Writing A Term Paper
What is an essay or term paper?
 A piece of academic writing that contains an argument or
claim.
 An argument is a coherent series of statements based on
some premise and which lead to a conclusion and which is
generally intended to persuade
 A claim, in academic terms, is something that is asserted to
be true or valid, and which must be based on factual
evidence. Academics critically analyse and evaluate the
evidence upon which claims are based.
 This means a term paper or essay must address an issue or
raise a question and present the appropriate data or
information to illustrate it in a logical sequence, and then
analyse and comment on it critically
Because it is an argument, an essay, has a definite structure
 Introduction
The who, what, when, where, of the general topic and specific
focus of the essay
The why and how, the central issue, claim or question
addressed, and the aims and outline structure of the paper -- A
statement of the argument and an indication of the evidence
you intend to marshal in support of it
The thesis of the paper
Conclusion..
 refers back to the introduction - how the aims were met.
 a summary of the argument and the subsidiary arguments used
to demonstrate it.
 limitations of the present work
 suggestions or recommendations for future study or research
Body
Scene Setting
the presentation and analysis of that evidence
The theoretical context/background to the question/issue
raised, which may include ideas or hypotheses or reference to
previous research as well as fully-fledged theories.
The situational context/background section will specify the
who/what/where/when/how /why and show the link between the
theory etc. chosen and any practical applications or provide the
historical context within which the theory evolved.
The rationale or justification for the links between the
theoretical and situational contexts need to be given.
Examples
Analysis/ explanation
an examination of the results or outcomes or changes including the expected and unexpected - in detail,
a comparison between theories/theory and practice,
predicted and actual results.
This may include discussion of/comparison/contrast with
similar studies or different approaches (theory or practice)
with reference to other writers' experience/ theories and your
own deductions/inferences based on the previous sections
Evaluation
discussing problems and remedies, whether they exist in the
theory (theories) or in practice or in both and what contribution
they make to understanding and knowledge (to what extent the
theory was able to predict practice/how far practice followed the
theoretical guidelines)
the need to modify or adapt the theory or methods of application
any areas ignored by the theory/research or any imbalance
(perhaps gender bias) of emphasis or application, all leading to
suggestions and recommendations in the conclusion
Introduction and Conclusion –10-15%
Scene Setting – 50% maximum for purely descriptive elements
Analysis and Evaluation – 30% minimum
Selecting a Topic
Anthropology of Art
too broad
The Art of Africa – An anthropological approach
too broad
The Art of the Dogon – An anthropological approach
just right
The Art of the Dogon between 1750 and 1880
too narrow
Turn the topic into a Question
The cultural construction of Gender
Is gender a cultural construction?
 provides focus and direction. When you have
a question you are forced to answer it, and
forced to come to some conclusion.
 an argument is a reply to a question whether
implicit or explicit
Analyze the Question
 Helps to maintain topic focus
 Helps make your note taking more efficient.
 the structure of your essay emerges from the analysis of the
question.
Brainstorming. Think of as many other related questions as you
can
 alternatives
 opposites
 definitions
 implications
 exceptions
 qualifications
 comparisons
 examples
 who, what, where, when, and why
The cultural construction of Gender – Is Gender culturally
constructed?
What is gender?
Why gender and not sex?
What does cultural construction mean?
Why cultural instead of, say biological?
Who says it’s a cultural construction
Is gender constructed?
If so how is it constructed?
What are the theories of gender construction?
What are some examples?
What are the implications of gender being culturally constructed?
Is there anything else that’s culturally constructed such as race?
The Essay Plan
Write down all you know about the topic.
Put the questions in some sort of order
Consider the type of writing - description,
comparison, theoretical, case study etc.
Key argument/issues/questions
Time frame – reading, writing, downtime,
Select a working title
Research
Before you begin your research, or when you begin a fresh
research session, quickly read over the essay topic and your
plan to refresh yourself about what it is you’re looking for.
