A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF TOP PERFORMING 12
TH
GRADE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Carla Therese Galbraith
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 1997
M.Ed., National University, 2002
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2010

Copyright © 2010
Carla Therese Galbraith
All rights reserved ii

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF TOP PERFORMING 12
TH
GRADE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
A Dissertation by
Carla Therese Galbraith
Approved by Dissertation Committee:
_________________________________
Daniel Orey, Ph.D., Chair
_________________________________
Jana Noel, Ph.D.
_________________________________
Odie Douglas, Ed.D.
SPRING 2010 iii

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF TOP PERFORMING 12
TH
GRADE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Student: Carla Therese Galbraith
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the library and credit is to be awarded for the dissertation.
___________________________, Graduate Coordinator _________________
Carlos Nevarez, Ph.D.
Director, Doctorate in Educational Leadership
Date iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Earning a doctoral degree is a goal that I have always been driven to accomplish.
The road was not laid before me, but the completion of the journey was visualized early on. As a result, the path was tilled, cultivated, and laid, brick by brick. There are several people who assisted me in this journey, two in particular who transitioned from this world during the process.
Dr. Lila Jacobs (1948-2009)
As the founder of the Urban Leadership Program (Urban Cohort) and one of the founders of the Independent Doctoral Program, Lila was an influential mentor and consummate mother to all. The following passage was framed and hung near the front door of her home. In true Lila form, she laminated and distributed it to all of us in the
2004-2005 Urban Cohort. These words have often encouraged me in the darkest of times.
Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness that most frightens us. We ask ourselves, who am I to be brilliant, gorgeous, talented, fabulous? Actually, who are you not to be? You are a child of God. Your playing small does not serve the world. There is nothing enlightened about shrinking so that other people won't feel insecure around you.
We are all meant to shine, as children do. We were born to make manifest the glory of
God that is within us. It's not just in some of us; it's in everyone. And as we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others.
Nelson Mandela’s Inauguration Speech, 1994.
Albert Dean Galbraith III (1964-2010)
In the words of Michael Jackson, my brother was gone too soon. He would have been the first person at my graduation ceremony. v

The Independent Doctoral Program, Cohort One
Without the support and friendship of our inaugural group of sixteen, I would not have been able to survive. The laughs, the anxiety, the enlightenment, the calls, the emails, the text messages, the books, the laptops, the fees, the food… Each one of us brought an element of expertise and professionalism. We helped each other like a family should.
My Dissertation Committee
I would like to extend sincere thanks to Dr. Daniel Orey, Dr. Jana Noel, and Dr.
Odie Douglas for providing guidance and insight during this doctoral process.
My Family
My parents, Bishop Albert and Carolyn Galbraith have been a constant support throughout my educational career. In addition, the prayers and encouragement of my immediate, extended, and spiritual family has been immeasurable. vi

Education
2007 - 2010
2004 - 2005
1999 - 2002
2002
1997
1991-1994
Professional Employment
2005 - Present
CURRICULUM VITAE
Ed. D. in Educational Leadership
K-12 Emphasis
California State University Sacramento
Sacramento, CA
Administrative Services Credential
Urban Cohort
California State University Sacramento
Sacramento, CA
M. Ed. in Crosscultural Teaching
Single Subject Teaching Credential
National University
Sacramento, CA
Student Teaching Requirement
Sacramento High School
Sacramento City Unified School District
Sacramento, CA
B. A. in Social Science
Vice Principal
Franklin High School
California State University Sacramento
Sacramento, CA
Social Science Major
University of the Pacific
Stockton, CA
Elk Grove Unified School District
Elk Grove, CA vii

2004 - 2005
1997 - 2004
Fields of Study
K-12 Education
K-12 Leadership
Achievement Gap
African-American Culture
Contact Information
Carla T. Galbraith carla_teach@comcast.net carla.galbraith@yahoo.com viii
High School Teacher
Department of Corrections
Deuel Vocational Institution
Tracy, CA
Social Science Teacher
Opportunity Teacher
Grant Joint Unified School District:
Martin Luther King Jr. Junior High School
Don Julio Junior High School
Highlands High School
Sacramento, CA

Abstract of
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF TOP PERFORMING 12 th
GRADE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS by
Carla Therese Galbraith
The Achievement Gap is the difference in the academic achievement of White students compared to students of color. It is often attributed to the effects of low socioeconomic status or even genetics. Racism and the lack of cultural responsiveness are also included as causes for the poor performance of students of color. The need for a solution to this problem has increased urgency as the United States remains ethnically diverse. A beacon of hope lies within students of color who have not only defied the
Achievement Gap, but have maintained grade point averages (GPA) well over 3.5 throughout their four years of high school.
Using phenomenology as a conceptual framework and qualitative research methodology, this study will analyze the characteristics, commonalities and lived experiences of the top performing 12 th
grade African-American high school students located in Elk Grove, California. Moreover, the theoretical frameworks of Attribution
Theory and Locus of Control Theory will allow the researcher to delve deeper into the characteristics of these successful students. Through questionnaires, surveys and focus ix

group discussions, the responses from the African-American participants will be examined and categorized into themes according to the factors they believed to have contributed to their outstanding academic performance.
Analysis of the final chapters revealed seven characteristics of academically successful African-American students. These characteristics are (1) Self Motivation, (2)
Racial Resiliency, (3) Stereotype, (4) Family Influence, (5) Academic, Teacher, School
Support, (6) Spirituality, and (7) Socioeconomics. Of the seven attributes, Self
Motivation and Racial Resiliency were the most frequent responses to address the research questions. In the final chapter, recommendations for school leaders are given as it relates to African-American students in order to increase academic performance and aid in closing the Achievement Gap. x

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................v
Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xv
List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xvii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................4
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................8
Research Questions ............................................................................................8
Primary Research Question..........................................................................8
Secondary Research Questions ....................................................................8
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................8
Hermeneutical Phenomenology ...................................................................9
Theoretical Frameworks ..................................................................................10
Methodology ....................................................................................................11
Setting for the Study ..................................................................................11
Data Collection ..........................................................................................11
Operational Definition of Terms ......................................................................12
Assumptions .....................................................................................................14
Scope ..............................................................................................................14
Limitations .......................................................................................................14
Delimitations ....................................................................................................15
Significance of the Study .................................................................................15
Conclusion .......................................................................................................15
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................................17 xi

Introduction ......................................................................................................17
The Achievement Gap .....................................................................................17
Socioeconomic Status ................................................................................22
Achievement and Income ..........................................................................23
Causes of the Achievement Gap ......................................................................26
Racism and Discrimination ........................................................................26
Involuntary Minority Theory .....................................................................28
Stereotype Threat .......................................................................................30
Acting “White” ..........................................................................................31
Resilience and Protective Factors ....................................................................31
Attribution Theory .....................................................................................32
Locus of Control Theory ............................................................................34
Spirituality..................................................................................................37
Summary ..........................................................................................................38
3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................40
Introduction ......................................................................................................40
Research Design...............................................................................................40
Phenomenology..........................................................................................42
Setting of the Study ..........................................................................................43
Demographics ............................................................................................43
Academic Performance Index ....................................................................46
Access to Students ...........................................................................................48
Participants .......................................................................................................48
Ethical Protection .............................................................................................49
Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation ..................................................50
4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................................................................................52
Introduction ......................................................................................................52
Description of the Population ..........................................................................52 xii

