COLORING OUTSIDE THE LINES:
THE IMPACT OF CLASSROOM PRACTICES ON PRESCHOOL AGED
CHILDREN’S ENGAGEMENT IN ART
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Child Development
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Child Development
(Applied Settings)
by
Sierra Ananda Appleby
SUMMER
2013
COLORING OUTSIDE THE LINES:
THE IMPACT OF CLASSROOM PRACTICES ON PRESCHOOL AGED
CHILDREN’S ENGAGEMENT IN ART
A Thesis
by
Sierra Ananda Appleby
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Ana Garcia-Nevarez
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dr. Lynda Stone
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Sierra Ananda Appleby
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format
manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for
the thesis.
__________________________, Department Chair
Dr. Ana Garcia-Nevarez
Department of Child Development
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
COLORING OUTSIDE THE LINES:
THE IMPACT OF CLASSROOM PRACTICES ON PRESCHOOL AGED
CHILDREN’S ENGAGEMENT IN ART
by
Sierra Ananda Appleby
Past research has shown that teaching practices can be linked to educational outcomes.
This thesis aims to add to the larger understanding of the role of instructional practices in
student outcomes by examining the following research question: what is the relationship
between the social organization of learning and young students engagement in art
practices. One teacher and 15 students participated in this micro-ethnography design
study. Video and written observations of naturally occurring art practices were collected
in a preschool classroom over a three-month period. Data analysis revealed that student
engagement took two divergent forms. These two divergent forms of engagement were
linked to two varying organizations of learning: Teacher Directed Learning Group
(TDLG) and Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG). These two groups were
found to utilize differing models of instruction that shaped art and language practices.
TDLG employed a fidelity model of instruction that required students to follow teacher
iv
directives without variation. In TDLG student engagement took teacher-directed forms
were the production of creative ideas by students was not found. SCLG was formed by
peer collaboration and engagement in this group was found to incorporate student
negotiation of participation. Significantly, engagement that was linked to the production
of creative ideas by students was found only in SCLG and was linked to the language and
art practices utilized in this group. While, this study could be limited by the small period
of data collection, the findings did support past research in the field that suggested a link
between instructional classroom practices and student engagement. This suggests the
need for further research that could add to this emerging understanding of the impact
classroom organization can have on student engagement.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Ana Garcia-Nevarez
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ vii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 1
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................... ..4
Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………...5
Methods of the Study……………… ...……………………………………………….8
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……………………………………………………….15
3. METHODS ............................................................................. ………………………. ….34
4. RESULTS ............................................................................................ …………………. 42
5. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………….68
References ……………………………………… …………………………………………..73
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1. Figure 1.Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG)…….………………….……..45
2. Figure 2. Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG)………….……….......57
vii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In a social group, behaviors and interactions are shaped by the social norms
within the group. Norms develop through shared repeated actions that set expectations for
group members. These repeated actions are referred to as practices. In a classroom,
practices can influence both immediate learning goals as well as the larger educational
context. It has been argued that practices shape children’s processes related to cognitive
development and can influence learning (Miller & Goodnow, 1995). The experiences that
children have early on in life, through classroom practices shape later school outcomes
and even overall success in life (Anthony, Anthony, Glanville, Naiman, Waanders, &
Shaffer, 2005).
Statement of the Problem
The preschool classroom represents an important social and educational context
for young children. Preschool is often where children first experience being part of a
social educational group. The preschool years are also a time when children are typically
2
first introduced to art processes and have their first instructional artistic experiences
(Schirrmacher, 1998). As such, practices found preschool classroom, in particular art
instructional practices, play a critical role in shaping the development of creativity in
children (Eckhoff & Urbach, 2008). Creativity can encompass a large number of human
acts that generate something new (Vygotsky, 2004). However, for the propose of this
thesis creativity is defined as imaginative or divergent thought or acts that leads to the
production of an unique artifact that is physical, mental, or emotional (Runco et al.,
1998). In connection with this, creative thinking skills are the ability to use creativity in
the production of new ideas in how one solves or approaches a problem/ question.
As higher academic goals are instituted with younger children, the role creativity
plays in preschool classrooms is changing (Schirrmacher, 1998). A push for increased
levels of educational achievement for younger children often creates a conflict between
what is taught in the classroom and what research suggests promotes the development of
creativity (Rushton & Larkin, 2001). The importance of creativity in art instruction in
early childhood education is often overlooked as the focus of preschool shifts to more
advanced forms of academic learning and kindergarten readiness (McLennan, 2010). This
shift has left an educational gap in the classroom. Preschool students in these classrooms
have fewer opportunities to experience creative activities and through this fewer
opportunities to development creative thinking skills. Yet, a poll conducted by Lake
Research Partners found that 9 out of 10 respondents reported that creative thinking skills
are an important part of success in the United States changing economy (Eckhoff &
Urbach, 2008). Researchers who study creativity and its development argue that the
3
ability to produce new ideas used in solving problems is a very powerful asset in our
ever-changing society. The relevance of creativity in the classroom and the importance of
building a greater understand of its development through further study cannot be over
looked (Mouchiroud & Lubart, 2002).
Nevertheless, the development of creativity and creative thinking skills are not
always supported in educational settings. Even when art curriculum is a significant part
of educational programs, the form it takes can vary greatly and does not necessarily
support creativity (Schirrmacher, 1998). While, historically there has always been a
relationship between art education and early childhood education (ECE) this relationship
has not always been a simple or static one. Art education practices used in preschool
classrooms can often differ from what is recommended by researchers (Thompson,
2006). The ongoing debate over the value and place of art in ECE curriculum can be seen
in the range of art experiences taking place in ECE classrooms (McLennan, 2010).
Previous research that has studied art education tended to examine the production
of art by a single child, (e.g., the development of drawing skills), rather than art
experiences of children in educational contexts, (e.g., the form students engagement took
in the production of art) (Thompson, 2006). While, past research that examined
individual’s development of art processes holds an important place in the field, it has left
a gap in the larger understanding of how creativity develops in educational group settings
and the role art instructional practices play in this development. Further research is
needed that directly studies the relationship between the development of creativity and art
instructional practices.
4
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this thesis was to examine the relationship between the processes
of instructional art practices found in preschool classrooms and engagement in art by
students in these classrooms. This was completed through a micro-ethnography design
study. Children’s learning experiences related to art activity were observed in order to
understand the role of instructional art practice in students’ engagement in art. This
research was conducted by collecting video-recorded observations, along with written
observation field notes, and a post interview with the participating teacher. I used
Discourse Analysis (DA) to examine data collected for this research. DA was chosen to
study data in this research for three reasons. a) It allowed me to study language patterns
of participants, along with how these patterns varied within the population observed. b) It
allowed for the study both formal teacher-directed language and informal studentdirected language. c) It allowed me to examine how interactions between participants,
observed through language patterns, structured student engagement
My principal aim in this thesis was to examine how the processes of instructional art
practices were linked to engagement in art by students in preschool classrooms. This was
done through examining the following question: What is the relationship between the
social organization of learning and young students engagement in art practices? The
intention of this study was to add to the larger understanding of the relationship between
5
instructional practices, creativity, and engagement by students in art in early childhood
educational settings.
Significance of the Study
Research has shown that children’s first educational experiences can be linked to
how they participate throughout their education careers and even beyond in their life
(Eckhoff & Urbach, 2008). However, increasingly the focus of preschool programs has
become meeting academic standards. The role and significance of creative art activities in
learning and development is being lost (Niu & Sternberg, 2003). Yet, research has
suggested that the use of creative art can encourage children to think in new ways and
allows them to express ideas free from being constrained by having to meet a pre-set
standard (Thomas, & Mulvey, 2008). Creative art practices can create opportunities for
children to think about their world in new imaginative ways without being responsible for
reproducing someone else view of the world.
The development of creative thinking skills are a critical part of children’s
education (Eckhoff & Urbach, 2008). Current research suggests that there is a
relationship between cognitive processes, such as problem solving skills and creative
thinking. When students are allowed the opportunities to build creative thinking skills,
these skills have been linked to higher levels of cognitive processes. (Niu & Sternberg,
2003). In a study by Daugherty & White (2008) preschool aged children’s use of private
6
speech, that has been argued to be cognitive process beneficial in learning, was looked at
in relation to creative thinking skills and problem solving abilities. The research found
that higher levels of private speech used by students that was directed at a problem was
related to higher levels of creativity in problem solving abilities. This study suggested a
link between the development of cognitive skills and creative thinking skills.
However, whether or not children are given the opportunity to build creative
thinking skills will often depend on the classroom practices put to use in their educational
environment (Schirrmacher, 1998). Practices are the shared repeated actions that are part
of the norms of a social group. Practices that are part of an educational learning setting,
such as a preschool classroom can create ways of thinking and shape learning (Miller &
Goodnow, 1995). Sociocultural theory argues that through the use of practices, learning
first began in social interactions and then is internalized by children (Granott, 1998).
According to Vygotsky (1978) and Sociocultural theory, cognitive development is
formed through children’s social relationships. The path development takes will be
directly shaped by the social environment (Goldstein, 1999). Vygotsky (2004) also
argues that the same process is true for how creativity develops.
Moreover, the form that creativity will take often depends on children’s
educational experiences (Eckhoff & Urbach, 2008). A study by Eckhoff (2007) linked
teaching strategies to how creativity was expressed by students and illustrated the impact
successful teaching practices can have on the occurrence of creative thinking. Eckhoff’s
research found that how children experienced art practices could shape how their
creativity developed in a classroom setting. The development of imaginative and creative
7
thinking skills is argued by Vygotsky to be directly linked to the richness of one’s
experiences in the social world. Without opportunities to develop creative skills and
experiences to foster imaginative thinking, children’s creativity will be limited
(Vygotsky, 2004).
Imagination is built through what children see, experience, and learn in their
social world. Vygotsky argues that to cultivate creativity in children the environment
must provide opportunities for imaginative thinking along with freedom in choice of
activity; both of which are essential for the birth and development of creativity (2004). In
educational settings, this implies that creative activities cannot be forced or aimed at
meeting a set standard, but built on children’s interests with room for children to explore
(Vygotsky, 2004).
The development of creativity is a complex process that is not completely
understood (Schirrmacher, 1998). It requires children to be able to use abstract thinking
skills, assimilate social stimulus, and draw on memory (Vygotsky, 2004). The relationship
between creativity and the development of cognitive abilities is something that has been
studied by researchers for decades. However, recent research seems to support the
argument that the development of creative thinking skills can be linked with the
development of cognitive abilities.
