause the person to begin
thinking about exercise.
121
B. Reinforcement approaches (best for contemplation stage) – positive, such as
rewards for exercise adherence over a period of time, or negative, such as
restriction from eating favorite unhealthy food. Charting attendance and
participation has been found to be an effective reinforcement approach. Also,
rewards for attendance and participation have been successful interventions for
helping people adhere to routines. Giving feedback, either positive, or
constructive helps as well.
C. Cognitive-behavioral approaches (best for preparation stage) – goal setting
(People with high levels of self-efficacy must set their own goals, and those with
low self-efficacy may need others to set goals for them).
D. Decision-making approaches (best for action stage) – e.g. decision balance
sheet identifying specifically how the person would benefit from exercising and
identifying losses, such as time.
E. Social Support (best for maintenance stage) – Social support has been found to
be one of the most effective interventions at all stages of exercise. People who
enlist others as support for staying on track have a much greater chance of
adhering to a routine.
122
F. Intrinsic approaches (best for termination stage) – People who are intrinsically
motivated to exercise have been found to focus on the experience itself, focus on
the process of exercising, and engage in purposeful and meaningful physical
activity.
7. Instructor: “Within your groups, please write a specific intervention that you would
use to help the person in your case study adhere to an exercise routine. For example, for
the person in the preparation stage, you may advise him/her to set workout clothes out on
the bed so that when they arrive home from work, they are prompted to change into those
clothes rather than house clothes. Although enlisting social support is an intervention that
can be used at any stage, please only use it once. Don’t forget to be specific about the
intervention.”
8. After 5 – 10 minutes, instructor asks students in various groups to share an
intervention. Instructor asks other groups to determine for which stage this intervention is
appropriate.
9. Once all groups have had an opportunity to share, instructor chooses one group to tape
their examples of people in various stages on walls around the room. Other groups tape
their corresponding interventions next to the case studies (e.g. groups tape interventions
123
written for people in the action stage next to the case studies that describes someone who
is in the action stage).
Closure
Instructor: “Are any of you in the contemplation stage of exercise? Do any of these
interventions seem like they would work for you? Why? Do any of these interventions
seem like they would be a waste of time for you? Why?” Repeat questions for stages two
through six and then ask, “What are the differences between the types of interventions?
Why do you think research has found that some are more appropriate at various stages?”
Evaluation
As part of a test, ask students to identify the six stages of exercise behavior, describe
each, and describe an intervention that would be appropriate for encouraging exercise
behavior during that stage. Then ask students to identify differences between types of
interventions, and why each is more appropriate at its corresponding stage.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
124
Burnout Activity
Objective
Students will demonstrate knowledge of risk factors for burnout in sport by creating case
studies. They will then demonstrate the ability to apply interventions to specific
symptoms of burnout.
Estimated Time
20 minutes
Rationale
It is common for athletes to over-focus on winning, over-train, and end up experiencing
burnout. There are several models of burnout, describing why it occurs. These models
identify a variety of factors that contribute to burnout. It is essential for sports
psychologists to recognize these adverse factors and be able to create interventions to
keep them from increasing in severity to the point where an athlete no longer wishes or is
unable to engage in sport (Williams, 2010).
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “How many of you have ever started a sport or activity that you were excited
about at first, and over time ended up burning out?” Class discussion about students’
experiences with burnout.
125
Materials
1. Paper and pen/pencil (student provided)
2. Typed case studies, one for each student:
Case Study 1 – Clara
Clara is a college student who was given a full scholarship for her participation on her
school’s gymnastics team. She has been performing poorly during competitions. At first
her teammates tried to encourage her and be supportive, but they’re starting to see that
she’s not putting forth the effort that they are, and they are becoming resentful. When
asked about her performances, Clara insists that she is trying her best. Winning
competitions at her hometown gym was easy for her, but now things are different. She
tells her friends that she is not able to perform at the college level. She feels that she has
no chance of beating her competitors. Recently Clara has started to miss practices. She
offers inexcusable reasons to her coaches, and they are concerned about her. Clara does
not want to quit the team because she would lose her scholarship. She wishes that she
could perform better, but truly believes that she is out of her league.
Case Study 2 – Jeff
Jeff is a baseball player on a AAA professional baseball team. His dream has always been
to play for the major league, but lately he’s been rethinking this longtime goal. Jeff
recalls learning how to play baseball when he was a young child. He joined little league
126
when he was five years old, and has been playing every since. Not only did Jeff play
during the regular season, he also played over the summer, he played fall ball, and he
played in a winter league. When he asked his parents if he could play other sports, they
told him that he would have to give up baseball. As he grew older Jeff appreciated the
knowledge and skills that he had acquired over the years. He was a top player for his high
school team and was well known by his peers for his athletic talent. In college he
continued to play for a winning team and was proud to be part of it. Recently Jeff has
been thinking about changing careers. He would like to live a normal live and work in an
office at a nine-to-five job. He thinks about this often and sometimes wishes that he were
not at practice. Last week he sprained his ankle, but is still required to engage in some
practice. He secretly hoped that the injury would result in a short break from playing. Jeff
doesn’t feel like he can tell anyone his feelings because he’s afraid to disappoint them.
He believes that his wife thinks highly of him because he’s an athlete. His parents are
proud of him for making it to a professional team. Jeff doesn’t think baseball is fun like
he used to. He is currently just going through the motions of doing what he is supposed
to, but his heart is no longer in the sport.