Grade Point Average ..................................................................................53
California Standards Test ...........................................................................54
Participant Background Information ..........................................................56
Data Analysis and Interpretation .....................................................................62
Questionnaire Data.....................................................................................62
Survey Data ................................................................................................62
Focus Group Data ......................................................................................64
Code Assignment .......................................................................................66
Data Reduction...........................................................................................74
Summary ..........................................................................................................77
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................79
Summary of the Findings .................................................................................79
Participant Academic Performance............................................................79
Participant Parental Information ...............................................................80
Theoretical Framework Interpretation .......................................................81
Conceptual Framework Interpretation .......................................................83
Primary Research Question........................................................................83
Contextualization of the Findings ..............................................................85
Conclusions from the Findings ........................................................................88
Recommendations ............................................................................................89
Broader Sample ..........................................................................................89
Increased Participation in AP and Honors Courses ...................................89
Racial Empathy and Dialog .......................................................................90
Researcher's Reflection ...................................................................................90
6. APPENDICES .......................................................................................................94
Human Subjects Application ...........................................................................95
Human Subjects Approval .............................................................................102
School District Approval to Conduct Research .............................................104 xiii

School Site Approval to Conduct Research ...................................................106
Invitation to Participate in Research ..............................................................108
Parental Consent Forms and Student Assent Forms ......................................110
Background Information Questionnaire ........................................................115
Locus of Control Survey ................................................................................117
Focus Group Questions ..................................................................................121
Transcription of Focus Group Discussion .....................................................124
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................168 xiv

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. National Achievement Trends for 9-Year-Old and 13-Year-Old White and Black Students ...................................................................................................2
2. National Achievement Gap is Narrowing for 4th Grade and 8th Grade
White and Black Students ........................................................................................7
3. Achievement Gap Trends in California .................................................................21
4. Economically Disadvantaged and Non-Disadvantaged Achievement
Gap Trends in California .......................................................................................25
5. Qualitative versus Quantitative Research ..............................................................41
6. Research Study Participants ...................................................................................53
7. California Standards Test Results for Participants ................................................55
8. Parent's Educational Levels and Occupations .......................................................59
9. Parent's Marital Status and Student Living Arrangement ......................................60
10. Participant's Spiritual Beliefs .................................................................................61
11. Locus of Control Survey Results ...........................................................................63
12. Research Questions and Focus Group Question Guide .........................................65
13. Responses to Focus Group Question 1: Achievement Gap ...................................67
14. Responses to Focus Group Question 2: Acting "White" .......................................68
15. Responses to Focus Group Question 3: Advanced Placement Courses ................69
16. Responses to Focus Group Question 4: Community Influence .............................70
17. Responses to Focus Group Question 5: Parental Influence ...................................70 xv

18. Responses to Focus Group Question 6: School Influence .....................................71
19. Responses to Focus Group Question 7: Self ..........................................................72
20. Responses to Focus Group Question 8: Spirituality ..............................................73
21. Responses to Focus Group Question 9: Stereotype ...............................................74
22. Thematic Reduction of Focus Group Code Assignments ......................................75
23. Frequency of Final Themes to Address Research Questions .................................77 xvi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Average SAT Scores by Parental Income and Race/Ethnicity ..............................24
2. Characteristics of Attribution Theory ....................................................................34
3. Characteristics of Locus of Control .......................................................................35
4. Ethnic Distribution for Franklin High School .......................................................44
5. Demographic Summary for Franklin High School ................................................45
6. API Growth for Franklin High School...................................................................47
7. Radial of Racial Resiliency ....................................................................................86 xvii

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The Achievement Gap is the disparity in academic performance between groups of students; primarily, the low performance of African-American and Hispanic students
1 compared to the performance of White students (Cooper, Fusarelli, & Randall, 2004;
Singleton & Linton, 2006; Barr & Parrett, 2008). Evidence of performance gaps in educational achievement is not news. As early as 1996, The Equality of Educational
Opportunity Study (EEOS), known as the "Coleman Report," was conducted by the
United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare conducted in response to provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This study was used to research the availability of equal educational opportunities to children of “different race, color, religion, and national origin” (Coleman, 1966).
According to the Statistical Analysis Report from the National Center of
Educational Statistics (NCES) (2009), national academic performance data confirms that the Achievement Gap continues to plague our schools. But the intellectual and emotional failures of our students are not evenly distributed. The failures fall disproportionately on students of color, as shown in Table 1 (Berlak, 2001).

2
Table 1
National Achievement Trends for 9-Year-Old and 13-Year-Old White and Black Students
________________________________________________________________________
1990
________________
1999
________________
2004
________________
Test White Black (Gap) White Black (Gap) White Black (Gap)
________________________________________________________________________
Students Age 9
Mathematics 234 207 (27)
Reading 215 181 (35)
238 210
220 185
(28)
(35)
247 225
225 199
(23)
(26)
Students Age 13
Mathematics 276 248 (27) 282 250 (32) 288 261 (26)
Reading 261 239 (22) 265 236 (29) 264 244 (21)
________________________________________________________________________
Note
. Gap in achievement is shown in parenthesis. Adapted from “Achievement Gaps:
How Black and White Students in Public Schools Perform in Mathematics and Reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress” by A. Vanneman, L. Hamilton, J.
Baldwin Anderson, and T. Rahman, 2009, National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES 2009-455), Institute of Educational Sciences, U. S. Department of Education.
The Achievement Gap has been documented repeatedly by census data, drop-out rates, the number of students who take Advanced Placement examinations, students who are enrolled in Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) programs, students admitted to private secondary schools, and matriculation through colleges and universities.
Furthermore, there are the discrepancies in scores on standardized achievement tests,

revealing the obvious and disaggregated evidence of the Achievement Gap. Even with
3 comparable income and wealth, students of color lag behind English-speaking, nativeborn, White students (Berlak, 2001; Singleton & Linton, 2006).
How is the cause of the Achievement Gap explained? Suggestions include the effects of stereotyping (Aronson, 2004; Steele, 1992), the theory of acting "White" (Ogbu
& Fordham, 1986), and genetic explanations. For example, Arthur Jensen (1969), a
University of California Berkeley professor, concluded that African-Americans were genetically inferior to Whites based on statistical analysis of intelligence quotient (IQ) test scores (Time, 1979). As a continuance to Jensen's work, Richard Hernstein and
Charles Murray (1994) wrote The Bell Curve claiming that the inferior place of people of color was also rooted in genetics. Specifically, the book stated that "Black Americans are not as intelligent as White Americans" (Ogbu, 2003). The conclusions reached by Jensen,
Hernstein, and Murray have been largely discredited (and violently protested), but racist explanations for the Achievement Gap persist.
There is no clear cause of the Achievement Gap, but the history of the United
States includes a story of inequality, hatred and racism that is a foundational piece that cannot be ignored nor underestimated (Ogbu, 2003; Gardner, 2007). Schooling for White students in this country extends back for several centuries. A free public education has an expectation that education leads to success, at least for those in the majority. For people of color no such centuries-long positive history exists. From the slave codes that forbade educating those who were enslaved, to the Jim Crow laws that followed, to the institutional racism that is evident (both subtle and obvious), all have had a devastatingly