Begin Research Early
Sources of Information
 encyclopedias
 Introductory texts
 Internet
 Books
 standard works
 Reading lists
 Bibliographies
 Periodicals
 Library catalogues
 Archives
work up a reading list or bibliography of
potential sources of information.
Anthropology Encyclopedias
GN25 .C66 2002
Companion encyclopedia of
anthropology
Ingold, Tim
GN307 .E53 1996
Encyclopedia of cultural
anthropology
Levinson, David
GN11 .E63 2006 V. 1
Encyclopedia of anthropology
Birx, H. James
GN307 .W56 1991
Dictionary of concepts in cultural
anthropology
Winthrop, Robert H.
GN307 .E57 1996
Encyclopedia of social and cultural
anthropology
Barnard, Alan (Alan J.)
GN11 .S49 1986
Macmillan dictionary of anthropology
Seymour-Smith, Charlotte.
Using Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a great source for
providing a basic understanding of
the issues for almost any topic and
can often lead to more scholarly
references.
HOWEVER
 Each article has multiple unknown authors with unknown
qualifications and unknown motivations
 is constantly changing
 is often inaccurate and plagiarized
THEREFORE
Use Wikipedia to gain a basic understanding of your topic and as a
lead to other sources but do not use it as a reference source
Evaluating Web Pages for Use in Research
The Internet can be an invaluable resource for quick access to information. In
some instances, the material on a website can be useful in a research project, but
most information on the web is not research quality. In many cases the
information is simply opinion, biased or even advertising. The following is a list of
questions and a checklist of things to consider when evaluating information on a
particular website for suitability as a legitimate research source.
Checklist
Questions
Accuracy
• Who wrote the page?
• Can you contact the author?
• When was the site created?
• When was the information last updated?
• Are the links current and relevant?
• Make sure the author provides an email address and/or a contact
address and phone number.
• Remember the distinction between an author (the one who wrote
the information) and webmaster (the one who posted the
information).
• Check for the date of creation and updates.
• Check that the links are current and correct.
Authority
•Who published the information or what institution sponsored the
page?
•Do the authors list their qualifications?
•Are all sources identified and cited correctly?
• Determine who is disseminating the information.
• Check the URL domain (.edu, .gov, .org, etc.).
• Look for the authors' credentials.
• Look for a complete, up-to-date bibliography.
Objectivity
• What is the purpose of the document?
• Who is the intended audience?
• What goals/objectives does the page meet?
• What opinions (if any) are expressed by the author?
• How detailed is the information?
• Ask yourself, "Why was this written and for whom?"
• Determine whether the page is stating opinion, if it is a mask for
advertising, or if it is biased.
• Check whether claims are supported by facts and/or data.
• Again, look for a complete, up-to-date bibliography.
© 2004-2007 by the Teaching Resource Center of the University of Virginia
Putting it all together:
 If the web page lists the author and institution that
published the page and provides a way of contacting them,
and…
 If the page is current and updated regularly (as stated on
the page), and the links are accurate, and…
 If the URL domain is appropriate (.edu, .gov, .org, .net) and
the page notes the sponsor, lists the author's credentials, and
provides a bibliography, and…
 If the page provides accurate information with limited
advertising, and it is objective in presenting the information,
then…
You may have a quality web page that could be of value to
your research!
Anthro Net
http://anthro.net
Portal for
anthropology
websites
Free to all
Anthro-Tech:
http://vlib.anthrotech.com/Cultural_Anthropology/
Another
Anthropology
portal
Free to All
Anthropology Index Online
http://aio.anthropology.org.uk/aio/AIO.html
Index to Current
Periodicals in the
The Anthropology
Library at the
British Museum
Free to All
Academic Search Premier
coverage of some 4300 periodicals with full-text of some 2600 peerreviewed scholarly publications covering many academic areas of
study, including social sciences, humanities, education, computer
sciences, engineering, language and linguistics, arts & literature,
medical sciences, and ethnic studies. Includes full text articles
Must be U of L student
Anthropological Plus
Must be a U of L student
Combines Anthropological
Literature from Harvard
University and
Anthropological Index. An
Index of journal articles,
reports, etc. in anthropology
from the late 19th century to
the present. Covers all core
periodicals in the field in
addition to local and lesserknown journals.