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today we’re going to create case studies about athletes who are
experiencing symptoms of burn out. I will hand out example case studies for you to use
as models. You should extract at least three symptoms from these case studies and
127
incorporate them into the ones that you create. Then we’re going to exchange the case
studies that we wrote and create interventions to help prevent burnout for the athletes in
the case studies that your classmates created. You will do this in pairs, but before you
move with a partner, let’s review the models of burnout. In your case studies, you do not
have to follow a particular model, as it is likely that not all athletes who burnout do so in
the exact way that these models predict. Instead you need to extract a minimum of three
symptoms from the examples and incorporate them into your own case studies.”
2. Briefly discuss the following models:
Cognitive-Affective Stress Model
Four stages involving physiological, psychological, and behavioral components. These
components are influenced by levels of motivation and personality, and they occur in
predictable stages. The first stage is called situational demands, where the high demands
of the sport outweigh the athlete’s abilities. The athlete then experiences stress. The
second stage is called cognitive appraisal, where the athlete makes interpretations and
judgments about his or her performance. The third stage involves physiological
responses. If an athlete perceives the sport situation to be threatening, (physically or
psychologically), physiological changes will occur such as muscle tension or fatigue.
Athletes who feel this threat typically feel emotionally depleted and then easily fall ill or
are injured. The fourth stage involves behavioral responses to the physiological responses
that occur in the third stage. These may include interpersonal difficulties, decreased
128
performance, and may lead to drop out. In this model, a person’s personality and
motivation will influence whether he or she drops out at this point or copes with the
situation.
Negative-Training Stress Response Model
This model emphasizes physical training as a cause of eventual burnout. Burnout is a
negative product of excess training. According to this model burnout is at the extreme
end of a continuum that begins with staleness then moves on to overtraining before
reaching burnout.
Unidimensional Identity Development and External Control Model
In this model, stress is a symptom of burnout, not the cause. The problem is social and
results from factors created by the sports organization. For example, if an organization
requires an athlete to train full-time, most days, athletes are not able to explore and
develop other aspects of their identities. As a result, burnout occurs when an athlete’s
sport organization creates a unidimensional identity for him/her, and does not allow for
control over one’s own life.
Sport Commitment Model
This model focuses on three determinants that influence athlete commitment. One
assumption of this model is that athletes who burnout are committed to sports for reasons
129
that are different from those who do not burnout. Satisfaction is based on rewards and
costs associated with sport. Those who find rewards outweigh costs are inclined to adhere
to their sport programs. Alternatives to engaging in sport are not as attractive to the
athlete. The athlete wants to engage in training and sport. Finally, the resources that an
athlete has invested in sport influences how readily he/she would quit. When an athlete
believes that he/she must participate in sport, there is a higher chance for burnout.
3. Instructor: “You will have around five minutes to write a paragraph or so about an
athlete who is experiencing symptoms of burnout. You create the athlete, but use at least
three symptoms that you find in your case study. Make the symptom fit your athlete.
Also, do not explicitly state the symptoms, for example do not say that the person is
overtraining, instead you must describe this and it is the reader’s job to figure it out.
Please pair up with someone and get started. Don’t forget to put both your names on the
paper for credit and write the case study number on the top of your paper.” Pass out one
case study to each pair.
4. Once five minutes has passed, ask students to pass in their paragraphs. Sort through
them, and redistribute them to pairs of students so that students read others’ case studies.
Instructor: “Those of you who used case study one, please raise your hands.” Hand out
case studies that were based on case study two to these groups. The case studies that were
based on case study one are handed to the other groups.
130
5. Instructor: “After having read our chapter including interventions for burnout, use your
knowledge to create and apply interventions that will help prevent the athlete in the case
study from burning out. You will have five minutes to do this. Please write your
interventions on the bottom or back of the page, and write your names on it for credit.”
Students write interventions for case studies.
Possible Interventions
a. Identifying areas in training or performance where athletes are discontent
b. Involve athletes in decision making
c. Schedule time-outs (short term and long term)
d. Quality recovery and management of training regimes
e. Utilize athlete input (into training and performance – consider them experts of
themselves)
f. Coach, parent, social support
g. Promote/identify aspects of sport athlete enjoys
h. Time and lifestyle management
i. Help athlete understand/develop identity outside of sport
j. Identify sources of stress in sport
k. Assess level of motivation
6. Instructor: “Please pass in your papers.”
131
Closure
Instructor: “Who would like to tell us about their case and the interventions that they
created?” Offer positive feedback for correct responses and helps guide students toward
correct responses if they are incorrect.
Instructor: “Do you think that any of the interventions for burn out would work with
you? Are there any that you really don’t think would help if you were experiencing
symptoms of burnout? Why?”
Evaluation
Grade students’ case studies and responses (interventions) based on accuracy. Case
studies should include at least three specifically described symptoms of burnout, and
responses should include appropriate interventions for each of the three (or more)
symptoms.
References
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
132
Children and Sport Activity
Objective
Students will use creative skills to demonstrate scenarios of various children in sport
situations. They will then design and implement strategies for helping the children enjoy
and make progress in their sports.