8
Methods of the Study
Research Question
My principal aim in this thesis was to examine how the processes of instructional
art practices were linked to engagement in art by students in preschool classrooms. This
was completed by examining the following question: What is the relationship between
the social organization of learning and young students engagement in art practices?
Design
A micro-ethnography design was used in this qualitative thesis. Naturally
occurring art practices were observed through the use of video recording and written field
notes. A post semi-structured interview with the participating teacher also was collected
for this research.
Participants
Participants for this study were a teacher and students at a private multi-classroom
Child Development center in the Sacramento California area. The center was comprised
of three different classrooms, with one classroom for each of the age groups, 18 to three
years old, three years to four years old and four years to five years old. One classroom
from this center was chosen to take part in the study. This classroom served children
between the ages of three and four. There were 25 children enrolled in this classroom and
9
out of these children 15 took part in art activities and were video recorded over a threemonth period. One teacher who worked full-time in this classroom took part in this study.
Students who participated in the current study were from on average middle to upper
middle class SES families and majority of students in the classroom were categorized as
Caucasian. The primary language spoken at home and school was English. None of the
children who participated in the research had been identified as having any disabilities or
special needs. The mean age for children was 3.4 years.
Procedures
Preschool programs in the Sacramento area were considered for participation in
this study based on art curriculum used in the programs. Child Development Centers
were looked for that incorporated two or more art projects daily. Information about art
curriculum was found through review of program websites and telephone interviews of
programs. One Child Development Center was recruited. One classroom from the larger
school population was selected to take part in this study. Consent was obtained from the
participating program director and staff. Assent forms were given to all parents of
students in participating classrooms, which were to be returned signed if the parent
wished to decline to have their child Participate in this research. No Assent forms were
returned. Over a three-month period I video recorded naturally occurring art projects in
the participating preschool classroom. Along with the video recordings, written
observational field notes of the classroom were record on days when filming was not
taking place over this same period. After video recording and written observational field
10
notes had finished a post semi-structured interview was conducted with the classroom
teacher who participated in this research.
Data sources and instruments
This study collected observational data, along with post semi-structure interview
of the teacher who participated. Video observations were recorded by, me, the researcher
using a video recording device that records both video and audio data. Observational field
notes were also recorded by me in hand-written form and then later transcribed to hard
copy form. Once video recording and written observational field notes had been
completed, the video files were then reviewed several times by myself and I then
transcribed the video files into hard copy transcripts using the qualitative data analysis
program Transana (Woods, 2012). Transana is a software program that facilitates
accurate transcription in accordance with the audio tracks and the matching video frames,
along with aiding in coding and data analysis. I reviewed the written observation notes
and then transferred these notes into a hard copy form. Answers to the interview
questions were reviewed and transferred to a hard copy form.
Analytical methods
Transcribed data was analyzed through Discourse analysis, (DA) (Hutchby &
Wooffitt, 2008). DA was used for two reasons. First, DA allowed me to study how
language patterns in the data varied in relation to the social organization of learning in the
classroom (Hutchby & Wooffitt, 2008, & Macleod, 2002). Second, it allowed me to
11
examine specifically how language use by participants shaped student engagement in art.
The language practices used during art activities was used as the unit of analysis (UA) in
this thesis. This unit of analysis was selected because it represented “…the smallest part
that retains the attributes of the whole” (p. 42; Granott, 1998), that is, the ways students
engage in art activity as seen through language production. This UA allowed me examine
how language practices in a classroom setting structured the experiences of students and
how this structure was linked with art activity. To analyze art language practices using
this UA data were reviewed repeatedly and explored for patterns that could be linked
with instructional practices.
Definition of Terms
Cognition- In this research thesis the term cognition refers to the mental faculties
and/ or processes that allow one to manipulate and acquired knowledge. It is an internal
function of the mind involving the structures and abilities build through development and
mental activity (Bjorklun, 2005).
Creativity- Comprises a wide range of human acts, which generate something new
physically, mentally, or emotionally (Vygotsky, 2004). Creativity involves motivation,
imagination, and divergent thought that leads to the production of a unique artifact
(Runco et al., 1998). Creativity is set of capacities that allow a given person to act in new
and adaptive manners in a context (Mouchiroud & Lubart, 2002).
Creative/ Imaginative language- For the proposes of this research, this term refers
to speech that is new or divergent from what has been said before in the social
12
environment. It is language not referring to the mechanics of present activity or in
response to classroom structure, but rather is speech that brings about a unique idea or
builds on something in the environment in a new way (Vygotsky, 2004).
Product Oriented Art (Closed-ended) Outcomes - Art Activities with a set
outcome or product that students must try to reproduce. These practices required students
recreate a product created by someone else. These art activities are the stereotypical art
activities that most people would remember from their own childhood, such as gluing
together a face, eyes, with cotton balls for a beard and a red hat to make Santa
(McLennan, 2010).
Open-Ended Art Outcomes- Art activities were defined as activities where
students are given the opportunity to create their own art, without having to reproduce a
set product. These are art activities such as where students are give blank paper, several
colors of paint and allow to paint what they want without being directed in what they
should product (McLennan, 2010).
Practices- The term practice refers to the repeated actions taking place in a social
setting that can be observed over time. While, the term practice is used in different ways
across the disciplines, Miller and Goodnow, define the concept of practices as actions;
they are what people do (2006).
Instructional Practices- This term refers to practices that are employed directly in
the instructional process. That is, practices that structure how students could participate
(McLennan, 2010).
13
Discourse Analysis (DA) - This term refers to the method of analyzing normally
occurring language used during social interactions in a group. It has been defined as the
close study of language in use (Taylor, 2001).
Linguistic Resources- are language tools used in social interactions.
Limitations
This research faced three notable limitations. First, this study looked at a limited
number of participants. The sample size of children and adults taking part in the research
was small, with only one adult and 15 children being part of the final data sample
analyzed in the research. Second, this research observed one population that did include a
significant variation in participate characteristics. That is, the students who participated in
this study were from predominately Caucasian and middle to upper middle class SES
families. Finally, this research was collected over a limited period, (i.e., three months).
These limitations could be argued to call in to question the overall significance of the
findings of this thesis and suggest the need for further research over a longer period a
larger and varying population.
Organization of the Study
This research thesis consists of five chapters. The present chapter being the
introduction, which provides an over view of the thesis, including statement of the
problem, methods, terms and limitations. The next chapter, chapter two, is a literature
review of that looks at sociocultural theory, cognition and creativity, the social context
14
and creativity, instruction practices and art practices in early childhood classrooms.
Chapter three is the methods section and describes in detail the qualitative design of the
present study, such as forms of classroom observational data collection, participant
numbers, and analysis methods. The next chapter, chapter four, is the results section of
this research thesis. Here the major findings are described and data is analyzed. Finally,
the last chapter is chapter five. This chapter is a over view of major findings along with
general conclusions about the data and ties findings to the theoretical framework put forth
in chapter two.
15
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The development of creative thinking skills are a critical part of children’s
education (Eckhoff & Urbach, 2008). When students are allowed opportunities to build
creative thinking skills, these skills will often support them in problem solving abilities
and in learning throughout their lives (Niu & Sternberg, 2003). However, whether or not
children are given the opportunity to build creative thinking skills will often depend on
the classroom practices being put to use in their educational environment (Schirrmacher,
1998). Practices, which are the shared repeated actions that are part of the norms of a
social group, can create ways of thinking and shape learning (Miller & Goodnow, 1995).
The importance of practices in the development of creativity is supported by current
research in the field and will be reviewed in this section. The current literature review
will begin with a presentation of the theoretical framework this thesis utilized. Next, this
literature review, using a Sociocultural viewpoint, will examine research from the
following three areas: 1) the link between cognition and creative thinking, 2) the impact
of instructional practices on learning processes, and 3) the role of creativity in early
childhood art.
16
Theoretical Framework
Sociocultural theory argues that learning begins in social interactions and then
knowledge is internalized by children (Granott, 1998). Based on the work of Vygotsky
(1978), Sociocultural theory views cognitive development as being formed through
children’s social relationships (Goldstein, 1999). The path development takes will be
directly shaped by the social environment (Granott, 1998). Sociocultural theory also
argues that this is true for how creativity developments. This theory proposes that the
form creativity can take will often depend on educational experiences (Eckhoff &
Urbach, 2008). The development of imaginative and creative thinking skills is argued by
Vygotsky to be directly linked to the richness of one’s experiences in the social world.
Without opportunities to develop, creative skills and gain experiences to foster
imaginative thinking children’s creativity will be limited (Vygotsky, 2004). That is,
imagination is built through what children see, experience, and learn in their social world.
Vygotsky argued that to cultivate creativity in children the environment must provide
opportunities for imaginative thinking along with freedom in choice of activity, which are
essential for the birth and development of creativity (2004). Decades of research have
found that in relation to creativity, when individuals feel they have greater freedom from
external control they will be more likely to see a task as play rather then work and
produce high levels of creativity in the task (Hennessey, 2003). In educational settings,
this implies that creative activities cannot be forced or aimed at meeting a set standard,
but built on children’s interests with room for children to explore (Vygotsky, 2004).
17
Cognition’s Link to Creative thinking
The development of creativity is a complex process that is not completely
understood (Schirrmacher, 1998). It requires children to be able to use abstract thinking
skills, assimilate social stimulus, and draw on memory (Vygotsky, 2004). The relationship
between creativity and the development of cognitive abilities is something that has been
studied by researcher for decades. It has been argued over this time that creative
processes can not be studied in isolated because they are multifaceted and should be
looked at in relation to other structures, such as cognitive skills (Noppe & Gallagher,
1977). Recent research also seems to support the argument that the development of
creative thinking skills can be linked with the development of cognitive abilities and the
relationship between the two needs to be studied more in-depth to understand the
development of both.
The relationship between cognition and creativity was studied in a research article
by Daugherty and White (2008). This study examined the relationship between the use of
private speech, which has been argued to be a cognitive self-regulatory process and its
connection with creativity in preschool aged children. Thirty-two preschool aged children
who were enrolled in a Head Start and a State-funded Preschool program took part in the
Daugherty and White study. The preschoolers were considered to be part of a at risk
population group. The participants each completed the Torrance creativity test, Thinking
Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM). The children were then observed during a
18
free play activity and while they completed a structured math activity. Private speech
used by the participants was recorded and analyzed.