negative impact on the education of children of color. This impact continues to this day
4
(Berlak, 2001; Gardner, 2007).
Yet, a phenomenal feat exists in the African-American family. According to K.
Sue Jewell (2003), African-Americans continue to survive "for more than 300 years in spite of horrific social, economical, political, physical, and ideological assaults" since the first slaves were brought to America in 1619. In the book entitled Survival of the African-
American Family: the Institutional Impact of U. S. Social Policy , Jewell continues by stating:
The very fact that the family, the most salient institution in any social system, within the African-American community has continued to exist, remain constructive, functional, optimistic, and determined to participate in and derive benefits from, a society that has designed myriad methods to preclude its inclusion is astounding. (p. 139).
The offspring of these African-American families sit in K–16 classrooms throughout the country. Although many are academically unsuccessful, there are some with outstanding and accelerated academic performance. This study seeks to discover the internal and external influences to their academic success.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the odds, there are African-American students from traditionally disenfranchised backgrounds who have been able to succeed academically. The stories of these students do not occur as frequently as the acknowledgement that there is, indeed, an academic Achievement Gap. This qualitative study will explore the lives of these so-

called "resilient" students for whom positive outcomes have been reported. For students
5 who succeed despite less than optimal conditions, the presence of protective factors may compensate for the risks that exist in their lives and environments. Protective factors, as defined by Garmezy (1983), are "those attributes of persons, environments, situations, and events that appear to temper predictions of psychopathology based upon an individual's at-risk status" (Garmezy, 1993; Brown, 2008).
The Achievement Gap that exists between minority and White students is one of the most enduring challenges in public education (Cavanagh, 2009). It is being addressed as a national issue, a state issue, and trickling down to local school districts and communities. New urgency at the federal level encouraged the inception of The No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requiring states to set the same performance targets for children from economically disadvantaged families, students with disabilities, students with limited English proficiency, and students from all ethnic groups (U.S. Department of
Education, 2009). As a result, states "from sea to shining sea" (Bates, 1895) are seeking ways to cure this problem. In other words, schools now are considered successful only if they close the Achievement Gap.
To address the Achievement Gap in California, Jack O'Connell, State
Superintendent of Schools, was inspired to hold the first Achievement Gap Summit in the capitol city of Sacramento in 2007. The objective of this conference was intended to open discussions and seek solutions to close the gap. He states:
This summit will bring together educators from across the state to address a major crisis facing public schools in California and throughout the nation: the systemic

6 gap between our highest - and lowest - performing students. In an effort to narrow this Achievement Gap, teachers, administrators, policymakers, and others are invited to hear from experts as well as to propose workable solutions for improving academic achievement for all students. This issue is a critical one for
Californians. Please join us in this coordinated effort to improve student achievement at all levels and eliminate the Achievement Gap. (O’Connell, 2007)
Likewise, school districts are including efforts to close the Achievement Gap. For example, the Elk Grove Unified School District (EGUSD), located in the southern region of Sacramento County, has acknowledged this persistent academic problem. As the fifth largest school district in California and the largest school district in Northern California,
EGUSD continues to promote academic rigor and high expectations for its pupils. In a statement by Superintendent Steven Ladd, the commitment to closing the Achievement
Gap is evident in the following statement:
The Elk Grove Unified School District staff and students have intensified their work in closing the Achievement Gap. We believe that closing the achievement gap, in part, requires an open dialogue with staff, parents and students. These are just a few of the tools we have in place. On a daily basis, Elk Grove Unified
School District staff work towards closing the Achievement Gap, knowing each student by name and need. Together we can make a difference. (EGUSD, 2009)
With national, state and district attention to the Achievement Gap, progress is anticipated. In fact, it has occurred. Performance results from the NCES (2009) revealed that American schools made progress towards closing the gap between African-American

and White students. However, White students are also improving; therefore the disparity
7 between African-American and White students has lessened “only slightly” (Cavanagh,
2009) as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
National Achievement Gap is Narrowing for 4 th
Grade and 8 th
Grade White and Black
Students
________________________________________________________________________
1992 2003 2007
________________ ________________ ________________
Test White Black (Gap) White Black (Gap) White Black (Gap)
________________________________________________________________________
Students, Grade 4
Mathematics 227 193 (35)
Reading 223 191 (32)
243 216
227 197
(27)
(30)
248 222
230 203
(26)
(27)
Students, Grade 8
Mathematics 276 236 (40)
Reading 265 236 (29)
287 252 (35) 290 259 (31)
270 244 (27) 270 244 (26)
________________________________________________________________________
Note
. Gap in achievement is shown in parenthesis. Adapted from “Achievement Gaps:
How Black and White Students in Public Schools Perform in Mathematics and Reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress” by A. Vanneman, L. Hamilton, J.
Baldwin Anderson, and T. Rahman, 2009, National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES 2009-455), Institute of Educational Sciences, U. S. Department of Education.

8
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine which factors are the most closely related to the academic success of the top performing 12 th
grade African-American students located at Franklin High School. Franklin High School is one of the nine comprehensive, suburban high schools in the Elk Grove Unified School District located in the southern region of Sacramento County, California.
Research Questions
Primary Research Question

What are the characteristics of academically successful African-American students compared to the low performance identified in the Achievement Gap?
Secondary Research Questions
 What is their awareness of the Achievement Gap? Do they believe it exists?

Has perceptions about being classified as an African-American affected their educational experience?