Estimated Time
45 minutes
Rationale
In the United States, over 45 million children under the age of 18 play sports (Weinberg
& Gould, 2007). Most children quit sports between ages of 11 and 18. There are several
reasons for this, including interest in other activities (such as video games), perceived
lack of ability, boredom, too much pressure (internal and external), excessive training,
and problems with coaches. With all of the benefits that sports provides some children, it
would be useful for coaches, parents, and others involved in children’s sports
organizations to understand factors that lead to quitting, and those that lead to personal
growth. Although most sport psychologists work with adults, some work with the large
population of children who engage in sport. They must assess for warning signs of sport
activity termination in children and train child athletes, coaches, and parents how to
maximize positive results from sport. In this activity, students will demonstrate
133
understanding of causes of quitting behavior, and they will create and implement
strategies for eliminating these negative factors.
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “How many of you played sports or engaged in an organized activity when
you were younger? Tell me about it. What positive elements did it bring into your life?
Were there any negative aspects? Why did you stop engaging in the sport or activity?”
Initiate class discussion about students’ experiences with sports when they were children.
Materials
1. Three instructor-created scripts (each typed on a separate piece of paper):
Script 1
Characters – coach, three players on a team (players a, b, and c), opposing team pitcher,
catcher, umpire
Setting – little league baseball game, player a is up to bat
Pitcher throws the ball, player a swings and misses
Coach: (shouts) “Come on! You should have hit that!”
Pitcher throws the ball, player a swings and misses again
Coach: (shouts louder and meaner) “What’s going on with you today?”
Pitcher throws the ball, player a does not swing
Umpire: “Strike three!”
Player a returns to dug out
134
Coach: (shouts) “I can’t believe you struck out! You’re really off today!”
Player b: “Coach, can I bat next?”
Coach: “You can’t bat until you improve your skills. We don’t need another out.”
Player c goes up to bat
Pitcher throws the ball and hits it
Pitcher puts his glove up and catches it, “Got it!”
Player c returns to the dug out
Coach: (shouts angrily) “It must be contagious!”
Script 2
Characters – One very stressed out child, child’s inner dialogue, referee, child’s parents,
other parents, other athletes on child’s team and on opposing team.
Setting – children’s basketball game, child is at free-throw line and other players are
surrounding him/her, child’s inner dialogue is standing behind him/her, parents are seated
looking tense, staring at their child
Child is standing at free throw line, bouncing the ball and looking up at the net.
Inner dialogue: “I’m this child’s thoughts. I know that I have to sink this shot in order to
win the game. I have to do this. We have to win this game. If I don’t make this, everyone
is going to know that I blew the game. If I do make this, people will think I’m great. I
have to make this. I have to make this shot.”
Child bounces ball
135
Referee blows whistle
Inner dialogue: “We have worked so hard to win all of our games. If I miss this shot we
will have lost the title because of me. I’ll be the biggest loser ever. I don’t want my
friends to think that of me. I don’t know if I can do this. I have to make it, but I don’t
think I can.”
Child shoots ball and misses
Child hangs his/her head and slowly walks back to bench
Opposing team members celebrate
Child’s team is quiet and sad
Script 3
Characters – One parent, one child, other child athletes engaging in game
Setting – soccer field, game has ended and team lost
Children are returning from the field, gathering their things and getting their snacks.
Parent approaches child and asks, “Do you believe that you gave 100% in that game?”
Child: “Yes.”
Parent: “No you did not! If you play like that again, there’s no point in us wasting our
time driving you here. You either give 100% or don’t bother playing! Do you
understand?”
Child: “I did give 100%!”
136
Parent: “When you give 100% you win! Do you think the college recruiters are going to
even look at you if you don’t win?”
Child: “I don’t know, I’m only 8.”
Parent: “Well, they won’t! You’ll never have a shot of making a college team playing
like that! We’re going to practice more so that you can improve your skills. No more play
time with your buddies after school. The best athletes in the world started when they were
young and they trained hard all of their lives. Maybe we didn’t start you young enough.”
Procedures
1. Divide class into three groups.
2. Instructor: “Today we’re going to do an activity that will involve your creativity,
knowledge, and bravery. Each of the three groups will receive a script involving a child
in sport. You are to decide who will play what roles and then you will act out the script in
front of the class. After the first group performs, group two will act out at least one
strategy to fix one of the problems demonstrated. For example, let’s say the first group
demonstrates a situation where a parent is shouting loudly and angrily at his/her child
from the bleachers. After the first group completes the scene, group two will come up and
act out their intervention. An actor/actress from the second group could pretend to be a
fellow parent, introduce him/herself as a sport psychologist, or be the parent’s inner
voice. Since we are acting, you don’t have to make these completely realistic. The
137
actor/actress from the second group could intervene by talking to the parent about the
negative effects of shouting at their child, such as anxiety, choking, reduced perceived
ability and self-esteem, etc. Then the actor/actress must suggest an alternative behavior
that would be more positive and functional for the child.” After group two has acted out
an intervention, they will perform their script and group three will perform an
intervention. Group three will then perform their script and group one will act out an
intervention.
3. Hand out scripts, one to each of three groups.
4. Instructor: “You will have 15 minutes to rehearse your skit.” Students work in their
groups.
5. After 15 minutes, ask students from group one to act out their script. Ensure that all
elements from the script are covered.
6. Ask group two to come up to the first group and implement their intervention. Once
they are finished, provide feedback on the intervention:
Possible Interventions for Script One
A. Speak with coach about effects of shouting and humiliating child (anxiety,
lowered self-esteem, decreased perception of ability, decreased performance).
138
B. Train coach to:
1. Use positive feedback.
2. Praise and give reinforcement immediately after the correct or
desirable behavior no matter what the outcome of the behavior.