Good for finding articles,
but this is not full text
Article First
Indexes articles and
provides tables of
contents for about
12,500 journals in
science, technology,
medicine, social
science, business, the
humanities, and
popular culture.
Must be a U of L
student
JSTOR
Electronic archive of many journals
Coverage begins at start of each journal and stops within 3-5
years of the present.
Provides full text of journals.
Must be a U of L
student
eHRAF
contains a variety of
source documents
(books, articles, and
dissertations) indexed
by culture and subject
Good for crosscultural comparisons
of particular aspects
of culture.
Contains full-text
articles
Must be a U of L
student
Project Muse
full-text,
articles from
over 300
humanities,
arts, and social
sciences
journals
Must be a U of L
student
Bibliography of Native North Americans
Must be a U of L student
Indexes monographs,
essays, journal articles,
dissertations and
government publications
covering native
American topics and
issues, including
education, anthropology,
psychology, political
science, sociology, and
legal and medical
research.
Ingenta
Indexes articles
from 20,000
journals and books
in all disciplines.
Coverage is from
1988 to the present.
Provides
document ordering
at user's cost
Must be a U of L student
Good for finding
articles in books
Social Sciences Abstracts (Wilson)
•Indexes and abstracts articles from 400+ Englishlanguage periodicals from a broad array of social sciences
disciplines.
• Coverage is from 1983 to the present with abstracts
from 1994 to present.
Sociological Abstracts
•Indexes and abstracts articles from 400+ Englishlanguage periodicals from a broad array of social
sciences disciplines.
• Coverage is from 1983 to the present with abstracts
from 1994 to present.
Social Sciences Citation Index
Assess the text
Skimming
Scanning
Index
Reading in Depth
read critically
Does what the author say make sense?
What premises is his or her argument based on?
What is the context in which the argument is presented,
especially important if it is an older text.
What is the main point the author is trying to make?
Has he or she made it successfully and supported it with
appropriate examples and illustrations.
Is the author saying something new or just synthesizing the
ideas of others?
Does what he or she have to say agree or contradict what
other authors you have read say.
Taking Notes
1. Know what kind of ideas you need to record
2. Don't write down too much
•
record only ideas that are relevant to your focus on
the topic; and they will mostly summarize rather than
quote.
•
Copy out exact words only when the ideas are
memorably phrased or surprisingly expressed--when
you might use them as actual quotations in your essay
•
Otherwise, compress ideas in your own words.
Paraphrasing word by word is a waste of time.
Choose the most important ideas and write them
down as labels or headings. Then fill in with a few
subpoints that explain or exemplify
•
Don't depend on underlining and highlighting. Find
your own words for notes in the margin
3. Label your notes intelligently
 record bibliographic information in a master list when you
begin looking at each source.
 Use authors name and brief title/date on the cards or sheets
you take the actual notes on
 Try as far as possible to put notes on separate cards or sheets.
This will let you label the topic of each note.
 label the topic of each note.
 Leave lots of space in your notes for comments of your own -questions and reactions as you read
 Put page numbers in the margin for direct quotes and
paraphrases
Writing
Order your notes
Write an outline of the argument
Be Objective
•Since the aim of an essay is to persuade, it requires presenting a
well-reasoned argument rather than an appeal to emotion
•Don’t omit contrary opinions or facts
•Don’t fail to support opinions with facts, and
•Don’t use emotive language
Avoid colloquialisms
Signpost
•using a word or phrase that informs the reader the point in the
argument he or she has reached or the direction it is taking.
•There are three major difficulties with the functionalist
approach to understanding society’
Use subheadings
The First Draft
The primary purpose of the first draft is to get your ideas
into some coherent order—to fashion your essay into an
argument.