Who have been the most influential people in their lives? Why?
Conceptual Framework
In educational settings, “phenomenology is used as a qualitative research methodology that can meet the challenges of fully engaging the complexities of racial and ethnic difference” (Martinez, 2006). The term phenomenology is often used without a clear understanding of its definition. Merriam (2009) describes it efficiently with the following excerpt:

9
Phenomenology is both a twentieth century school of philosophy associated with
Husserl (1970) and a type of qualitative research. From the philosophy of phenomenology comes a focus on the experience itself and how experiencing something is transformed into consciousness. Phenomenologists are interested in our "lived experience." (p. 24).
Phenomenology has been described as a philosophy and a method (Hallet, 1995).
As a philosophy, phenomenologists believe that knowledge and understanding are embedded in our daily lives. This experience cannot be quantified or reduced to numbers or statistics (Walters, 1995). As a method, phenomenologists follow an organized approach to analyze answering their research question (Byrne, 2010). First, a question is developed by the researcher. Second, participants are selected. Third, information is collected by observations, interviews, or written responses. Fourth, the data is analyzed by using a process of coding and categorizing the responses. Finally, the findings are confirmed and tested for credibility (Byrne, 2010).
Hermeneutical Phenomenology
Hermeneutical Phenomenology combines both interpretive (hermeneutic) and descriptive phenomenological methods for the purpose of examining the lived experiences of people being studied (Hatch, 2002). Van Manen (1990) in his book entitled, Researching Lived Experience: Human Science for an Action Sensitive
Pedagogy , developed a framework for hermeneutic phenomenological research that uses a basic methodological structure of six activities:

10
 turning to a phenomenon which seriously interests us and commits us to the world;
 investigating experience as we live it rather than as we conceptualize it;
 reflecting on the essential themes which characterize the phenomenon;
 describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting;
 maintaining a strong and oriented pedagogical relation to the phenomenon;
 balancing the research context by considering parts and whole. (p. 30-31)
Qualitative research examines the life experiences of individuals in an effort to comprehend the phenomenon. This examination is accomplished usually is done by
“systematically collecting and analyzing narrative materials using methods that ensure credibility of both the data and the results” (Byrne, 2010). This collection of data for this study was approached in the tradition of phenomenology, and classified according to meanings for individuals (Creswell, 1998). Through questionnaires and conversations, the responses from the African-American participants will be examined and categorized according to the factors they believed to have contributed to their outstanding academic performance.
Theoretical Frameworks
This study will revolve around the theoretical frameworks of Attribution Theory
(Weiner, 1974) and Locus of Control Theory (Rotter, 1966).
In order to answer the research questions indicated in this study, Attribution
Theory attempts to explain how people attribute explanations for the events around them.
For the participants involved, Attribution Theory reveals to whom and where the source

11 of causation is attributed. Occurrences are not random, but linked to mastery of a particular attribute causing the observed outcome (Weiner, 1974; Jones, Kanouse, Kelly,
Nisbett, Valins, & Weiner, 1972). Attribution Theory includes three sets of characteristics to explain success or failure in academic pursuits: (1) Locus of Control,
(2) Stability, and (3) Controllability (Weiner 1980, 1992; Purdue, 2009).
One of the characteristics of Attribution Theory is Locus of Control Theory.
Within psychology, Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of personality. The concept was developed originally by Julian Rotter (1966) in the 1950s.
Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life. More simply: Do you believe that your destiny is controlled by yourself or by external forces (i.e. fate, god, powerful others)? (Rotter, 1966).
Methodology
Setting for the Study
This study will be conducted at Franklin High School, located in Elk Grove,
California. It boasts an enrollment of nearly 3,000 students since it opened its doors in
2002. Considered one of the top schools in the Elk Grove Unified School District with the highest passage rate on the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) and an
Academic Performance Index (API) of 801, evidence of the Achievement Gap is still prominent at Franklin High just as it is across the United States (EGUSD, 2009).
Data Collection
This qualitative case study will include purposive sampling of the top African-
American students in the 12 th grade whose cumulative grade point averages (GPA) are

12
3.5 and above. At the beginning of this study, which was the beginning of the 2009-2010 school year, there were 25 African-American students who met this criteria. A
Background Information Questionnaire that includes parental information will be distributed. In addition, a survey to assess the theoretical frameworks will be given.
Finally, all of the students will participate in a focus group discussion.
All responses will be collected, analyzed, and classified with descriptive narratives to highlight participant meanings. Descriptive narratives serve to hold the reader’s interest, which allows the researcher to offer evidence to clarify the basis of the researcher’s findings and assertions (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994).
Operational Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap : The difference in the academic achievement of White students compared to students of color.
African-American : American citizens from African decent (i.e. the offspring of
African slaves, negro, black). This definition includes individuals from mixed heritages with one parent from African decent. It also includes nationalized citizens from the continent of Africa who have immigrated to America.
Black : Used interchangeably with the term African-American.
Case Study : The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic or of small size.
Disenfranchise : To be denied legal rights, privilege or immunity.
Disfranchisement might occur explicitly through law (i.e. Jim Crow Laws, segregation) or by intimidation (i.e. supremacist groups, racism).

13
Hermeneutical Phenomenology : Combines both interpretive (hermeneutic) and descriptive phenomenological methods for the purpose of examining the lived experiences of people being studied (Hatch, 2002).
Purposive Sampling : Subjects are selected because of some characteristic, such as Extreme or Deviant Case, Intensity, Maximum Variation, Homogeneous, Typical
Case, Stratified Purposeful, Critical Case, Snowball or Chain, Criterion, Theory-Based or
Operational Construct, Confirming or Disconfirming, Opportunistic, Random Purposeful,
Politically Important Cases, Convenience, Combination or Mixed Purposeful (Patton,
1990).
Qualitative Research
: The study of “how people interpret their experiences, construct their worlds, and what meanings they attribute to their experiences” (Merriam,
2009).
Resilience: To succeed in the midst of adversity.
Socioeconomic Status : The level of affluence and income associated with the parents of the participants involved in the study.
White : People indigenous to Europe, northern Africa, western Asia (i.e.
European-American, White-American, Caucasian), and a human racial classification traditionally distinguished by physical characteristics such as very light to light-brown skin pigmentation and straight to wavy or curly hair.

14
Assumptions
1.
Representatives from the Elk Grove Unified School District will not object to the use of data and information that is considered public information and assessable by all.
2.
Participants in this study will be honest when answering the survey and focus group questions because participation is voluntary and anonymity is assured.
3.
Parents of the participants in this study will not object to the interview questions because participation is voluntary and anonymity is assured.
4.
Participants will not disclose the details of the study with fellow participants.
Scope
The research in this work consists of national achievement data, state achievement data, school district data, and educational trends. The research will be applied and compared to the academic performance of a group of African-American students currently enrolled at Franklin High School in Elk Grove, California.
Limitations
1.
This study focuses on Franklin High School, a suburban public school in middleclass Elk Grove, California. Results from this study may not be applied to all of the high schools in the Elk Grove, California or the whole of Sacramento County.
2.
This study offers a glimpse of academically successful African-American students in one city, in one high school, in the state of California. It does not seek to solve the ills of all African-American students in every city in America.