3. Use errors as opportunities to teach players how to improve for next
time.
4. Reward effort and correct technique as much as outcome
5. Create an environment that reduces fear of negative consequences
6. Focus on strengths of each player and help him/her develop those
strengths.
7. Work on teaching and practicing new skills at each child’s individual
ability level
8. Find a time when all children will have the opportunity to demonstrate
their strengths or new skills during performance or competition
C. Refer coach to Positive Coaching Alliance (pca@positivecoaching.org)
7. Group two acts out their script. Ensure that all elements in script are covered.
8. Group three acts out an intervention.
139
Possible Interventions for Script Two
A. Talk with coach, parents, and child about (Everyone should have the same
goals and this child learned to be self-critical from somewhere):
1. Creating a positive environment for the child
2. Reducing social evaluation
3. Having a constructive attitude toward mistakes
4. Focus goals on improving skills, not on winning
5. Help child focus on play occurring in the moment, rather than outcome
(compare changing thoughts to changing channels on a television)
6. Relaxation techniques (e.g. spaghetti toes)
9. Group three acts out their script. Ensure that all elements in script are covered.
10. Group one acts out an intervention
Possible Interventions for Script Three
A. Talk with parent about the negative relationship between pressure/stress and
performance. Let them know that they are putting a significant amount of stress
on their child, which will likely lead to decreased performance and eventually to
burnout.
B. Tell parent the importance of emphasizing fun over performance outcome
140
C. Ask parent why child is playing the sport. The reasons for participation should
be the child’s reasons, not the parents (even though parent has child’s best
interests in mind).
D. Help parent understand that children should not be coerced or forced to play
sports. If they do not want to play, they should not have to.
E. Tell parent that the odds of earning sports scholarships to major universities,
(among the top athletes in high schools across the country), are around 1 in
10,000.
F. Tell parent that research has shown that most elite athletes play several sports
as children and grew attached to one particular sport. Parents of these athletes
were supportive, especially emotionally supportive, and did not create stress for
their children.
11. Once all three groups have performed their scenarios, and other groups have
performed interventions, review students’ work. Highlight outstanding interventions and
provide constructive feedback for those who need it.
Closure
Instructor: “Have any of you ever had coaches, parents, or your own insecurities that
caused you to experience some of these problems? How were they resolved?” Finish
141
activity with class discussion about personal experiences similar to the ones depicted in
class.
Evaluation
Include elements of the activity in a test or quiz. Ask students to identify the maladaptive
behaviors/thoughts and then write interventions for them.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
142
Aggression Activity
Objective
Students will demonstrate knowledge about aggression by differentiating between acts of
aggression and non-aggressive or assertive acts.
Estimated Time
20 - 25 minutes
Rationale
Aggression in the context of sport may be described as a behavior with the goal of
harming another person (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). It is a physical or verbal behavior
that may be demonstrated by athletes, coaches, or others involved in sport organization.
An important component of aggression in sport is that it involves the intention to harm
another person. People sometimes confuse assertiveness with aggression. Assertiveness
in sport involves playing within rules with high intensity and emotion. Although there are
times when athletes are injured as a result of assertive behavior, the intent to harm is not
present (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Sport psychologists must be able to differentiate
between acts of aggression and non-aggressive or assertive acts. In this activity students
will demonstrate their knowledge about the differences between these acts by engaging in
a game.
143
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “How many of you have witnessed or experienced aggressive acts in sport?
Have any of you witnessed assertive acts during sport? Can anyone tell us the differences
between these behaviors?” Lead discussion about differences between aggression and
assertion.
Materials
1. Two bells, or other sounding devices (must be identical)
2. Short vignettes (typed):
1. Todd, a football safety viciously attacks the quarterback on the opposing team,
knocking him to the ground, causing him to have a concussion and be removed from the
game. When interviewed afterward, Todd reported that he was focused on stopping the
pass and that he was not attempting to injure the quarterback.
2. Eileen, a field hockey midfielder is tripped by an opposing player. During the next
play, when that same player has the ball, Eileen runs up to her and strikes her on the shin,
bringing the player down. As the opposing player is falling, Eileen shouts, “How does it
feel?”
144
3. In an important softball tournament, Liz beams Kelly with a fastball that got away
from her.
4. Christine and Alisa are rivals on their college gymnastics team. Knowing that Christine
has performance anxiety, Alisa tells her that there is a scout from the Olympic Committee
there to evaluate their programs. This statement is untrue.
5. During a baseball game, Coach Smith is angered by a bad call by the umpire and
throws a bat as hard as he can across the dug out. The bat hits one of the players,
resulting in a broken arm.
6. During a basketball game, Ronnie is playing poorly and hears a spectator yelling
degrading phrases at him. Ronnie runs up into the stands and beats up the spectator.
7. Just as Frank is up for a free-throw shot after a foul committed against him in
basketball, the coach for the opposing team calls time out.
8. When Gina is put into a soccer game, she runs full-force onto the field where the play
is occurring. She swiftly runs into the area of play and, in an illegal move, sweeps the ball
away from the opposing team. In doing so the player who had possession attempts to
145
block the sweep with her leg. Gina’s leg catches hers, and the player goes down hard,
causing injury that prevents her from playing for the remainder of the season.
9. During an indoor soccer match, Thomas slams a known high-scoring player on the
opposing team into the wall and thrusts his elbow into his stomach to prevent him from
controlling the ball. After the game Thomas indicated that he was trying his best to get
the ball away from that player to prevent another goal.