Polishing it comes later.
Do it quickly
leave it for a day or two.
Edit the rough draft
are the points made relevant?
is it on topic?
does it fully answer the question?
is the argument logical?
are the points in the ‘right’ order and supported with examples?
is it convincing?
is it the right length
Read through your essay with cohesion in mind. Is the
relationship between one paragraph and the next clear?
The Second Draft
The purpose of the second draft is to achieve clarity—saying
what you mean.
•Are the sentences in each paragraph ordered logically
•Are the sentences grammatically correct including ensuring
that they are actually sentences.
•Delete any repetitive or extraneous material
•Ensure paragraphs are linked and that the essay flows
easily
•Ensure that the style is appropriate and consistent
The third draft
The third draft is for editing and polishing.
•Here you want to make sure that you’ve used the right word
in the right place;
•that there are no spelling mistakes;
•that the essay says exactly what you want it to say, and does so
concisely and clearly.
Tips
Tip: If you know it’s going to take several days to write your essay,
leave yourself a note at the end of each session about the direction
you intended the argument to take. This way you can pick up where
you left off. If you’re using a computer leave a symbol, such as an
asterisk, so that you can go immediately to the spot where you left
off by using the find facility.
Tip: Use a thesaurus and dictionary to ensure that you are using the
right word. Roget’s thesaurus is better than Microsoft’s version
Tip: Print out a copy of the second draft and edit it on paper. You
will be surprised at how much you will pick up by seeing it in a
different format.
Tip: To ensure that the material you are presenting has relevance
put yourself in the reader’s place and ask yourself ‘why is the
author telling me this’. If the knowledge is not essential to the
argument then perhaps it should be eliminated.
Tip: Keep deleted sentences and paragraphs in a separate file or at
the end of your document. You may find later that something you
have deleted is actually worth including. Before beginning the final
edit, read through your essay and the deleted material to see if it
contains any relevant information that needs to be included.
Tip Don’t forget to make backup copies of your essay. You might
also consider making a copy in rich text format in case your
computer crashes in which case you can use almost any computer to
complete it. Email it to yourself. If your computer crashes you can
retrieve it from the remote computer.
Tip When you begin to write try and ensure that you have a
minimum of two uninterrupted hours, otherwise you’ll find that you
have to stop just when you’re getting into it.
Tip: If you get stuck and don’t know what to write next. Try:
 taking a break
 working on a different part of the essay
 talking about the difficulty with a friend. The solution often
occurs to you when you verbally state the problem.
 Going back to your plan
Tip: Learn to use the split-screen facility of your word processor. (Or
keep two documents open simultaneously.) You may find it easier to
cut and paste large chunks of text.
Tip: learn to use your word processor’s shortcut keys in order to
manoeuvre around your document—especially how to go to the
beginning and end of your document and to the previous insertion
point.
Tip: Put your essay aside for a few days give it to a friend, relative or
partner to read.
Tip: Tell a friend or relative what the argument of your essay is, or
what it is that you’re trying to say. Then copy it down and use it for
your introduction. By verbalizing your argument you tend to say it
in simpler terms making it clear to both you and your reader. By
telling a friend you force yourself to make a clear statement of it.
Tip. Read your essay out loud.
Tip. Purchase a copy of the latest edition of The Elements of Style
by William Strunk and E. B. White (it’s short and cheap) or
download the first edition free at http://coba.shsu.edu/help/strunk/
It will help improve your grammar and make your writing more
effective.
To present a coherent, clearly-worded paper based on research, you
need to:
 Have a basic understanding of the topic and issues
 Have a thesis or argument
 plan the paper
 know where to find the relevant information
 know how to extract that information by reading critically,
with purpose, and by taking notes
 critically analyse the issues
 argue a case
 structure the information and your ideas logically
 express your ideas with clarity
 edit your writing and present your work professionally
 be original
 focus on the topic consistently, and
 manage your time.