Results of the Daugherty and White study showed that children who used more
self-directed private speech related to the task they were working on also showed higher
levels of originality and creativity in both the free play and structured activity (2008).
That is, as children’s private speech became more directed at solving a problem the level
of creativity in problem solving also increased. Daugherty and White’s study was also
found to be notable through the finding that participants who showed higher levels of
problem directed private speech as well as higher levels of creativity also showed higher
levels of success in problem solving. Daugherty and White argued that this suggested a
relationship between cognitive processes, such as self-regulating private speech and
creative thinking. This research suggested the need for further study what methods would
best support the development of cognitive processes and creative abilities in educational
settings. This study also called for further research to help build a larger understanding of
the exact relationship between cognitive processes and creativity (Daugherty & White,
2008). Daugherty and White’s research supported the need for the current research
completed in this thesis by myself, as it could add to the larger understanding of the use
creativity in classroom settings by students.
The relationship between creativity and cognition was also examined in a study
by Groborz and Necka. This 2003 research by Groborz and Necka assessed the processes
of cognitive control and its relationship with creativity. Sixty-four college students
between the ages of 20 and 25 took part in this study. Participants were given the Urban
19
and Jellen’s Test for Creative Thinking- Drawing Production to assess creativity. The
Navon and Stroop tasks were used to assess cognitive control. A procedure called
Generation and Evaluation (GenEva procedure) was used to study the generative and
evaluative aspects of creativity. Participants in the study were each asked to generate
provide solutions to a given set of divergent problems. The participants then had to
evaluate solutions provided by another participant picked at random.
Participants who scored high on Jellen’s Test for Creative Thinking- Drawing
Production creativity test were also found to have higher levels of cognitive control then
participants who scored lower on this creativity measure. This was also found for the
GenEva procedure with participants who scored higher on this creativity measure also
scoring higher on cognitive control. The authors of the study, Groborz and Necka,
suggested that the relationship between higher levels of creativity and higher levels of
cognitive control could be explained through the nature of the task used in their research.
The measures used in the study required participants to use divergent thinking and valued
unusual responses, both of which the authors argued called for high levels of cognitive
control and creativity (Groborz & Necka, 2003).
Groborz and Necka’s research supported the relationship between cognition and
creativity. In that, the research found a relationship between higher levels of cognitive
control and higher levels of creative thinking abilities, which suggested a relationship
between cognitive processes and creativity in the development of the other. However, this
study was completed with a limited college level population that suggested the need for
further research that examined the relationship between cognitive processes and creativity
20
in other varying populations. The current thesis completed by myself, aimed to do this
through studying the cognitive process of language and its link to creative processes.
Cognitive processes link to creative experiences were explored in a mixedmethods study by Eeckelaar, Camic & Springham (2012). Eeckelaar et al. investigated how
art viewing and art-making experiences were linked to cognition (i.e., memory) in
participants diagnosed with dementia. The design of the study utilized audio recordings and
content analysis, along with pre-post design with follow up after four weeks. The affect of
viewing artwork by master artists in a museum setting and then taking part in art making
activities in a studio setting was analyzed to study the relationship between taking part in a
creative process and gains in memory by participants. Six participants diagnosed with
dementia along with a primary care giver for each took part in this study. Each participant
diagnosed with dementia was assed for cognition abilities before being asked to take part in
the research study. Participants were then given a pretest before the study began to assess
episodic memory. After the art viewing and art making experiences participants were given
a post-test that assessed episodic memory. Participants were interviewed at the end of the
research study and then after four week interviewed again.
Findings of this study suggested that episodic memory could be improved through
creative experiences. It was found that the frequency of a participant’s references to
episodic memory increased from 7.03% in pre-testing, to 25.90% during art viewing
experiences, and finally to 26.47% in post interviews (Eeckelaar et al, 2012). These results
can be argued to show a positive effect between creative experiences and improve
cognitive processes. Participants in the study were also rated by their caregiver as showing
21
improved mood, confidence and reduced feelings of isolation during the study and after
completion of the research. The Eeckelaar et al. study indicated a need to examine the link
between cognition and creativity further. The small sample size that took part in this
research could be problematic in generalizing these finding. However, the Eekelarr et al.
study supported the relationship between cognition and creativity in individuals with
dementia. This finding suggested the need to test these results for generalizability in other
populations, such as children. The present thesis aims in part to do this through looking at
language use during art processes.
Recent research strongly suggested that cognition and creative processes are
linked to each other. That is, cognition and creativity thinking abilities are not independent
processes in development, but related to the use of the other (Daugherty& White, 2008),
(Matlin, 2002). However, the exact relationship between these two concepts is still being
debated and calls for further study (Matlin, 2002). Further research is necessary in
understanding if cognitive and creative processes are equally important in the development
of the other or if one holds a more consequential role in this relationship. Through this
thesis, I aimed to add to the greater understanding of the relationship between creativity
and cognition, through examining how the cognitive process of language was shaped by the
creative structures that are part of a classroom setting.
22
The Impact of Instructional Practices on the Learning processes
While, the term practice is used in different ways across disciplines, Miller and
Goodnow defined the concept of practices as actions; they are what people do. Practices
are repeated actions taking place in a social setting that can be observed over time (2006).
Practices become interwoven in the daily curriculum of classrooms. Teachers and
students who take part in these practices do not always think about them. They are just
the daily activities and rarely analyzed by those who are participants in these practices.
However, the value of the form practices take in the classroom setting cannot be over
looked. The fact that practices are what a social group does can tell a researcher the most
about why a developmental outcome has come about. Miller and Goodnow argued that
through studying practices in learning settings the larger context of the classroom can be
understood (2006). Classroom practices shape what is seen as important, how children
are expected to participant, and what resources are used in the classroom. The form
practices take in a learning setting will often depend greatly on the adults in that setting.
As the more powerful status members in educational settings, teachers, will often have
the greatest impact on the form practices take in classrooms (Miller & Goodnow, 2006).
This is most often seen through the instructional practices instituted by teachers during
learning interactions in classrooms. Past research argued that the form of instructional
practices used in classrooms shaped student motivation in that setting (Hickey, 1997).
Furthermore, instructional practices have been linked with educational outcomes for
students suggesting a need to understand the relationship between practices and
development (Rushton and Larkin 2001).
23
A study by Johnson (2006) examined students’ perceptions of classroom
instructional organization. Johnson’s research investigated how students’ perceptions of
classroom practices were shaped by the form instruction in the classroom, (e.g.,
instructional practices that supported individualistic, competitive, or communal learning).
The participants in this study were 214 hundred fifth grade students from six different
elementary schools. The elementary schools were located in urban, suburban, and rural
areas in the Mid-Atlantic region in the United States. Two schools from each geographic
area that represented a diverse ethnic population were selected to take part in the
research. Participants who took part in this study were given the Social Interdependence
Scales, PBBM Perception of the Classroom Learning Environment Questionnaire, and a
student demographic questionnaire.
Over 70 percent of participants in this study reported preferring group-learning
activities that were hands-on rather then passive. Participants reported having the highest
levels of engagement in activities involving practices that used interactive group projects.
The finding of Johnson’s study suggested a link between student engagement and the
form instructional practice took in the classroom (2006). Johnson’s research also
supported past research that suggested the need to analyze instructional practices related
to learning structures in classrooms (Hickey, 1997). Additionally, the research suggested
significant implications for how instructional practices are used in a classroom setting
and calls for further research that examines outcomes related to educational practices.
This current thesis could further add to the larger understanding of how instructional
practices can shape learning experiences of students.
24
The argument by Johnson (2006) that instructional practices hold an important
role in students’ engagement was also supported in research by San Franciso, Arias, &
Villers (2005). In a 2005 study by San Franciso et al., how literacy instructional practices
were linked to success of students in Kindergarten and first grade was examined. San
Franciso et al. studied how instructional practices used in early childhood classrooms
shaped engagement in emergent and early literacy skills in Costa Rican kindergarten
classrooms. This study assessed 222 participants at the beginning of a kindergarten
school year through the use a literacy assessment developed for the study. At the end of
the same year, 56 students from the same kindergarten classes were again assessed. The
next year 62 first grade students were also assessed again at the beginning and at the end
of the school year. The children were from four different elementary schools. Children
were assessed at the beginning and end of the school year for on a wide range of
emergent literacy skills. Classrooms were then observed for practices that were included
on the classroom assessment tool, Classroom Assessment Scoring Scheme (CLASS).
This classroom assessment looks for general indicators of quality educational settings,
such as emotional support, classroom environment, and instructional support.
Assessments of literacy skills showed that there was growth in literacy ability
from the beginning to the end of the kindergarten year and in the first grade participants
assessed. However, participant’s understandings of literacy concepts about print,
phonological awareness, and letter identification were not found to meet developmental
averages for the age groups. San Franciso et al. argued that these results suggested that
participants did not have the needed literacy skills to help develop ongoing literacy
25
development. To explain the low levels of literacy development the authors looked at
classroom teaching practices related to literacy and the CLASS assessment.
San Franciso et al. (2005) found that while a high percentage of the kindergarten
classrooms rated high on social and emotion support they were also rated as being
cognitively passive. Written and verbal literacy instructional practices were not found to
play a large role in daily classroom activities and the building of literacy skills was not
generally supported by instructional practices. The authors argued that this created a
learning environment were students were given little preparation for literacy tasks used in
the first grade, such as learning to write and read within the first grade academic year.
San Franciso et al. suggested that the literacy instructional practices used in the
kindergarten classrooms significantly shaped later first grade academic outcomes (2005).
The San Franciso et al. study supported the view that practices used in educational
settings were linked with educational outcomes (Hickey, 1997). The form instructional
practices take in educational settings has been linked to what students take away from
these learning experience and even later educational success (Miller & Goodnow, 2006).
The San Franciso et al. 2005 study, illustrates the need for further research that examines
the implication of less researched areas of classroom instructional practices, such as
practices related to the development creativity and their possible link with student
outcomes. The current research, completed by myself, aimed to add to this understanding
by examining instructional practices related to participation in art in preschool
classrooms.