10. Before the start of an ice hockey game, Brian tells an opposing player to watch out
because his team has planned a surprise for him.
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today we’re going to play a game. I’m going to divide the class in half
and then you will choose 10 people from your group to represent you in a game where
you will distinguish between aggressive and non-aggressive or assertive acts. The object
of the game is to make the correct determination before the other player does.” Count
students off by twos and ask ones to move to one side of the room and twos to move to
the other side of the room.
2. Instructor: “Now please select 10 representatives from your group who are willing to
come up, one at a time and compete.”
146
3. Calls for one player from each group to come up to the desk/podium/table at the front
of the room. Instructor: “I’m going to read a short vignette and when you believe that
you know whether it is an example of an aggressive or non-aggressive act, ring your bell.
If you answer incorrectly, the other team automatically gets the point.”
4. Read the first vignette and the game begins. After a student responds, discuss correct
answer with the class. Repeat this procedure for all 10 vignettes:
Answers
1. Non-aggressive (no intent to harm)
2. Aggressive (motivated to cause physical harm)
3. Non-aggressive (no intent to harm)
4. Aggressive (intent to inflict psychological harm)
5. Non-aggressive (violent behavior and outcome, but no intent to harm another
person)
6. Aggressive (intent to harm)
7. Aggressive (intent to cause psychological harm by breaking focus/creating fear
and anxiety
8. Non-aggressive (assertive, but no intent to harm)
9. Aggressive (instrumental aggression – goal was to harm in order to win)
10. Aggressive (intent to inflict psychological harm – intimidation)
147
Closure
Instructor: “How many of you have changed your idea of what aggression is as a result of
this lesson? What are the necessary elements that make a behavior an aggressive one?”
Evaluation
A few short vignettes such as the ones in this lesson will be included in the next quiz or
test.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
148
Character Development and Good Sporting Behavior Activity
Objective
Students will demonstrate knowledge of character development and good sporting
behavior by identifying various elements of these desirable traits. They will give real life
examples of these elements.
Estimated Time
30 minutes
Rationale
Although there are many theories about the causes of positive and negative character
development and sport behavior, many of them involve learning and environmental
factors (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). It is important for coaches and parents to understand
how their behaviors and those of their children’s teammates influence the development of
these traits. Sport psychologists can help athletes learn good character and sport behavior
by identifying events that help or hinder their development. In order to do this, they must
have an understanding of the various elements of these virtues and how they look in real
life situations. For this reason students will engage in an activity where they will discuss
these elements and real life examples.
149
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “How many of you have had experiences or witnessed good sporting
behavior? How about bad sporting behavior? There are many factors that influence how a
person behaves during sport participation and today we’re going to review some of these
factors.”
Materials
1. Several sheets of thick 11”x14” paper for students
2. Several markers
Procedures
1. Instructor: “Today we’re going to review some of the concepts involved in character
development and good sporting behavior. We will discuss how these concepts appear in
real life situations. First thing we’re going to do is get into groups of four or five. I will
pass out 10 pieces of 11”x14” paper to you and you will write your response to each
question on a piece of paper. There will be eight questions, and two have bonus
questions. You may talk among your group members only to get the answers, and you
may not use your book. After I have finished asking a question, please have a team
member write the answer on a paper. Hold up your paper after you have written your
answer.”
150
2. Students get into groups of four or five. Pass out 11”x14” paper.
3. Ask the following questions, and after correct responses have been given, ask follow
up questions:
A. According to your text, morality in sport includes three things, what are they?
fair play, good sporting behavior, character
Do you know any professional athletes who demonstrate moral behavior? Who
are they and what have they done to demonstrate this?
B. List five factors in good sporting behavior.
full commitment toward participation, respect for rules and officials, respect for
social conventions, respect for opponent, avoiding negative attitudes such as winat-all-cost orientations
Can anyone give me a specific example of an athlete demonstrating full
commitment toward participation? How about an example of respect for rules?
What are social conventions? Have any of you ever demonstrated respect for an
opponent? How do you think people learn to avoid negative attitudes?
151
C. According to social learning theory, how do children learn good character and
sport behavior?
modeling or observational learning, reinforcement, social comparison
Who can give an example of a situation in which social learning occurs, causing
negative sporting behavior? Does anyone have an example of a situation in which
social learning led to positive sport behavior?
D. According to your text, character in sport includes the ability to:
overcome obstacles, cooperate with teammates, demonstrate self-control, and
persist in the face of defeat
Which sport related behavior includes persistence in the face of defeat?
motivation
Did any of you ever have someone who was a significant influence on your
character development? What did he/she do? How did you change or what did
you learn as a result?
E. Moral reasoning is on a continuum that begins with _____________ at the
lowest level, and ends with ______________ at the highest level.
152
lowest level – consideration for external control – the belief that any behavior is
ok as long as the person is not caught; highest level – consideration for what is
best for all people involved
Which group can list all five levels correctly?
1–external control, 2-eye for an eye orientation, 3-golden rule, treat others as you
would like to be treated, 4-follow external rules, 5-do what’s best for all
Are any of you willing to say where you are on the continuum? What factors
influence movement from one level to another? What factors could influence a
person to stay at one level?
F. True or false, females and males tend to use equal levels of moral reasoning?
False-females tend to use higher levels of moral reasoning
Why do you think females tend to use higher levels of moral reasoning? What
elements of sport could supercede moral reasoning for males?