15
3.
This phenomenological study is based at a single site. A multiple site study would provide a greater sample and added significance.
Delimitations
Participants in this study are limited to the boundaries of African-American decent. Additional nationalities may be consulted, but the views, attitudes and influences will primarily stem from the African-American population.
Significance of the Study
Often cases of resilience, success, and competence displayed by African-
American youth go unnoticed and unrecognized by others (Cunningham, Swanson, &
Spencer, 2003). This is why it is important to draw upon the experiences of these successful youth to redirect societal attention on the conditions necessary to facilitate resilient, adaptive responses to adverse living conditions. We must put as much energy into studying the success of these at-risk youth and we do their failures.
Conclusion
The need for a solution to the Achievement Gap has increased urgency as the
United States remains ethnically diverse. A beacon of hope lies within students of color who have shown resiliency and outstanding academic performance. Their lives and values will be studied as a tool for academia.
This study will focus primarily on the ethnicities of African-American and
European-American. The names of these two groups will be used interchangeably with the terms White and Black. An overview of the remaining chapters of this dissertation is indicated as follows:

16
Chapter 2: Review of the literature of the most relevant and current knowledge of the identified problem and the conceptual and theoretical frameworks associated with the research questions.
Chapter 3: Methodology of qualitative research methods, including measures taken for the protection of the participant’s rights and confidentiality.
Chapter 4: Results of research and how it relates to the theoretical framework. For this study the research instruments will include a questionnaire, a survey and focus group discussion.
Chapter 5: A summary of the research findings is given and revelations from the focus group discussion are presented. Conclusions and recommendations for educational leaders will be discussed as well as reflections from the researcher.

17
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
A dire issue in K-12 education is the Achievement Gap. The Achievement Gap is a persistent, pervasive and significant disparity in educational achievement and attainment among groups of students as determined by a standardized measure. When analyzed according to race and ethnicity, differences in academic performance negatively impact educational outcomes for poor or minority children on a consistent basis. This gap is evident in not just academic performance, but in standardized test scores, high school completion rates and college completion rates (Education Week, 2004).
The literature review for this study begins with a description of the Achievement
Gap, followed by three protective factors (Garmezy, 1993; Celico, 2008) that provide a shield as African-American students navigate through their education journey. These factors of resiliency are Attribution Theory, Locus of Control Theory, and spirituality.
The Achievement Gap
Equal protection of the law as stated in the 14th Amendment of the United States
Constitution (1868) was thought to provide equal services and facilities for African-
Americans. Unfortunately, inequality remained. In the area of education, the US Supreme
Court declared that racial segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on minority children because it is interpreted as a sign of inferiority. By declaring that the discriminatory nature of racial segregation "violates the 14th Amendment," Brown v.
Board of Education laid the foundation for shaping future national and international

18 policies regarding human rights (Brown, 1954). The case was not simply about children and education, but the laws and policies struck down by this court decision dealt with prejudge and stereotypes against race, religion, and physical or cultural characteristics.
Litigation to promote equal access to education was memorialized in Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Title IV called for a survey "concerning the lack of availability of equal educational opportunity by reason of race, color, religion, or national origin in pubic educational institutions at all levels" (Civil Rights, 1964). In compliance with the law, James Coleman (1966) studied 600,000 children at 4,000 schools and found that most children attended schools where they were the majority race. Further, schooling between white and minority schools were similar. Teachers' training, teachers' salaries, and curriculum were relatively equal. The results, however, found that minority children were a few years behind that of the whites and that the gap widened by the high school years. In conclusion to the report, the academic achievement was related to family background in the early years, but going to school allowed for a greater disparity between the academic differences between whites and blacks. These finding became known as the
"Coleman Report" (Coleman, 1966).
The landmark Coleman Report was instrumental in promoting racial balance between schools. However, the Achievement Gap continued to exist. In an effort to reach low-performing students, common educational reform recommendations include class size reduction, early-childhood programs, curriculum rigor, improving the quality of teachers, and encouraging more minority students to take high-level courses (Viadero &
Johnston, 2000).

19
At the beginning of the new millennium, former President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), designed to increase the standards of accountability for schools. NCLB requires states to disaggregate student achievement data by racial subgroups of students so that performance gains for all children can be tracked. The law also contains accountability measures that penalize schools that are unable to show achievement gains by all subgroups of students (U.S. Department of
Education, 2009). On the state level, Jack O'Connell, State Superintendent of Public
Instruction in California, held the first Achievement Gap Summit in Sacramento,
California in 2007 to increase awareness of persistent academic problems (California
Department of Education, 2008). Due to national and state efforts, educators all over the country are acknowledging the Achievement Gap and working to close or bridge the gap.
Efforts to close the gap in academic achievement between students of color and
White students have been largely unsuccessful to date (Brown, 2008). Differences in educational performance persist at all achievement levels, with the greatest gap between
African-American, Hispanic and immigrant students at the lowest level, while their
White and Asian-American peers are at high achievement levels. The need for a solution to this problem has new urgency as the United States is growing more and more ethnically diverse and the relationship between educational success and social and economic opportunity steadily strengthens (California Department of Education, 2008).
Within the past decade, statistics to document the Achievement Gap have been alarming. Analysis in 2000 revealed that African-American and Hispanic kindergarten children already trailed their White and Asian-American counterparts on tests of general

20 knowledge and early-reading and math skills (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). By
2004, further statistics showed that while 30 of 100 White kindergarten children will go on to graduate from college, only 16 of 100 African-American kindergarten children will go on to earn bachelor's degrees (Education Week, 2004).
In 2003, results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) revealed that 39 percent of White students scored at the proficient level or higher on the
4th grade reading portion of the NAEP, but only 12 percent of African-American students and 14 percent of Hispanic students scored proficient or higher in reading. In addition, 42 percent of White fourth grade students scored at the proficient level or higher on the mathematics exam, but just 10 percent of African-American students and 15 percent of
Hispanic students scored proficient or higher (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
In California, The Achievement Gap continues to be just as pronounced as it is throughout the nation. The 2008 Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program revealed that all student subgroups have continued to improve since 2003, yet the gap in achievement between African-Americans and Whites remain unchanged (California
Department of Education, 2008). In Table 3, the Achievement Gap trends in California are shown.

21
Table 3
Achievement Gap Trends in California
________________________________________________________________________
Participants 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
________________________________________________________________________
% Proficient and Above for English/Language Arts
African-American
White
(Gap)
22
53
(31)
23
54
(31)
27
58
(31)
29
60
(31)
31
62
(31)
33
64
(31)
% Proficient and Above for Math
African-American 19 19 23 25 25 28
White 47 46 51 53 53 54
(Gap) (28) (27) (28) (28) (28) (26)
________________________________________________________________________
Note . % = percentage. Gap in achievement is shown in parenthesis. Adapted from
“Testing and Accountability: 2008 STAR Program Summary of Results” by the
California Department of Education, www.cde.ca.gov.
In response to this ongoing problem, Jack O'Connell, State Superintendent of
Schools in California, stated the following in his State of Education Address:
Real, measurable progress has been made since the institution of standards-based education. But, while improvement in our schools has been nearly universal, our across-the-board success has still failed to close an achievement gap that threatens the future of our diverse state. Groups of California children who have

22 traditionally struggled – groups that in many instances make up the fastest growing portion of our society – continue to trail behind their peers, and the gap is not closing. Recognizing this is important. Addressing it is imperative. (California
Department of Education, 2008.)
Socioeconomic Status
Family income and reading achievement are closely linked. Socioeconomic differences are generally indexed by variables such as household income, parental education levels and parental occupation. Families that are rated low in socioeconomic status (SES) are not only less affluent and less educated that other families, but they also tend to live in communities in which the average family SES is low and tend to receive less adequate nutrition and health services (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
Socioeconomic conditions related to factors such as income, single parent families, housing, crowded classroom conditions and educational levels of parents influence the level of achievement that students are able to accomplish. According to
Tajalli and Opheim (2004), researchers examining student performance consistently found that SES was one of the most important influences on student achievement.
Moreover, Orr (2003) stated that wealth influenced the academic achievement of students. Since African-American families generally had less wealth than White families, this lack of wealth contributed to one of the causes of the Achievement Gap (Brown,
2008).