26
A study by Pahl also examined at how the practices used by adults in a classroom
setting shaped what students take away from learning experiences (2007). Pahl argued
that through studying literacy instructional practices a greater understanding of how
creativity develops could be built. Pahl also suggested that literacy practices could not be
examined in isolation, but within the larger context.
Pahl’s 2007 study examined creativity and literary processes. Two different
classrooms in an elementary school in South Yorkshire, England were observed: a
kindergarten classroom and a second grade classroom. This study was part of a larger
project that involved artists working along side classroom teachers to promote textmaking literacy opportunities in the classroom setting. Pahl’s research used observations
of classroom instructional practices, along with interviews with teachers, artists, and
children taking part in the study. The data was then review for common points across
different areas of the research.
A common pattern found in Pahl’s research was that literacy processes and
creative thought produced by children in the classroom setting were related to practices
used at home, along with practices used in the classroom. This study suggested that how
children approach a task was linked to instructional practices they experienced in their
everyday lives. For example in Pahl’s research children who had experienced move
advanced instructional practices at home and at school, such as how to create narratives
related to a map making activity also produced more advanced narratives and drawings of
maps. The findings of Pahl’s study suggested that the form of instructional practices
students experienced shaped what they produced in educational settings. The limited
27
number of participants that took part in Pahl’s research calls for further studies to see if
these findings would be replicated. The current thesis, through its study of instructional
practices and engagement in art, could be beneficial in adding support to Pahl’s findings.
The instructional practices students experience can shape learning and creativity.
Practices that might seem of little importance in classrooms can become the foundation
future development will be built on by young children. If education professionals, such as
teachers, do not conscientiously enter into instructional practices with an understanding
of the importance of art practices then the development of creativity will not always be
supported in the learning settings.
Creativity in Early Childhood Art
Creativity can comprise a wide range of human acts that generate something new
physically, mentally, or emotionally (Vygotsky, 2004). In the educational field, the
concept of creativity is most often associated with art. This is especially true for early
childhood education where art plays a prominent role in curriculum and creativity is most
often seen through daily classroom practices such as painting and coloring. However, in
the early childhood education field, there continues to be ongoing debate about the
importance and role of art education. This can be seen through the wide range of
practices associated with art curriculum in preschool programs.
The importance a curriculum places on creativity can often be seen through the
form art practices take in that curriculum (Schirrmacher, 1998). Curriculums that view
creativity as not an essential skill in the processes of learning will often provide art
28
activities that are used to build other skills, such as cutting out shapes to practice small
motor skills. These types of art practices have been defined as Product Oriented Art (i.e.,
closed-ended teacher/ adult directed projects). Product Oriented Art practices were
described by McLennan (2010) as art activities with a set outcome or product that
students were to try to reproduce. These practices required students to master a task given
to them by a teacher and recreate a product created by someone else. Product Oriented
Art practices are the stereotypical art activities that most people would remember from
their own childhood, such as gluing together a face, eyes, with cotton balls for a beard
and a red hat to make Santa. It has been argued that Product Oriented Art leave little
room for creativity through its requirement that students recreate a other-directed product
without calling on students to use higher cognitive processes (Schirrmacher, 1998).
While, Product Oriented Art practices have held a place in early childhood, such
as in the development small motor skills, it can also be argued that they do not help
develop creative thinking in young children. Current research suggested that the form art
practices take in preschool classroom shape cognitive development through how they
support the development of creative thinking abilities (Korn-Bursztyn, 2002). This
supports the argument that art in preschool classrooms should be more then just a fun
activity to keep students busy, but provide students with opportunities to build cognitive
skills through using creative thinking (Thompson, 2006).
In contrast to Product Oriented Art practices, Open-Ended Art practices were
defined as activities where students are given the opportunity to create their own art,
without having to reproduce a set product. Engaging in Open-Ended Art activities allows
29
students to use imaginative thought in the creation of something new (McLennan, 2010).
These are art activities such as where students are give blank paper, several colors of
paint and allow to paint what they want without being directed in what they should
product. This type of art activity calls on students to form their own intentions about what
will be produced through their art and can allow for the use of creative thinking. It has
been argued that Open-Ended Art allows students greater opportunities for discussions,
exploration, and expression (McLennan, 2010).
The relationship between art practices and creativity was seen in 2007 study by
Eckhoff. In this observational study, Eckhoff examined strategies used by a master
teacher to engage children in art activities. Eckhoff’s study consisted of a participant
population of preschool-aged children that took part in an art summer program at the
Denver Art Museum (DAM), which provided art-viewing and art-making experiences in
a class setting. Eckhoff’s research examined the role art experiences played in the
imaginative process was examined in relation to art practices.
Two separate groups of children were observed during the DAM summer art
program. The first consisted of 16 children with five boys and 11 girls. The second
consisted of also 16 children with seven boys and nine girls. The classes ran for a week
and met for 2.5 hours a day. The same teacher worked with both groups of children. The
DAM art program was picked for observation in Eckhoff’s study for its use of a variety
of art practices and the qualification of the teacher. Field notes and audio-recordings were
used to record observations of class practices. Informal interviews with students were
used to record participant views of the art practices used in the programs. A semi-
30
structured interview with the teacher was completed. The field notes, audio-recordings,
and interviews were then transcribed. The transcribed data was analyzed for art related
teacher talk.
Four coded areas of teacher talk were found to show importance in relation to
successful art practices: game play, questioning, storytelling, and technically topic related
talk. These four areas of teacher talk also seemed to support the creation of an
environment that promoted artistic understanding and expression by children. The openended art practices used in this study were found to allow participants to build on artviewing experiences and develop their own creative thinking related to the activity.
Eckhoff suggested this showed the need for the integration of meaningful openended art-viewing experiences in early childhood programs to help in the development of
creative thinking. Eckhoff also argued that the findings of this study illustrated the impact
successful art practices can have on the occurrence of creative abilities in classroom
settings (2007). The author also argued that this highlights the need to train educators in
how to promote imaginative learning through open-ended art practices. Eckhoff’s work
called for further research that directly studied classroom art practices to examine
whether these findings would be replicated in other populations, this suggested the need
for the current research completed in this thesis that examined instructional art practices
in a preschool classroom.
Work by Korn-Bursztyn (2002) also examined how art practices used by
classroom teachers shaped children’s art experience, through examining the connection
between art experiences and children’s attitudes about art. Korn-Bursztyn argued that the
31
early childhood years are a critical time for the development of imagination and often is
when children’s attitudes about art are first formed. The Korn-Bursztyn study was part of
a larger program at The Lincoln Center Institute for the Arts (LCI). The LCI instituted a
research program that helped build community artistic initiatives. Part of this program
involved working with a preschool educational program that served 3 and 4 year old
children. Two adults and twelve children who were enrolled in the Early Childhood
Center’s preschool program took part in the Korn-Bursztyn study. The two adult
participants who took part in the study were the classroom teacher and the LCI teaching
artist. The concept of nighttime was selected by Korn-Bursztyn and LCI teaching artist as
the overall theme for the art practices put to use in the classroom in the study. Preschool
aged night themed books were presented to the children by the classroom teacher. The
teacher would read the story and then engage the children in a discussion about the book
and the theme of nighttime. The LCI teaching artist then introduced the painting The
Starry Night by Van Gogh and directed a discussion with the children about the painting.
The children in the classroom were then given painting materials and allowed to create
their own artwork. The children’s interactions and language were observed by the
researcher through written field-notes and audio recordings. The written field-notes and
audio recording were then analyzed for narrative themes.
Korn-Bursztyn’s study found that children’s language built on the art experiences
that were introduced in their classroom. That is, students linked concepts from the theme
of The Starry Night with how they described their art. However, children were also found
to build on the concept introduced in new and creative ways that they related to the art
32
they created (2002). The findings of the study suggested that the form art practices took
in a classroom setting shaped children’s engagement in learning. Korn-Bursztyn argued
that the open-ended art practices observed in this research allowed children to develop
their own ideas about what they created and provided opportunities for students to take
the theme they were introduced to and built on it (2002). In connection to this argument,
Korn-Bursztyn also argued that open-ended art experiences could hold a critical role in
cognitive development, through a link to the development of imaginative thinking found
in the author’s study. The author suggested that this was seen in the research through the
creative language used by students related to open-ended art practices. However, KornBursztyn made the argument that open-ended art practices are not always supported in
early childhood curriculums and art in preschool classrooms often takes the form of
product-orientated activities, which can leave a gap in students’ opportunities for creative
development (2002). This suggests the need for further research that could add to the
greater understand of the role art practices play, such as this current thesis, that would
study the relation between the use of open-ended art practices and creativity.
Learning and development are not a one-dimensional process and the
development of creativity is no exception to this. The development of creativity as with
any ability, skill, or function of the mind cannot develop with out opportunities. The form
creative thought and expression take in development more often than not is related to
children’s social context. Current and past research in the field of Development, argue
that children who are not exposed to creative experiences will not develop creative skills
to their fullest capacities (Vygotsky, 2004). The social context, as seen through
33
instructional practices used in an education setting, can shape the development of
creativity. This relationship can lead to long term developmental outcomes for students
through a link to the development of cognitive skills (Shaffer, 2005). This link between
educational structures, cognition, and creativity calls for the needs to build a greater
understand of how instructional practices shape creative development.
34
Chapter 3
METHODS
Setting and Participants
Data used in this thesis were gathered at a private child development center in the
Sacramento, California area. This child development center will be referred to in this
thesis as CDC. This CDC was selected over other centers for two reasons. First, this CDC
had a high rating on a recent Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale-Revised
(ECERS-R) evaluation (Harms, Clifford & Cryer, 2005). The ECERS-R is an
environmental multi-scale assessment designed to evaluate group programs for preschool
children, from 2 through 5 years of age. This rating scale utilizes seven subscales to
evaluate items related to the classroom environment, such as health routines (e.g., hand
washing), teacher student interactions, (e.g., how teachers greets students), and how the
classroom is set up, (e.g., designated places for art, reading, math, etc). The ECERS-R is
a widely used rating scale with strong validity (Dalli, 2007). A high rating on this scale
showed that the CDC program employed practices that other high quality programs who
rated high on the ECERS-R also utilized and these general high quality practices would
be seen in art curriculum used by the CDC. The second reason this center was selected
was the CDC incorporated into the curriculum two to three different art projects a day,
35
which allowed frequent opportunities to video record and take written observational notes
of art practices over the period of data collection.