G. True or false, research has found that youth participation in sport reduces risk
of delinquent behavior?
153
True. The better the team provides a sense of identity, social support, facilitates
increase in self-esteem, and gives youth positive role models, the better outcomes
for at-risk youth
What do you think would happen to an at-risk (low income, impoverished living
conditions, exposed to violence and drugs, etc.) child who joins a team, does not
receive proper skill training from the coach, and is not put in to play because
he/she will not assist the team with scoring? Is it possible for an at-risk child to be
harmed from participation in sport? Why or why not? What would need to happen
in a sport in team in order for this child to benefit from sport?
H. True or false, participation in physical activity programs automatically teaches
fair play, good sporting behavior, and builds character in children?
False. Coaches and others involved such as parents, must actively teach moral
reasoning and good sporting behavior.
Did any of you ever have coaches or instructors who taught moral reasoning and
good sporting behavior? What did he/she do? What did you learn? Did any of you
ever have or witness a coach who taught, encouraged, or reinforced negative
sporting behavior?
154
Closure
Instructor: “If you were a youth sports coach, what could you see yourself doing to instill
good character and sport behavior in your athletes?”
Evaluation
The eight questions asked in this activity will be included in a test or quiz.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
155
Arousal Regulation Activity
Objective
Students will gain first-hand knowledge of four arousal regulation techniques by
engaging in them for short periods of time.
Estimated Time
5 minutes per class, conducted during 5 class periods
Rationale
As our culture places a high value on competitive sport, athletes feel pressure to win.
While few thrive on this pressure, most are negatively affected by it (Williams, 2010).
Athletes respond differently to pressure, with some experiencing higher levels of
cognitive anxiety, and others experiencing higher levels of somatic anxiety (Weinberg &
Gould, 2007). Sport psychologists must identify what kind of anxiety an athlete
experiences in order to create interventions that will target the most problematic effects
of pressure. It is useful for them to have an understanding of how various techniques will
relieve anxiety or high levels of arousal. For this reason, students will engage in various
methods of decreasing arousal levels to gain first-hand knowledge about the effects of
these interventions.
156
Anticipatory Set
Instructor: “If you were asked to identify your stress or arousal level right now, what
would you think about to determine what it is? Would you focus on your physical state –
how tight your muscles are or how fast your heart is beating? Or would you focus on
your cognitive state – how worried you are about things? On a scale of 1 through 10,
what is your normal stress or arousal level? What is it right now?”
Materials
1. Progressive Muscle Relaxation CD (or other form of recording that can be played
aloud)
2. CD or other recording media player
3. Typed detailed instructions for four arousal regulation stations (this plan)
4. Towels, mats, or other material to sit on (student provided and optional)
Procedures
1. During the class period before the activity, ask students to bring in a beach towel, a
yoga mat, or other material that they can sit on comfortably on the floor (no folding
chairs) for the next five class periods. This is optional.
2. At the end of the next five class periods, engage students in one of the following
arousal regulation techniques:
157
Breathing Exercise
This is a muscle-to-mind relaxation technique. The theory behind it is that by relaxing
your muscles, you will decrease tension and then decrease cognitive anxiety. During this
breathing exercise, all focus should be on breathing. If any other thoughts come to mind,
redirect them to breathing. You may close your eyes if you would like to minimize
distractions. First, sit in a comfortable position. Next, inhale deeply and then exhale fully.
After this inhale to a count of four, making sure that you budget your inhalation to last
throughout the four seconds. Exhale for a count of eight seconds, again making sure that
you do so slowly enough to exhale throughout the entire eight seconds. How did this
feel? Repeat the four second inhalation and eight second exhalation exercise for a few
minutes.
Progressive Relaxation Exercise 1 – person lead (Weinberg & Gould, 2007, p. 278)
During this exercise you will first tense a muscle group and then relax it. Focus your
attention on how it feels to be relaxed as opposed to how it feels to be tense.
First, lie down on your back in a comfortable position. If you are uneasy about lying
down in a school setting, you may stay sitting up, but try to make yourself as comfortable
as possible.
Second, raise your arms and extend them out in front of you. Make a strong, tight fist
with each hand. Notice the tension in your hands and fingers. Count to five quietly to
yourself. When you reach five, release half of the tension, so that you are still tightening
158
your fist, but with half the intensity as before. Hold this for five seconds, count quietly to
yourself. Now let your hands relax completely. Notice how the tension and discomfort
drain from your hands. Allow yourself to feel relaxed and free from tension for 15
seconds.
Third, tense your upper arms tightly for five seconds and focus on the tension. Let half of
the tension out and hold this for another five seconds, keeping your focus on the feeling
of tension. Now relax completely and focus on releasing all of the tension for 15 seconds.
Allow your arms to rest limply at your sides.
Forth, curl your toes as tight as you can. Hold this tension for five seconds. Next, relax
your toes halfway and hold for another five seconds. Relax your feet and calves
completely for 15 seconds, focusing on the complete relaxation of the muscles in your
toes and feet.
Fifth, extend your legs, raising them about six inches off the floor and tense your thigh
muscles. Hold this tight tension for five seconds. Release half of the tension, keeping
your legs held up. Count to five quietly to yourself. Next relax your thighs and legs
completely, allowing them to fall gently on the ground and rest heavily. Focus your
thoughts on the relaxed muscles in your legs.