23
Achievement and Income
It would seem that increased SES would decrease the gap in academic performance. However, wealth or poverty alone fails to fully explain the gap, which persists regardless of income level. For example, discrepancies in academic performance are evident on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) which is the most widely used college entrance exam. In families that earned less than $20,000 per year, White students scored an average score of 976 on the SAT while African-American students scored an average of 793. A similar pattern existed in families that earned more than $60,000 per year. In the higher income level, White students scored an average of 1151 on the SAT while
African-American students scored an average of 942 (Singleton & Linton, 2006). The statistics captured in Figure 1 show that White students from a lower SES outperformed
African-American students from higher SES on the SAT.

Figure 1 . Average SAT Scores by Parental Income and Race/Ethnicity. Scores comparisons for African-American and White Students are grouped by socioeconomic levels. Adapted from “Courageous Conversations About Race” by G. Singleton and C.
Linton. 2006. Microsoft Word diagram created by Carla T. Galbraith, 2010.
Discrepancies in academic performance are also evident in the Standardized
Testing and Reporting (STAR) program. California students take a battery of standardized tests that comprise the state's STAR program. These tests, called the CST
(California Standards Test), measure student achievement of state academic content standards in English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science for grades 2-11. Evidence from the STAR exam confirms that African-American students
24

from non-disadvantaged economic backgrounds continue to perform lower than White
25 students from disadvantaged economic backgrounds, shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Economically Disadvantaged and Non-Disadvantaged Achievement Gap Trends in
California
________________________________________________________________________
Disadvantaged
Students 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
________________________________________________________________________
% Proficient and Above for English/Language Arts
African-American
White
16
32
17
32
21
37
23
39
24
41
27
43
% Proficient and Above for Math
African-American 16 16 20 22 22 24
White 33 32 37 38 38 40
________________________________________________________________________
Non-Disadvantaged
Students 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
________________________________________________________________________
% Proficient and Above for English/Language Arts
African-American
White
31
58
32
59
36
64
36
66
40
67
43
69
% Proficient and Above for Math
African-American
White
24
51
24
50
27
54
30
57
31
56
33
58

26
________________________________________________________________________
Note . % = percentage. Adapted from “Testing and Accountability: 2008 STAR Program
Summary of Results” by the California Department of Education, www.cde.ca.gov.
Causes of the Achievement Gap
Although attention has been given to this problem, as an educational community, we are far from final answers. Contributing factors of the Achievement Gap rarely stand alone. More often, they are interactive and interdependent and include home and linguistic background, cultural deficits and biases, resistance, the threat of stereotyping.
In this section I will discuss the literature related to each explanation.
Racism and Discrimination
Racism, whether it is covert or overt, can be found within the American society at large and extends to public education. Prior to the development of the Civil Rights
Movement in the 1950s, racism was a pernicious, overt practice. In time, blatant racist practices became socially unacceptable, so in turn some people resorted to carrying out subtle, covert practices instead (Freire, 1998).
Historically, the African-American people have always valued education. Before the Emancipation Proclamation, it was against the law to teach a slave to read or write, and sometimes the wages of disobedience was death. This did not stop slaves like
Frederick Douglas. He convinced his master's wife and neighborhood children to teach him to read and write. Eventually he became a noted individual and abolitionist (Lynch,
2006).

27
When slavery was abolished, the era of Reconstruction began. Former slaves did not know how to make a living after being freed. They didn’t have money or an education that could help find jobs and buy land. Blacks hoped that the reconstruction in the south would bring them land and chances for education. Freed slaves also wanted to be able to vote and be elected into office. In addition, during Reconstruction former slaves became trapped in a new system of economic exploitation known as sharecropping. In exchange for land, a cabin, and supplies, sharecroppers agreed to raise a cash crop and give half the crop to their landlord. Unfortunately, high interests rates charged for goods bought on credit transformed sharecropping into a system of economic dependency and poverty (Giesen, 2009).
From the end of Reconstruction through the beginning of the twentieth century,
African-Americans living in the South faced an increasingly tough system of legalized discrimination that came to be known as "Jim Crow." Southern states passed laws that mandated the separation of the races in public settings. This "separate but equal" doctrine was not equal at all. Schools, public facilities, restaurants, hotels, theaters and public transportation adopted the “separate but equal” policy to segregate African-Americans away from Whites and in most cases, make the best facilities inaccessible to African-
Americans. White southerners also resorted to racial violence and intimidation by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and lynching was conducted to keep African-Americans "in their place." The victims of these crimes found little recourse in the courts. (Robinson,
2007).

The “separate but equal” doctrine was finally struck down with the
Brown v.
Board of Education (1954) case which ended segregation. In addition, the Fourteenth
28
Amendment gave former slaves equal protection of the law, and the Fifteenth
Amendment gave slaves the right to vote (Cornell University Law School, 2007).
African-Americans were now allowed to integrate into the White schools and significant milestones were accomplished, but the presence black students were not welcomed. For example, the Little Rock Nine were the first African-American students to integrate Little
Rock Central High School in Arkansas in 1957. Six-year-old Ruby Bridges was the first
African-American child to integrate the William Frantz School in New Orleans,
Louisiana in 1960. James Meredith was the first African-American student to enroll at the
University of Mississippi in 1962. In each case, riots, physical violence, death threats and law enforcements were involved (Worldbook Encyclopedia and Learning Resources,
2007).
Involuntary Minority Theory
Just as the freed slaves were treated inferior, there are African-American students who feel less intelligent than their peers, unwanted and unwelcome. According the
Singleton and Linton (2006), difficulties in African-American acceptance are one of the underlying causes of the Achievement Gap. John Ogbu (1978) suggested that the effects of slavery have caused African-Americans to be a "caste-like minority" which affects motivation, achievement and IQ scores. This difficulty is described in the Involuntary
Minority Theory (Ogbu & Simmons, 1998).