The child development center served children from the ages of 18 months to five
years of age. Seventy children were enrolled in the program at the time of data collection.
The center was comprised of three classrooms, with one classroom for each of the age
groups: 18 months to three years old, three years to four years old and four years to five
years old. To examine art practices, I used purposeful sampling procedures to identify
focal classrooms where the language practices of art could be easily documented. One
classroom was chosen to participate in the current study. The selected classroom served
three to four year olds. Three teachers worked in the participating classroom. One teacher
out of the three teachers who worked in the participating classroom would lead students
in art activities that took place during small group-time. In this center, small group-time
consisted of four to nine students assembling to be led by a teacher in a project. This
project was teacher directed and free choice, meaning that the teacher decided what
materials were used and the format of the project, but the children in the classroom could
choose to take part in the project or could play with toys available in different parts of the
classroom. A majority of the time these small group projects focused on art. Only two
projects that focused on other areas of curriculum, such as math or sciences took place
during the period of data collection. These projects unrelated to art were not video
recorded and observational notes were not taken on them.
The observed classroom had 25 children enrolled at the time of data collection.
There were a total of 16 boys and nine girls. The number of children taking part in the art
36
project on a given day would range from four to nine students. 15 children, from the
larger class of 25 students participated in art projects during data collection. Children
who participated in this research were from on average middle to upper middle class
socioeconomic status (SES) families. The majority of students in the classroom were
categorized as Caucasian, with one child being categorized as Asian and three children
coming from mixed heritage backgrounds. The primary language spoken in the classroom
and at home was English. No children who participated in the current study had
identifiable disabilities or special needs. The mean age for children participating in the
study was 3.4 years. Participates in this study have been given pseudonyms.
One of the three teachers who worked in the preschool class was observed in this
research. The teacher who participated in this research, Ms. D, had been working at the
CDC for over ten years. She had completed an Associates of Arts in child development
and had not completed any further formal education after this. This teacher was
categorized as Caucasian and was not the caregiver to any children outside the center. A
post semi-structured interview was conducted with Ms. D’s after video and written data
had been collected. She was asked the following three questions in an open-end
interview: 1) how do you feel art should be incorporated in a preschool classroom? 2)
What do you think your role as a teacher is in the classroom? 3) How do you feel
students learn best in a group setting, like preschool?
37
Research Question
My principal aim in this thesis was to examine how the processes of instructional
art practices were linked to engagement in art by students in preschool classrooms. This
research was guided by the following question: What is the relationship between the
social organization of learning and young students engagement in art practices?
Study Design and Data Collection
A micro ethnography design was used in this qualitative thesis. Preschool
programs in the Sacramento area were considered for participation in this study based on
art curriculum used in the programs. Child Development Centers were looked for that
incorporated two or more art projects daily. Information about art curriculum was found
through review of program websites and telephone interviews of programs. One Child
Development Center was recruited. Two classrooms from the larger school population
were selected to take part in this study. Consent was obtained from the participating
program director, staff, and students as needed. Over a three-month period I, video
recorded the one preschool classroom. Along with the video recordings, written
observational field notes of the classroom were record on days when filming was not
taking place over this same period. After video recording and written observational field
notes had finished a post semi-structured interview was conducted with the classroom
teacher who participated in this research.
Observational video data of naturally occurring classroom art projects were
recorded using a video camera. The camera was positioned on a teacher’s desk, which
38
was directly next to a large table where art projects were undertook. At the start of an art
project, I would set up the camera and check to ensure accuracy of focus, placement of
the camera, and clarity of sound. To reduce any possible effects of researcher inference I
would then leave the art room. When the art project had finished I would return to
retrieve the camera. This process was repeated three to fives a week over three-month
period. I also recorded written observational notes. These notes were recorded on days
when video recording did not take place. Again, to reduce any effects of researcher
inference in this part of data collection, but still be able to hear and see the classroom, I
would sit just outside the art area. I would take hand written notes on the classroom over
a 20-minute period on average per day when observational notes were taken. After
videoing recording and observational field notes had been completed, a semi-structured
interview that consisted of three open-ended questions was conducted. The questions
were orally asked to the participating teacher and responses were then recorded in written
form by me, the researcher.
Once video recording and written observational field notes had been completed,
the video files were then reviewed several times by myself and I then transcribed the
video files into hard copy transcripts using the qualitative data analysis program Transana
(Woods, 2012). Transana is a software program that facilitates accurate transcription in
accordance with the audio tracks and the matching video frames, along with aiding in
coding and data analysis. I reviewed the written observation notes and then transferred
these notes into a hard copy form. Answers to the interview questions were reviewed and
transferred to a hard copy form.
39
Data Analysis
Discourse Analysis (DA) was used to examine data in this research. DA was used
for two reasons. First, DA allowed me to study how language patterns in the data varied
in relation to the social organization of learning in the classroom (Hutchby & Wooffitt,
2008, & Macleod, 2002). Second, it allowed me to examine specifically how language
use by participants shaped student engagement in art. The language practices used during
art activities was used as the unit of analysis (UA) in this thesis. This unit of analysis was
selected because it represented “…the smallest part that retains the attributes of the
whole” (p. 42; Granott, 1998), that is, the ways students engage in art activity as seen
through language production. This UA allowed me examine how language practices in a
classroom setting structured the experiences of students and how this structure was linked
with art activity. To analyze art language practices using this UA data were reviewed
repeatedly and explored for patterns that could be linked with instructional practices.
Data analysis revealed two forms of social organization of learning that were
significantly linked with language patterns found in the data: Teacher Directed Learning
Group (TDLG) and Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG).
TDLG was teacher instructed. In TDLG, the teacher implemented a fidelity model
of instruction, which was the expectation that students would execute teacher directions
without deviation from directives. A focal characteristic of TDLG was the Procedural
Based (PB) language use found in this group. PB language was language centered on
students following systematic procedures provided by the teacher for the completion of
their art. PB language was formed through the use of linguistic resources that required
40
limited choice in how students responded to teacher initiated speech (i.e., teacher
directives and questions that prearranged how students could respond). For instance, PB
language include such speech as a teacher directing students in how to use materials,
(e.g., Use just a little bit of glue) or asking questions that required a yes or no answer,
(e.g., do you want to paint an elephant).
SCLG was peer organized. In this group, group interactions were informal and
conducted by student with no teacher direction in how art activities were to be completed.
Language observed in SCLG was characterized by the use of Creativity Focused (CF)
language use by participates. CF language was found to be formed through linguistic
resources that facilitated cooperation in the production of new and varying ideas by
students. These linguistic resources comprised two focal characteristic: 1) Open-ended
questions that were linked to the generation of new ideas (i.e., questions that supported
varying ideas about art processes) and 2) emergent negotiations between participants that
lead to group formation of new ideas (i.e., collaboration in exploration of ideas). For
instance, CF language included such speech as participants asking each other open-ended
questions, (e.g., how did you make a castle) or building on another participants speech.
(e.g. one student stating about his artwork Its like a monster and a student right after this
stating that he had made monster tracks)
After the initial finding of the patterns of PB language and CF language, I then
further reviewed the data for codes related to these categories. This analytic process led
to the finding of regularly occurring language patterns among participants. Data patterns
consistently surfaced throughout the data sets that linked the pattern of PB language with
41
the TDLG and this groups’ use of Product Oriented Art (POA) outcomes. Product
Oriented Art (POA) outcomes were found to be formed through the combined use of four
components that were characteristic of a fidelity model of instruction. These four
components were: 1) outcomes for art that were teacher-directed, 2) students participation
that was limited in free choice, 3) teacher emphasis of the correct use of materials, and 4)
instructions for art that were didactic in form (i.e., step-by-step directions). The group
organization of learning in the SCLG was also linked to the language pattern of CF
language and the Open-ended Art (OEA) outcomes found in this group. OEA outcomes
included the combined use of the following two components of art practices: negotiation
of engagement in art and undefined outcomes for art products related to this engagement.
42
Chapter 4
RESULTS
The results of this research revealed two significant variations in language
patterns related to engagement in art. These variations in language patterns were linked to
two differing instructional organizations of participation in art activity within the larger
classroom population. One instructional organization of learning was teacher directed and
referred to in this research as the Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG). The second
instructional organization was formed through student negotiation of group engagement
and referred to as the Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG). TDLG and SCLG
were found to have a significant variance in language patterns. In this thesis, the two
identified variations in language patterns are referred to as Procedural Based (PB)
language and as Creativity Focused (CF) language. The use of PB language was only
found in TDLG and the use of CF language was only found in SCLG.
PB language was found to employ two specific linguistic resources: 1) language
that required limited student choice in responses (i.e., teacher directives and questions
that structured how students could respond) and 2) language that was didactic in form
(i.e., step-by-step directions that shaped participation). Similarly, CF language was found
to employ two specific linguistic resources: 1) language that supported variation in ideas
43
(i.e., open-ended questions that supported varying ideas about art processes) and 2)
language that supported collaboration in exploration of these ideas (i.e., negotiative
discussion of these ideas that lead to group the emergence of new ideas).
Findings of this research revealed that variations in language patterns between
TDLG and SCLG were related to varying models of instruction, art practices, and
language practices employed in each group. That is, the instructional structures of TDLG
and SCLG were found to be significantly divergent. The varying instructional
organization employ in these groups was linked to divergent forms art practices and
languages practices implemented in each group. These was found to lead to the use of
dissimilar practices related to learning between TDLG and SCLG, which significantly
was linked to variations between these groups in forms of engagement by students in art.
The findings of this thesis will be presented in six subsections. The first three
subsections will provide: a) a summary of findings related to TDLG, b) an examination
of the instructional practices used in TDLG, and c) an analysis of language patterns found
in TDLG. The next three subsections will provide: a) a summary of findings related to
SCLG, b) an examination of practices related to art activity used in this group, and c) an
analysis of language found in SCLG.
Summary of Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG)
Instruction in the Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG) was based on a
fidelity model of instruction. A fidelity model created an expectation that students would
execute teacher directions without deviation. In TDLG, this model of instruction was
44
found to play a consequential role between art instruction practices, i.e., Product Oriented
Art outcomes, and language practices i.e., Procedural Based language practice. In TDLG,
Product Oriented Art (POA) outcomes were formed through the combined use of four
components that were characteristic of a fidelity model of instruction. These four
components were: 1) outcomes for art that were teacher-directed, 2) students participation
that was limited in free choice, 3) teacher emphasis of the correct use of materials, and 4)
instructions for art that were didactic in form (i.e., step-by-step directions). Procedural
Based (PB) language in the fidelity model, as previously defined, was found to be formed
through the use of two specific linguistic resources: a) teacher-directives and questions
that structured how students could respond, and b) didactic instructional language that
shaped student participation.