Sixth, tense your stomach muscles as tight as you can for five seconds. Hold it in a tight
ball and focus on that tension. After five seconds, let out half of the tension so that you
are still using your stomach muscles to hold your stomach in a ball. After five seconds
159
slowly release your stomach muscles and feel the release in your stomach for 15 seconds.
Focus your attention on your relaxed stomach muscles.
Seventh, tighten your chest and shoulder muscles by pressing the palms of your hands
together and pushing as hard as you can (without hurting yourself). Do this for five
seconds. Next release some of the pressure by not pushing on your hands as hard.
Maintain this for five seconds. Then drop your hands and arms and relax your chest and
shoulder muscles for 15 seconds. Focus your thoughts onto your relaxed chest and
shoulder muscles.
Eighth, push your back to the floor as hard as you can and tense your back muscles. Let
the tension out halfway after five seconds. Count to five quietly to yourself. Next release
all of the tension in your back muscles and concentrate on your relaxed state for the next
15 seconds.
Take a series or short inhalations, about one per second until your chest is filled with air.
Hold for five seconds and then exhale slowly for 10 seconds while focusing on your
relaxed muscles.
Progressive Relaxation Exercise 2 – PMR recording
First, lie down on your back in a comfortable position. If you are uneasy about lying
down in a school setting, you may stay sitting up, but try to make yourself as comfortable
as possible. I’m going to play a Progressive Muscle Relaxation recording. Please follow
the directions given. (Group leader plays recording)
160
Relaxation Response
This is a mind-to-muscle relaxation technique. The theory behind it is that you will relax
your body by first releasing your anxiety or heightened arousal level. This has similarities
to meditation, but does not have any spiritual or religious aspects. By doing this
technique athletes attempt to reach a state of mind that includes keen awareness,
effortlessness, relaxation, spontaneity, and focused attention.
When athletes engage in this technique, they usually find a quiet place that is free from
distractions.
First, let’s get into a comfortable sitting position. The goal of this is to bring yourself to a
relaxed state, but not fall asleep. You may choose to close your eyes during this exercise
to help you lose focus of outside stimuli.
Next, focus your attention on a single thought or word and repeat it over and over quietly,
to yourself (if you were alone, you could verbalize it). This word or image should not
stimulate your thoughts, but be neutral. Inhale and then think of your word as you exhale.
Repeat this several times quietly and to yourself.
As you are engaging in this exercise, maintain a passive attitude. Allow thoughts and
images to enter your mind and move through as they will, making no attempt to attend to
them. If something comes to mind, let it go and refocus on your word or image. Do not
worry about how many times you are distracted, just continue to refocus your thoughts.
161
Autogentic Training (Williams, 2010, p. 259)
This is a mind-to-muscle relaxation technique where you will attempt to produce the
sensations of warmth and heaviness in your body to help you relax. You will do this by
sending your body messages through your thoughts. This technique takes a long time to
learn, and requires several months of regular practice (10 to 40 minutes per day) to
produce the intended sensations. Today’s exercise will give you an idea of what it entails
and hopefully will cause you to relax on some level. Focus your attention on the task and
if you feel your mind wandering, redirect attention back to the task in which you’re
engaging.
First, get into a comfortable position and close your eyes. Focus your attention on your
dominant arm while silently saying, “My right (left) arm is heavy.” Repeat this phrase
slowly six times. Allow yourself to feel your arm getting heavy.
Second, say to yourself (silently), “I am calm” or “I am at peace” one time.
Repeat these two steps together in three cycles.
Third, slowly bend your arm, take a deep breath, and open your eyes.
Forth, repeat the cycle with the statement “My left (right) arm is heavy.”
Normally you would not proceed with this exercise until you were able to generalize the
sensation of heaviness to other body parts. For today, we’re going to continue to run
through it.
Fifth, focus your attention on both arms while silently saying, “My arms are heavy.”
Repeat this phrase slowly six times and allow yourself to feel your arms getting heavy.
162
Sixth, say to yourself (silently), “I am calm” or “I am at peace” one time.
Repeat these two steps together in three cycles.
Seventh, slowly bend your arms, take a deep breath, and open your eyes.
Eighth, focus your attention on both legs while silently saying, “My legs are heavy.”
Repeat this phrase slowly six times and allow yourself to feel your legs getting heavy.
Ninth, say to yourself (silently), “I am calm” or “I am at peace” one time.
Repeat these two steps together in three cycles.
Tenth, slowly bend your legs, take a deep breath, and open your eyes.
Once you have mastered this exercise and are able to feel heaviness rapidly and reliably,
you will include the sensation of warmth into this exercise. We can try it here so that you
know the process:
First, get comfortable, close your eyes, and focus on your arms and legs while saying to
yourself, “my arms and legs are heavy.” Repeat this three to six times. Follow up with “I
am calm.” Next, say to your self “My right arm is warm.” Repeat this three to six times
until you feel warmth in your arm.
These are the first two stages of autogentic training. After they are mastered, you will
regulate heartbeat, breathing, warmth in the solar plexus, and finally coolness of the
forehead.
163
Closure
Instructor: “What is your level of stress or arousal right now? Did any of these techniques
work for you better than others? Did any not work for you at all? If you were an athlete,
what circumstances or influences would make it difficult for you to engage or benefit
from these techniques?”
Evaluation
Students will not be formally evaluated on this activity. They will be given participation
points by the instructor based on their efforts to engage in the activities.