29
"Since the early years of the twentieth century, significant concerns have existed about the academic and social problems encountered by minority students in the schooling process” (Ogbu, 1991). In studying the disparity in academic achievement between various groups of students over the past decades, educators and anthropologists have identified "a distinct variability" in the academic performance between two subgroups: the first subpopulation consists of minorities which have voluntarily emigrated from their original society to a different society, while the second subpopulation consists of minority groups which, due to "slavery, conquest, or colonization," did not voluntarily choose to join a particular society (Ogbu, 1991). Within the United States, the population described as voluntary minorities consist of Europeans,
Central and South Americans, and Asians. The second population described as involuntary minorities consist of African-Americans, Native Americans, and many
Hispanic-Americans. Voluntary minority students tend to outperform their involuntary minority counterparts in a number of different settings, including the area of academics, in the United States (Ogbu, 1991).
Ogbu (1978) also theorized that members from the involuntary minority group form a subculture named Oppositional Culture that consciously rejects mainstream values and norms due to the systematic denial of access to educational opportunities equal to those received by the dominant group. They also experience barriers to success in future employment and earnings because of racial or ethnic discrimination and structural inequalities (Ogbu & Simmons, 1998).

Stereotype Threat
Claude Steele is credited with coining the expression “stereotype threat.”
Stereotype Threat refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group (Steele & Aronson, 1995). This term was used in several
30 experiments that revealed that Black college freshmen and sophomores performed more poorly on standardized tests than White students when their race was emphasized. When race was not emphasized, however, Black students performed better and equivalently with White students. The results showed that performance in academic contexts can be harmed by the awareness that one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of racial stereotypes (Steele & Aronson, 1995) .
Between the 1970s and 1987, Steele extended the concept of the negative stereotyping of a socially constructed group to the understanding that issues of selfimaging could affect behavior and test performance outcomes (Steele, 2003; 1997; Steele
& Aronson, 1995).
Since schools are extensions of the dominant culture, minorities such as African -
American students from a high socioeconomic status internalize an anxiety that comes from attempting to deal with the conflict between the high expectations set for them at home and the low expectations of educators at school; the result is performance anxiety because of a perceived stereotype threat (Nguyen, O’Neal, & Ryan, 2003; Steele, 1998).
In some cases, they try to perform well, but fall short and ultimately validate the stereotype that they would not do well, consequently creating a self-fulfilling prophecy
(Carlson, 2004; Marx, Brown, & Steele, 1999).

Acting “White”
Not only do African-Americans have to deal with negative stereotyping, but the notion of acting “white” is used as an insult. Those who value and pursue behaviors
31
"associated with upward mobility," such as education, types of speech, and respect for authority, run the risk of being ridiculed by their peers (Austen-Smith & Fryer, 2005;
Fryer, 2006).
For example, when psychologist Angela Neal-Barnett in 1999 asked participants in a focus group to describe the behavior of acting white, "they listed actions that ranged from speaking standard English and enrolling in an Advanced Placement or honors class to wearing clothes from The Gap or Abercrombie & Fitch and wearing shorts in winter” (Austen-Smith & Fryer, 2005; Fryer, 2006).
Only some of the behavior listed in the previous quote connection to academic engagement, but the remarks of Barack Obama sheds light on this insult. In his keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention, Obama speaks:
Go into any inner-city neighborhood, and folk will tell you that government alone can't teach kids to learn. They know that parents have to parent, that children can't achieve unless we raise their expectations and turn off the television sets and eradicate the slander that says a black youth with a book is acting white (Fryer,
2006)
Resilience and Protective Factors
Resiliency refers to specific personality traits that enable children to thrive in spite of negative circumstances. Protective factors are aids to resiliency. As a shield, protective factors have a positive effect on a child and help to decrease the probability of poor

32 choices and unpleasant experiences. African-American students need both of these tools as they cope with the stereotype of their culture and their unfavorable position in the
Achievement Gap. For African-American students who are able to perform contrary to the Achievement Gap, there are two theories that define their motivation and subsequent academic success: Attribution Theory and Locus of Control. An additional factor of resilience often found among African-American families is the concept of spirituality
Attribution Theory
Weiner (1974) developed a theoretical framework in Attribution Theory that has become a major research paradigm of social psychology. In his view, people were like amateur scientists, trying to understand other people’s behavior by piecing together information until they arrived at a reasonable explanation or cause (Weiner, 1986).
Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1986; 1992) is probably the most influential contemporary theory with implications for academic motivation. The theory is concerned with the ways in which people explain (or attribute) the behavior of others or themselves
(self-attribution) with something else. It explores how individuals "attribute" causes to events and how this cognitive perception affects their usefulness, successes, or failures in an organization (Weiner, 1992).
Weiner (1974) theorized that the explanations people tend to make to explain success or failure in academic pursuits can be analyzed in terms of three sets on characteristics (Weiner 1980, 1992; Purdue, 2009). The characteristics are listed below:

33

Locus: The cause of the success or failure may be internal or external . That is, we may succeed or fail because of factors that we believe have their origin within us or because of factors that originate in our environment.

Stability: The cause of the success or failure may be either stable or unstable . If the we believe cause is stable, then the outcome is likely to be the same if we perform the same behavior on another occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome is likely to be different on another occasion.

Controllability: The cause of the success or failure may be either controllable or uncontrollable . A controllable factor is one which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An uncontrollable factor is one that we do not believe we can easily alter.
The characteristics of Attribution Theory are shown in Figure 2.

34
Locus of
Control
Controllability
Stability
Figure 2
. Characteristics of Attribution Theory. Adapted from “Attribution Theory” by
Purdue University Calumet. 2009. http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/
EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm. Microsoft Word diagram created by Carla T.
Galbraith, 2010.
Locus of Control Theory
Locus of Control (LOC) is another important factor impacting a student’s degree of resilience. According to Miller (2007), Rotter (1966) applied his understanding of expectations of rewards to develop the LOC theory of internal versus external control.
The theory of LOC classifies personal beliefs relating to whom or what influences events in an individual's life. Beliefs regarding life events classifies them along a

35 spectrum (Rotter, 1966; Miller, 2007). At one end is internal LOC, and at the other end is external LOC. One who generally believes that they are in control over the events in their life and results of their actions are generally predictable has an internal LOC. However, , one who generally believes that control over the events in one’s life lies outside of oneself has an external LOC. Individuals with an external LOC believe life events are the result of fate, chance, luck, or powerful others (Miller, 2007). The aspects of this theory are shown in Figure 3.
Belief in Self
Self Motivation
Predictable
Luck/Chance/Fate
Favoritism
Powerful Others
Unpredictable
Figure 3 . Characteristics of Locus of Control Theory. Adapted from "Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcements" by J. Rotter. 1966.
Psychological Monographs, 80 , 609. Microsoft Word organizational chart created by
Carla T. Galbraith, 2010.