As the following figure will illustrate, the interrelationship among a fidelity
model, POA outcomes, and PB language was found to be significant because of its link to
the form student engagement took in TDLG. I will also show in my analysis that the
employment of a fidelity model was linked to the use of POA outcomes and PB language
through its requirement that students wait for teacher directions, followed these directions
carefully, and produced a product that reflected this process. In other words, students
were passive participants in art activities in relation to their own ideas and their own
thinking. This process is shown below in Figure 1.
45
Figure1. Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG)
Fidelity Model of instruction
↓
Student Reproduction
Of Procedural Based
(PB) Language
↑
Procedural Based
(PB) Language
Product Oriented Art (POA)
Outcomes
46
As illustrated in Figure 1, the use of a fidelity model in TDLG was linked to the
use of PB language and POA outcomes. A fidelity model of instruction used in TDLG
required the use of PB language and POA outcomes because of its mandate to accurately
follow teacher instructions (i.e., didactic or step-by-step directions). Consequently,
didactic instruction, inherent to fidelity models, was found to be a fundamental
characteristic of PB language and POA outcomes. These three interrelated components of
this instructional approach require that students stay within a pre-set structure. In the
TDLG, the pre-set structure limited student participation in art and language activity to
teacher-directed actions. Because of this limitation, student engagement did not exhibit
creativity, that is, the verbal production of new ideas by students.
The following analysis will document the discourse practices used in TDLG to
show how students’ engagement was constrained by an instantiated pre-set structured.
This analysis will be presented in two subsections. The first subsection will be an
examination of teacher-directed art lessons (POA outcomes) that were linked to student
engagement. The second subsection will present an analysis of language practices (PB
language) also linked to the form of student engagement found in TDLG
An examination of Instructional Art practices in TDLG: “We’re gluing elephants”
In the Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG), how students engaged in art
was directly linked to instructional art practices. TDLG art instructional practices were
found to take the form of Product Oriented Art (POA) outcomes. As previously defined,
POA outcomes included the art practice components of: 1) outcomes for art that were
47
teacher-directed, 2) student participation that was limited in free choice, 3) teacher
emphasis of the correct use of materials, and 4) instructions for art that were didactic in
form (i.e., step-by-step directions). These components of the POA art outcomes were
individually linked to the use of each other and were related to the use of a fidelity model
of instruction.
Teacher-Directed Outcomes for Art. POA outcomes were found to incorporate
art activities that included an identified model of a product selected by the teacher, which
students were expected to reproduce. In these data, the teacher, Ms. D., would introduce
an art activity by first telling students what the expected outcome was for the art project.
For example, Ms. D placed pre-cut elephant-shaped papers on the art table and asked the
group of students if anyone would like to “come do art… we’re gluing elephants”. Note,
Ms. D defined what students were to make “elephants”. This pre-set structure, i.e., a
teacher-defined outcome, resulted in students reproducing an adult-model. This way of
engaging became the definition of art activity.
This predefined outcome for student engagement in art practices was found
throughout TDLG data and was captured in teacher directives, for example, “Who wants
to make a clown face” and “We’re making popcorn pictures”). This component of POA
outcomes, i.e., identified products to be reproduced by students, constrained what
students could create. Art projects in the TDLG were never initiated by students, but
rather by Ms. D, who was found to decide upon all art activity outcomes. This approach
created a structure where the production of art was based on the teacher’s view of what
should or should not be emphasized, included, and ultimately created. Not unexpectedly,
48
students were not provided opportunities to explore art in undefined ways. As a result, the
use of Teacher-directed Outcomes necessitated students to participant within a specific
structure (i.e., the reproduction of a teacher-defined model). This structure was directly
linked to the use of the next component of the POA outcomes: Limited Free Choice in
Participation.
Limited Opportunity for Variance in Participation. How students could
participate in the TDLG, as mentioned earlier, was limited by the expectation that they
would replicate a pre-determined outcome in art activities. It was obligatory that students
meet certain set objectives related to completion of this art-outcome. That is, to take part
in the art activity students had to conform to the structure decided upon by the teacher.
As a result, Limited Opportunity for Variance in Participation became the second
component of the POA outcomes. These limited opportunities were often shaped through
such teacher directives as, “use the yellow crayon” and “leave the paint right here”.
These directives not only limited free choice in how students could participate but also
helped to define art activity as a form of reproduction. For example, in the data, a student,
Jane, told Ms. D that she was finished with her picture. Ms. D then pointed to art
materials left on the table by Jane and told her to use the rest of the art materials, to
“finish your picture”. Jane then sat back down and glued the materials to her paper. Here
Ms. D had defined how Jane should participate in the art activity by requiring her to use
all the materials she was given. Consequently, Jane’s participation in art was not
contingent upon her own interpretation of what she was creating, but rather was
contingent upon conforming to teacher directions.
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It was found that Limited Opportunity for Variance in Participation in TDLG
resulted in the teacher rather than the students taking ownership of the art product. When
participation parameters are set by the teacher, the focus of students’ engagement in
creative processes is muted. The limitation on participation was strengthened by another
component of POA outcomes, Emphasis Placed on the Correct Use of Materials.
Emphasis Placed on the Correct Use of Materials. In TDLG, a third way that
participation was constrained was related to how materials were used. Ms. D repeatedly
stressed the correct use of materials, which limited variation in participation. This
constraint is seen in the following example where a student, Luke, took out more paints
then the limit set by Ms. D. She confronts him about using materials in the “correct
way”. Luke responds by saying “But I need the colors for my painting”, as he is holding
up a green and blue paint bottle, two colors that he did have before. Ms. D then responds
by saying “...there are plenty of paints out you don't need anymore paint...”. Ms. D
follows this statement by taking the paints away from Luke and puts them back in a
container. Here the student was not allowed to use more materials then the limit decided
on by the teacher. In other words, Luke’s ideas and desires for his creation were
constrained they were not a valued part of engagement in art activity. This example
shows how POA outcomes were found to require students to participate in ways that
followed set instructions without variance. This structure was directly linked to the use of
the final component of POA outcomes: Didactic Instruction.
Didactic Instruction. In TDLG, the final component of POA outcomes, of
Didactic Instruction involved the compulsory following of step-by-step teacher
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instructions. It was repeatedly observed that Ms. D. would have students wait to be given
materials for art activities. She would then have students wait for step-by-step
instructions in “how” to use these materials. These instructions, however, were not
simply “how to” take part in art activity but rather detailed directions for the use of
materials before the students could begin an art project. How such instructions were
delivered is captured in the following example. In an art activity that involved the use of
glue for adhering small multi-colored cotton (puff) balls to a cut-out shape, Ms. D
required students to wait for materials. As a part of waiting, Ms. D would explain to each
student individually how to use glue to attach puffballs. For example, Ms. D modeled for
Mike, a three year-old student, a step-by-step procedure in how to put a dot of glue on his
paper, “K’ Mike watch ((Ms. D takes glue brush out and puts it to the paper)) you need
to put one little dot”. After Ms. D. showed Mike how to put a dot of glue on his paper,
she then further directs him to “K’ now put the puff balls into the glue and make your
picture”. After her use of didactic step-by-step instructions, Ms. D. then tells Mike that
he may begin the art activity. The use of didactic instruction in this example directly
shaped the form Mike’s participation took in the art activity: passive participation. In this
example, both the procedures and the creation of art were decided upon in advance by
Ms. D.
Didactic instruction was found throughout the TDLG data, e.g., (“You just put a
little paint” and “Don’t push to hard, just dot the paper lightly” ). In an interview, Ms. D
claims to use Didactic Instruction to help students understand the “correct” way to
participate in a group setting. She felt that it was her job to guide children in appropriate
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behaviors. Her didactic approach created a structure that was intentionally designed for
children to come to accommodate adult created boundaries for engagement, including
engagement in art projects. That is, to take part in art activity, students were required to
follow the teacher’s step-by-step instructions without engaging in exploration or
generating new ideas or strategies.
The organization of TDLG was contingent on participants taking part in all four
components of POA outcomes: Teacher-Directed Outcomes for Art, Limited
Opportunity for Variance in Participation, Emphasis Placed on the Correct Use of
Materials, and Didactic Instruction. Children’s variations from these components were
directly challenged by the teacher. It was observed that exclusion from the art group was
a consequence of going against Ms. D’s directions. Moreover, opportunities to
experience art activities in ways that varied from POA outcomes were not found in the
data. So far, I have explicated how Product Oriented Art outcomes emerged from a
fidelity model of instruction. Next, I will detail how the language used in the Teacher
Directed Learning Group became the linguistic resources to instantiate a fidelity model.
Analysis of Procedural Based Language in TDLG: “just make a picture”
Significantly, in Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG) only Procedural
Based (PB) language was used during engagement in art. PB language was found to be
formed through the use of linguistic resources that required limited choice in how
students responded to teacher initiated speech (i.e., teacher directives and questions that
prearranged how students could respond). Analysis of PB language in TDLG revealed its
52
link to the instructional organization of learning in this group, i.e., a fidelity model of
instruction. The significance of this relationship is its link to their use of language during
engagement in art. In TDLG, student language usage mirrored that of the teacher
initiated Procedural Based Language. That is, language use by students in TDLG was not
initiated by students for their own purposes, but rather initiated as a responsive to the
teacher directives. As a consequence, student talk was structured by either-or requests
that limited responses to yes and no, or limited responses a selection between two items.
Limited Choice as a Linguistic Resource. In TDLG, the use of linguistic
resources to limit choice was found to restrict engagement in art. The specific linguistic
resources employed by the teacher Ms. D, were directives and questions. These directives
and questions were used to both direct and restrain how students could take part in art.
The use of directives and questions to restrict participation is seen in the following
excerpt where, Ms. D was helping a student, Liz, start an art activity that used individual
paint bottles. Ms. D introduced the art activity through the use Limited Choice linguistic
resource, i.e., a question that required a limited choice in how Liz could respond. Ms. D.
gives Liz a choice between painting a paper cut in to the shape of a popcorn bucket or a
clown face. After Liz picks the paper in the shape of a popcorn bucket, Ms. D then directs
Liz in how to use the paint utilizing directives and questions.