References
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
164
Conclusion
Lesson plans are essential for quality teaching. They are an important part of
instructional organization and class conceptualization. By writing lesson plans in
advance, instructors are directing students’ course of study and can ensure that important
information is presented and rehearsed as necessary. They also serve as a guideline for
instructors’ presentation of information. Many educators value activities that engage
students in active learning techniques. These activities may take a considerable amount of
time to plan, especially for lessons that are specific to only one class.
The activities presented in this project have been designed to support major topics
in an undergraduate sport psychology class. As research has overwhelmingly found that
active learning techniques promote a higher quality and quantity of learning, the plans
include strategies that engage students and require them to take an active role in their
learning. Although they include detailed activities for learning important sport
psychology concepts, they may be modified to fit the curriculum in many undergraduate
level psychology courses. As it is impossible to write precise plans without knowledge of
class size, time available, equipment availability, class ability, and class climate, these
plans leave room for differences in these and other areas. They were written with the
average undergraduate college classroom in mind – one that has a white or chalkboard, a
television and DVD or VHS player, desks, and room for some movement. Most activities
require little or no instructor provided materials. In addition, they may be modified as the
instructor sees fit to accommodate unforeseen circumstances that may occur, such as loss
165
of class time. Currently there is limited literature and resources for teaching sport
psychology courses. This project was created to provide a resource of activities to help
students experience concepts and thus better learn from them.
166
REFERENCES
Astin, A., Blake, J. H., Bowen, H., Gamson, Z., Hodgkinson, H., Lee, B. et al. (1984).
Involvement in learning: Realizing the potential of American higher education.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.
Bolin, A. U., Khramtsova, I., & Saarnio, D. (2005). Using student journals to stimulate
authentic learning: Balancing Bloom’s cognitive and affective domains. Teaching
of Psychology, 32(3), 154-159.
Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the
classroom. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED340272)
Bonwell, C. C., & Sutherland, T. E. (1996). The active learning continuum: Choosing
activities to engage students in the classroom. In T. Sutherland, & C. Bonwell
(Eds.), Using active learning in college classes: A range of options for faculty.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Casem, M. L. (2006). Active learning is not enough. Journal of College Science
Teaching, 35(6), 52-57.
Cisero, C. A. (2006). Does reflective journal writing improve course performance?
College Teaching, 54(2), 231-236.
Clump, M. A. (2006). An active learning classroom activity for the “cocktail party
phenomenon.” Teaching of Psychology, 33(1), 51-53.
Cratty, B. J., & Pigott, R. E. (1984). Student projects in sport psychology. Ithaca, NY:
Mouvement.
167
Cruz, E. (2003). Bloom’s revised taxonomy. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
educational technology. Retrieved May 28, 2009, from
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/bloomrev/start.htm
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Foos, P. W. (2002). Effects of student-written questions on student test performance. In
R. Griggs (Ed.), Handbook for teaching introductory psychology. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Graham, S. M. (2006). Understanding the applicability of social psychology: The benefits
of a semiweekly journal assignment. Teaching of Psychology, 33(1), 54-55.
Hagen, J. W., & Moffatt, C. W. (1992). College student response to cooperative learning.
College Student Journal, 26(4), 531-536.
Harvey, B. Z., Sirna, R. T., & Houlihan, M. B. (1999). Hands-on learning. The American
School Board Journal, 186(2), 22-25.
Horn, T. (2002). Advances in sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Publishers, Inc.
Kerkman, D. D., Kellison, K. L., Piñon M. F., Schmidt, D., & Lewis, S. (2002). The quiz
game: Writing and explaining questions improve quiz scores. In R. Griggs (Ed.),
Handbook for teaching introductory psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Kozar, J. M., & Marcketti, S. B. (2008). Utilizing field-based instruction as an effective
teaching strategy. College Student Journal, 42(2), 305-311.
168
Lakin, J. L., & Wichman, A. L. (2005). Applying social psychological concepts outside
the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 32(2), 110-113.
Messineo, M., Gaither, G., Bott, J., & Ritchey, K. (2007). Inexperienced versus
experienced students’ expectations for active learning in large classes. College
Teaching, 55(3), 125-133.
Michael, J. A., & Modell, H. I. (2003). Active learning in secondary and college science
classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
New York State Education Department. (2006, January 24). Federal-state education
policy chronology, 1960-1969. Retrieved September 13, 2009, from,
http://www.archives.nysed.gov/edpolicy/research/res_chronology1960.shtml
Painter, A. F., & Lemkau, J. P. (1992). Turning roadblocks into stepping stones:
Teaching psychology to physicians. Teaching of Psychology, 19(3), 183-184.
Peterson, S. E., & Miller, J. A. (2004). Comparing the quality of students’ experiences
during cooperative learning and large-group instruction. Journal of Educational
Research, 97(3), 123-133.
Rotenberg, R. (2005). The art and craft of college teaching: A guide for new professors
and graduate students. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Ryan, R. S. (2006). A hands-on exercise improves understanding of the standard error of
the mean. Teaching of Psychology, 33(3), 180-183.
169
Ullah, H., & Wilson, M. A. (2007). Students’ academic success and its association to
student involvement with learning and relationships with faculty and peers.
College Student Journal, 41(4), 1192-1202.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Williams, J. M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
Yoder, J. D., & Hochevar, C. M. (2005). Encouraging active learning can improve
students’ performance on examinations. Teaching of Psychology, 32(2), 91-95.