53
Excerpt 1: Just dot them k…just make a picture
Ok…do you want to paint a popcorn or a clown
1
face
2
Liz
Popcorn
3
Ms. D
…have you ever used these before ((Ms. D picks
4
up paint bottle, takes cap off, and dots Liz’s paper
5
for her.))
6
Liz
No
7
Ms. D
you just dot them K’ just make a picture
8
Liz
…ok
9
((Liz dots her paper))
10
Ms. D
In this excerpt, Ms. D has given Liz the limited choice between two different
paper shapes “…do you want to paint a popcorn or a clown face…”. The utilization of
either-or questions limited the ways in which Liz could respond. This constraining of
responses was seen again, when Ms. D used directives to instructed Liz how to do the art
activity “…you just dot them K’ just make a picture mm K’ ”. Here Ms. D’s use of
54
Limited Choice linguistic resources created a situation in which the only appropriate
response for Liz was “No” and “ok”.
Utilizing linguistic resources to constrain student responses was a recurrent
pattern in this data set. It is documented again in the excerpt below where a student,
Jack, joins an art activity directed by Ms. D. In this activity, children were expected to
glue materials to a pre-cut lion and bear shapes.
Excerpt 2: You only need a dot of glue, understand?
Ms. D
Does any one want to come make a picture
1
Jack
I do I do I want to do art
2
Ms. D
Alright Jackie come sit down, do you want to make
3
a lion or a bear ((puts paper in front of Jack))
4
Jack
make a lion
5
Ms. D
K’ Jack came sit right here. Do you know how to
6
use this glue (( Points to a chair. Mike sits down)) k
7
Jack watch ((Takes glue brush out and puts it to the
8
paper)) You only need a dot of glue , understand?
9
Yes
10
Jack
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In this example, Jack’s participation was limited through Ms. D’s use of the
directive “You only need a dot of glue” and questions that called for a single-answer
response, “Understand?”. How Jack could take part in this art activity was defined
through these directions and questions. That is, teacher language conveyed how students
were required to participate and did not allow for engagement forms beyond this defined
structure. The use of linguistic resources that limited student choice in participation that
was observed in this excerpt were linked to the passive engagement by students as a
result of the organization of TDLG.
As the above excerpts showed, a majority of the talk observed in TDLG was
produced by the teacher and called for limited responses from students. This finding was
significant because of its link to passive forms of engagement by students. That is, in
TDLG, students did not initiate their own forms of engagement in art. Instead, students
would wait to be instructed in what they were to create in art projects and how they were
to create it. This form of engagement, characteristic of the fidelity model, came into relief
when examining the forms of linguistic resources used by the teacher.
I have illuminated how a fidelity model of instruction utilized in TDLG
constrained the actions and interactions of children in art activity to passive participation.
In the next section of this thesis, I will analyze a different social organization of learning,
one that occurs when art activity is student led, referred to as Student Collaborative
Learning Group (SCLG). This analysis will show a striking difference between TDLG
and SCLG in relation to art practices and linguistic resources. Analysis of findings related
56
to SCLG will be presented in the following three subsections, which will include first a
summary of the focal characteristics of SCLG, next an examination of art practices, and
finally an analysis of the language practices.
Summary of Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG)
In these data, when the teacher removed herself from the small art group a
different social organization of engagement emerged. This new organization is referred
to as Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG). In SCLG, student cooperation was
found to be an essential characteristic. That is, group members consistently engaged in
joint efforts to accomplish art activity. This engagement resulted in student-initiated
Open-Ended Art (OEA) outcomes and was related to the use of negotiative linguistic
resources. OEA outcomes emerged from undefined outcomes for art products. Because
these products were not predefined, children used linguistic resources to negotiate new
ideas, produce new ideas, and change ideas through open-ended questions. These
linguistic resources are referred to in this research as Creativity Focused (CF) language.
The following Figure illustrates the interrelationship of the above components in SCLG.
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Figure 2. Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG)
Student Collaborative
Learning
↕
Negotiative Linguistic
Resources
↕
Creativity Focused Language
Open-Ended Art (OEA)
Outcomes
58
As Figure 2 illustrated, SCLG was shaped the employment of linguistic resources
that supported negotiation in learning processes between students. As noted before,
SCLG was not teacher directed, but completely student organized, (i.e., the supervising
teacher in the classroom never directly interacted with the group). This lack of teacher
direction led to a social organization of learning dependent on the students who made up
this group. Without an authority figure to direct the group, students in SCLG were found
to work together within a cooperative structure to meet group needs. This resulted in a
group structure where there was openness in the expression of new ideas and therefore
structured engagement. Of import, student engagement in this group involved the use of
expressive (descriptive vocabulary) and negotiative linguistic resources in studentinitiated forms of talk. That is, this group used language that is best described as
Creativity Focused (CF).
The following analysis will examine students’ engagement specifically by
focusing on the discourse practices used in SCLG. This analysis will be presented in two
subsections. The first subsection will be an examination of student initiated art
experiences (OEA outcomes) that were linked to student engagement. The second
subsection will present an analysis of language practices (CF language) also linked to the
form student engagement found in SCLG.
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An Examination of Art practices in SCLG: “I think this is purple”
The Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG) was comprised of data where
students engaged in art projects without direct teacher intervention. That is, during video
recording of these data, the supervising teacher, Ms. D, left the art area. Another teacher
was left to supervise the classroom. However, this teacher did not instruct the small peer
group. How students in SCLG were to take part in the art project was left open-ended. In
that, Ms. D left the art area but with no instructions or provided preset structure. Art
practices used in this group were dependent on student group members as a whole rather
than any one directive participant. Practices in this group were formed through a
cooperative process between group members. This organization was found to support the
use of Open-Ended Art (OEA) outcomes, which included the combined use of the
following two components of art practices: negotiation of engagement in art and
undefined outcomes for art products related to this engagement.
Negotiation of Engagement. In SCLG, group interactions were structured through
an evolving exchange of ideas between participants. These responsive interactions were
found to support participant negotiation in learning. This component of OEA outcomes
i.e., Participant Negotiation of Learning, was found in SCLG through interactions
between students where the goal was to gain access to materials. For example, when
student were trying to figure out their art projects, they used language that helped them
collaborate in productive ways (“…Can I have brown paint…”, “You can have my red
marker…”, or “…I need a pink paper..”). Negotiation of Engagement supported these
requests, in that students were observed in the data working together to meet each other’s
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needs. Significantly, this structure that supported negotiation between participants was
found to be linked to the construction of knowledge between group members.
This negotiative structure occurred in the following example where a student,
Beth, asked another student, Nancy, for help. The group was using markers to color blank
paper when Beth asked Nancy to get her a purple marker. “Nancy get me Purple”. Nancy
looked through a box full of markers and pulled out a light purple marker. Nancy showed
it to Beth as she said, “I think this is purple”. After she did this, Nancy then turned to
another student, Jack, who was sitting next to her at the art table and held the marker up
in front of him. Jack looked at the marker and then said to Nancy, “No that’s violet…it’s
a different kind of purple”. He then reaches into the marker box, pulled out a dark purple
marker and gave it to Nancy, as he said, “This one is dark purple”. In this example,
group members used negotiation strategies to build a nuanced understanding of the
different forms of the color purple. That is, negotiative and responsive interactions
between participants in SCLG shaped the group’s understanding that the color purple
could take more then just one form.
In SCLG, the component of OEA outcomes of Negotiation in Learning was
related to responsive interactions found in this group. These interactions built on
student’s individual knowledge, supported group learning, and was linked to the form
student engagement took in this group. Engagement in SCLG was found to be student
initiated and involve the expression of ideas related to art.
Undefined Art Outcomes. In SCLG, art projects were not structured by a
predetermined product that students were expected to reproduce. Instead, the OEA
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outcome of Undefined Art emerged through students’ negotiation of art processes. This
OEA outcome emerged in the social organization of SCLG because students had the
opportunity to introduce their own ideas to the group without having to stay within a set
structure required by a predetermined product. This circumstance created an openendedness, which allowed students to utilize their own thoughts and ideas to inform their
own and other’s creations.
This open-endedness was evidenced in such language, “I’m making a castle” ,
“It’s going to be a unicorn”, and “This is my mom’s garage ((points to line on the
paper)) here’s the driveway”. Students in this group were not expected to stay within a
set structure and were found to use this freedom to express their varying ideas about what
form their art would take. For example, as the group colored paper with markers, a
student Jack, stopped what he was doing and said to the group, “Look it a dragon”. The
students around him responded, “cool”, “yah…dragon”. Here Jack’s introduction of his
idea of a dragon was supported by the group. He was not expected to recreate another’s
product, but could create his own view of what his art was. Not unexpectedly, Undefined
Outcomes for Art was found to allow students to engage in active ways where they could
explore ideas that they initiated. The following subsection will analyze the language the
students used during these activities.
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Analysis of Creativity Focused Language in SCLG: “…This explode…like volcano…”
Significantly, the use of Creativity Focused (CF) language was only found in the
Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG). In SCLG, throughout the data students
without prompting would introduce new ideas about what they were creating. For
example a student, Bobby, stopped working on the picture he was coloring and said to the
group, “This like exploding explode this like volcano…”. In another example, a student,
Ann, stopped coloring her picture, held it up to the group, and said “look bacon for the
birdies” referring to red shapes she had colored on her paper. The finding of the
expression of varying ideas by students related to their art was linked to the organization
of SCLG (i.e., collaborative learning), which supported the use of linguistic resources
that were found to form CF language. These linguistic resources comprised two focal
characteristic: 1) Open-ended questions that were linked to the generation of new ideas
(i.e., questions that supported varying ideas about art processes) and 2) emergent
negotiations between participants that lead to group formation of new ideas (i.e.,
collaboration in exploration of ideas). This relationship between the organization of
SCLG and CF language was found to be significant in how it was linked to student
engagement. Student participation in SCLG was shaped by the utilization of linguistic
resources that allowed for the expression of new ideas and supported engagement that
took active student initiated forms.
The Linguistic Resource of Open-ended Questions. The organization of learning
in SCLG was found to facilitate CF language through its incorporation of linguistic
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resources that were linked to cooperation in the generation of new ideas. Open-ended
questions as a linguistic resource was found to support and encourage the use of varying
ideas by students. That is, open-ended questions allowed students to build collaboratively
on their emerging ideas. This was seen in the following excerpt where students were
using individual paint bottles to paint blank paper. As a student, Jack, painted his paper
he stopped and without being prompted said to the group that he had built “a castle” in
relation to the picture he was making. This gained the interest of the student next to him,
Beth, who then asked him about what he had made.
Excerpt 3: Bow Bow Bowa
Jack
Bow bow bowa ((making sounds)) I'm building a
1
Castle((Speech not directed at anyone participant as))
2
Beth you are… how are you making a castle
Jack
3
Un ha I am building a castle castle…see the walls
4
((pointing to paper))
5
In this excerpt, Jack began by announcing his idea of a castle to the group. This
idea then gained the attention of another student, Beth, who then used an open-ended
question “you are… how are you making a castle”, to ask him about what he had made.
This question, a linguistic resource marked Jack’s sharing of his idea with the group as
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valuable. Beth request for further information also marked his idea as worth of pursuit.
This created an opportunity for Jack to elaborate his idea, “un ha I am building a castle…
castle see the walls”. Here the idea of a castle had not been observed before in the data
from SCLG and Jack’s language produced a new idea in the group (i.e., the idea that one
could build a castle). Jack’s engagement in this example took a self-initiated form of art,
which was further shaped by his peer’s use of the linguistic resources. Through this
structure, Jack was found to engage in a way where he expressed his own ideas about
what he created and had the opportunity to expanded on his idea to form a new concept.
In the SCLG, engagement took child-initiated forms where students actively
instigated their participation in art. The employment of linguistic resources that
encouraged the expression of new ideas (i.e., open-ended questions) was found
throughout SCLG, in language such as, “Cool…How did you do that?”. The use of these
linguistic resources allowed students to expand on their ideas (e.g., “With red and
Blue”). That is, student engagement in art in the SCLG became a student-directed
process and the expression of new or varying ideas was found to be supported by the
group.
Emergent Negotiation in the Formation of New Ideas. As students in SCLG
would introduce their own unique ideas to the group, it was found that these ideas were
often taken up by other students and expanded on to form a new concept. This finding
was linked to the use of negotiative linguistic resource that resulted in the formation of
new ideas. As a consequence, such resources supported collaboration in the exploration
of new concepts (i.e., group acquisition of ideas). This was seen in the following data
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excerpt where a student Mike announced his idea of a monster to the group as students
were painting. Another student, Bobby, who observed Mike introduced the idea of a
monster, took what Mike had introduced and built on the idea of a monster to create a
new concept, monster track, through his own art. Bobby’s idea was then observed to be
supported by Mike, who first introduced the idea of a monster.
Excerpt 5: Like a monster tracks!
Mike
Jack
Look it look it like a monster ((Holds up paper to the
1
group of students))
2
My favorite color is red ((Looking at his paper))
3
Nancy How you take this off ((Tries to take the cap off his
paint. Gets the cap off and goes back to painting))
Bobby [This] dis like dis just like monster tracks dis just like
Mike
4
5
6
a monster tracks (( Shows his paper to the group))
7
Oh…yah you made a monster track cool
8
In this example, Bobby has taken Mike’s idea of a monster and expanded on this
concept adding the word tracks. Students used their linguistic resources (vocabulary,
66
questions, statements) to not only collaborate but also build more complex ideas, which
reflected their creative thought. Further, they used these resources in creative and
opportunistic ways that expanded their vocabulary, for example, the term “monster
track” had not been used anywhere else in the data set. The introduction of this new idea
is then supported by Mike who said, “Oh…yah you made a monster track cool”. The
opportunity for acquisition of ideas introduced in SCLG and group support for expansion
of these ideas was linked to the linguistic resource employed in SCLG.
Significantly, the utilization of negotiative linguistic resources was found
throughout the SCLG data and resulted in the collaborative formation of new ideas by
peers. As previously described, it was repeatedly observed in this group that students
would announce, without prompting, what they had created related to their artwork. This
was seen in language such as, “I'm making ice cream cone”. Consequently, the
introduction of a new idea to the group was often taken up by other students, who then
expanded on the original idea to create a new concept in the group, (e.g., “He's making
banana apple ice cream!”). Through this collaborative process in SCLG, students’
engagement was found to take forms were the expression of new ideas was encouraged
and built on by group members, (i.e., group formation and exploration of new ideas).
Student engagement in SCLG was linked to the linguistic resources that formed
the language pattern of Creativity Focused (CF) language. This was found to be
significant through how these linguistic resources shaped student engagement. Students
in SCLG were found to have opportunities to participate in art in ways that they initiated,
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while at the same time the organization of learning in SCLG supported exploration of art
processes that allowed for expression of varying ideas and emergent group negotiation of
knowledge related to these ideas. This structure was found to be linked to the finding of
engagement taking creative forms were the formation of new ideas were supported,
which was observed through the use of Creativity Focused language by students.
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The findings of this research suggest that the organization of learning in a
classroom setting shapes students’ engagement. Significantly, data analysis revealed two
varying forms of student engagement in art: Teacher-Directed Passive Participation and
Student-Initiated Collaborative Participation. Student engagement that took the form of
Teacher-Directed Passive Participation was not linked to the production of new or
varying idea by students, i.e., the use of creativity in the art processes. Engagement that
took the form of Student-Initiated Collaborative Participation was linked to the
production of new and varying ideas by students.
These two forms of student engagement were linked to two differing forms of
organization of learning, which varied in instructional art practices and linguistic
resources. These varying groups were Teacher Directed Learning Group (TDLG) and
Student Collaborative Learning Group (SCLG). The TDLG was teacher-structured and
employed a fidelity model of instruction that required students to follow teacher
directives with without divergence. The SCLG utilized collaborative learning that was
based on student negotiation of participation. Variations between TDLG and SCLG were
linked to the finding of two divergent patterns of language.
69
In TDLG, the use of Procedural Based (PB) language was found. PB language was
found to incorporate the use of linguistic resources that limited how students could
respond. The language pattern of Creativity Focused (CF) language was only found in
SCLG. CF language was found to comprise contrasting characteristics then those that
formed PB language. CF language employed linguistic resources that supported
variations in student language use (i.e., introduction of new ideas to the group) and
linguistic resources that did not support step-by-step instructions, but rather emergent
negotiation between students in the formation of group knowledge.
. The pattern of PB language was linked to the use of Production Oriented Art
(POA) outcomes in TDLG. Art practices that did not allowed free choice in participation
by students and required the reproduction of a teacher-directed outcome for art were
found to form POA outcomes. The use of POA outcomes was found to shape
participation in art in TDLG, through the expectation that students were to replicate a
teacher-directed product.
CF language was linked to the use of Open-Ended Art (OEA) outcomes in
SCLG. Art practices that supported group negotiation of participation in art and
undefined outcomes for art products were found to form OEA outcomes. Consequently,
in SCLG, without a participant viewed in the group as filling the role of teacher (i.e. the
authority in the group) students were found to take part in emergent negotiation of group
characteristics and this process was found to encourage the use of OEA outcomes. The
peer collaborative organization of SDLG was found to support engagement in art were
the expression of varying ideas was encouraged by the group.
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These findings answered the research question of this study, in that, it was found
that social organization of learning was linked to young students’ engagement in art.
Moreover, the form organization took in the group learning settings observed in this
research was found to shape engagement, which was observed through language
production of children. Student creative language use was only found in SCLG. This
finding was significant for two reasons. The first reason was that SCLG, unlike TDLG,
utilized a collaborative form of learning. Secondly, the finding of creative language use
in SCLG was significant, because the same students participated in both SCLG and
TDLG. That is, the language produced by students in SCLG was not found again by the
same students in TDLG. This finding supported the argument that student engagement
and the variations in language related to this engagement were directly linked to the
organizational differences between the two learning groups of TDLG and SCLG.
It has been argued, by Sociocultural theory, that language is a social tool and the
form this tool takes depends on the structure of educational settings (Vygotsky, 2004).
The findings of this thesis support this argument. Variances in the organization of
learning were found in this thesis to be linked to differing forms of engagement by
students, which was linked to varying forms of language production by participants. That
is, students in TDLG reproduced PB language initiated by the teacher. Creative forms of
language were not found in this group. Students in SCLG in contrast were found to
engage in CF language, which incorporated the use of new and varying ideas. This
finding was linked to the organization of SCLG that supported collaborative knowledge
production, were the production of new ideas were supported.
71
This study did face three notable limitations that might diminish its overall
significance. First, this study looked at a very limited number of participants. The sample
size of children and adults taking part in the research was small, with only one adult and
15 children being part of the final data sample analyzed in the research. Second, this
research observed one population that did not include a significant variation in participate
characteristics. That is, the students who participated in this study were from
predominately Caucasian and middle to upper middle class SES families. Finally, this
research was collected over a limited period, (i.e., three months). The limited time of data
collection could be argued to call in to question the overall significance of the findings of
this thesis and suggests the need for further research over a longer period.
The topic of this thesis held personal meaning for me. Art has always played an
important role in my life and I have tried to incorporate creativity in every part of my
work as a preschool teacher. It was these two things, my love of art and my experience
with early childhood education, which led me to the research questions examined in this
thesis. However, because of this personal connection to the research I would like to make
two points clear. The first point being that I am not dismissing the importance of product
oriented art, which is often referred to as crafts. Crafts have a long and important
relationship with art education and have deep roots in the many cultures. Crafts deserve a
place in art education. However, when this type of art activity becomes the majority of
children’s art experience in educational setting, as the findings of this thesis showed,
children’s educational experience will lack important factors such as opportunities for
creative expression.
72
The second and final point I would like to make clear is that in no way did I mean
for the results of this thesis to be interrupted as personally criticizing the teacher who
took part in this study. This thesis looked at a small period of observational data and the
teacher’s participation should be looked at in the context of the moment of the art
activity. The results of this thesis should not be taken as a judgment of the participating
teacher’s abilities, but as an observation of the significance, the organization of learning
can hold in early childhood experiences. The teacher who took part in this study was
dedicated to her profession of early childhood education. Preschool teaching can be a
demanding, stressful, and under valued career. The teacher who took part in this study
truly cared about teaching and the children in her program and I am truly appreciative to
have had the opportunity to observe her and the classroom she worked in.
73
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