36
Locus of control is a "psychosocial factor" that has been linked to student achievement and family influence (Miller, 2007). Desimone (1999) defined the construct as “the extent to which a person believes the outcomes in their life are the result of their own behavior or the result of chance or luck." For example, students with an internal
LOC are more likely to "experience pride and satisfaction for their successes and are more likely to accept responsibility and try harder in the face of failure when they attribute failure to lack of effort" (Miller, 2007). Trusty and Lampe (1997) found that adolescents with an internal LOC demonstrate greater academic achievement, are less alienated from school, and are more advanced in career decision-making. According to
Driscoll (2005), students show greater motivation when they have an internal orientation.
This means they tend to perceive learning tasks as skill determined and thus subject to personal control (Miller, 2007).
To the opposite of internally oriented students, externally oriented students tend to believe their success at a learning task will be determined by chance rather than by means within their control. According to Honea (2006), students with an external LOC are less likely to be motivated to engage in a learning task. Freeman (1994) found that often underachieving gifted students exhibited an external locus of control, poor attitude toward school, and a lack motivation to cooperate in the classroom and are less persistent than their achieving gifted peers (Gonzalez & Hayes, 1988).
Embedded within Rotter’s (1966) concept of LOC is the link between an internal
LOC and high academic achievement. Numerous studies (Bartel, 1971; Clifford &
Cleary, 1972; Morris & Messer, 1978; Buriel, 1982; Henderson, Kelbey, & Engerbretson,

1992) continue to document the relationship between LOC and academic achievement.
37
Academic achievement is a prediction of a student's internal choice towards accuracy and hard work with regard to schooling (Miller, 2007).
Spirituality
African-American spirituality, also referred to as "The Black Church" has historically been a source of hope and strength for the African-American community
(Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). This belief system aids in resiliency. Religious institutions have traditionally been situated at the symbolic core of the African-American community. Because the church has been the major institution controlled by African-
Americans in a largely hostile social and political environment, it has been called on to fulfill a wide range of functions within the black community. For example, since the slave era, churches have promoted mutual aid, educational uplift and various other initiatives aimed at advancing the individual and collective welfare of African-Americans
(Taylor, Jackson, & Chatters, 1997; Jewell, 2003).
Many African-American leaders have emerged from the ministerial ranks of
African-American religion and spirituality, such as Jesse Jackson, Martin Luther King Jr.,
Adam Clayton Powell, Al Sharpton, Andrew Young, Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammad, and
Louis Farrakhan, to name a few. These African-American leaders were very influential in the fight for the equality of people of color in the 20th century. Some even lost their lives due to their spiritual beliefs and dedication to civil rights. Now in the 21st century, the emergence of Black Megachurches (i.e. churches with 3,000 members or more) has become very popular with upwardly mobile African-American families and individuals.

38
These churches represent every socioeconomic stratum, from those who earn lower incomes to middle-class families (Jewell, 2003).
Black spirituality serves as a "protective factor" (Garmezy, 1993; Celico, 2008) in the midst of racial discomfort. Cornel West (1982) states that the Black church is "guided by a profound conception of human nature and human history, a persuasive picture of what one is as a person, what one should hope for, and how one ought to act" (p. 16).
Since spirituality and religious institutions have traditionally played a functional role within the black community, the concept of spirituality was included as a focus group probe in this study.
Summary
An achievement gap is the average difference of the scores between two groups of students (e.g. poor vs. wealthy; male vs. female; disabled vs. non-disabled; or White vs. various minorities). In this study, the concern is the gap between African-American and
White students in a suburban high school setting, and its implications for an equitable education. It is clear from the available literature that research on the effects of the personal and psychological factors that lie beneath the varying levels of student achievement can shed some light on this continuing problem in suburban public school systems today.
Examining schools as a phenomenological hegemonic culture may help educators understand the student Achievement Gap. Then they can implement changes to address the student Achievement Gap through transformative leadership (Dantley, 2003). A

39 phenomenological research study can focus on how teachers, administrators, and school personnel understand the problem within their school settings (Scheurich & Skria,
2003). Understanding the human element in relation to student achievement makes it possible to address the culture of the school organization.
Recognizing that schools are systematic reflections of the dominant culture and that educators can perpetuate a “dysconscious racism” which results from living within a
“White privileged” society can help us address the Achievement Gap (King, 1991;
McIntosh, 1989). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to gain a greater understanding of the disparities that exist in academic achievement between African-American students and their White counterparts in a suburban school setting. The theories of Attribution and
Locus of Control will be correlated with phenomenological research and the lived experiences of the African-American participants in this study to uncover the cause of their academic success. Until there is a solution to the Achievement Gap, the academic success of African-American students will always be a phenomenon.
This review of literature will be tested by the participants in this study through the use of three qualitative research tools: a questionnaire, a survey, and focus group discussion. The lived experiences of each participant will be documented and compared with the information established in the literature as it relates to the Achievement Gap, issues of race, resiliency and spirituality. Finally, the information that emerges form the participants will be categorized and summarized in Chapter 4.

40
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The Achievement Gap and the continuing disparity of academic success between
White students and students of color is one of the largest problems in the United States today (Slavin & Madden, 2006). California Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jack
O’Connell, has made efforts to close the Achievement Gap his top priority, as he believes this gap threatens the future competitiveness of our state in this demanding global economy (California Department of Education, 2008). Although the Achievement Gap persists, there are exceptional African-American students who have surpassed the norm.
The purpose of this study is to examine African-American high school students who have not only defied the Achievement Gap, but are considered the top performing students in their school population, having achieved grade point averages (GPA) of 3.5 and above.
Research Design
The research approach used in this study was qualitative. A qualitative study consists of a set of interpretive material practices that make the world visible (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994). Creswell (2007) adds to this definition by stating that qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, a theoretical lens, and the study of research problems, inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
Greenhalgh and Taylor (1997) offer a comparison between qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative research begins with an intention to explore a particular

area, collects data (observations and interviews), and generates ideas and hypotheses
41 largely through what is known as inductive reasoning. In contrast, quantitative research begins with an idea (usually articulated as a hypothesis), which then, through measurement, generates data and allows a conclusion to be drawn. The comparison of qualitative and quantitative research designs is shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
________________________________________________________________________
Research
Category Qualitative Quantitative
________________________________________________________________________
Social Theory Action Structure
Methods
Question
Observation, Interview
What is X?
(Classification)
Experiment, Survey
How many Xs?
(Enumeration)
Reasoning Inductive Deductive
Sample Methods Theoretical Statistical
Strength Validity Reliability
________________________________________________________________________
Note . X = representation of a hypothesis or number. Adapted from “How to Read a
Paper: Papers that go Beyond Numbers (Qualitative Research),” by T. Greenhalgh and R.
Taylor, 1997, British Medical Journal, 315 (7110), p. 740-743.

42
The strength of qualitative research lies in validity, using a selection of data collection methods. It is greatly improved by using a combination of research methods, a process known as triangulation, and by independent analysis of the data by more than one researcher. Qualitative research is not interested in an broad or vague view of a population. Rather, an in-depth understanding of the experience of particular individuals or groups is sought (Greenhalgh & Taylor, 1997). This study will use the qualitative research tools and focus groups to collect, interpret and classify the responses of the participants.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is sometimes considered a philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others (Trochim, 2006).
As stated in chapter 1, phenomenology can be used for qualitative research because this type of investigation examines the human experience as a concept or a phenomenon. This type of study focuses on describing the common experiences of a specific group of students by dealing directly with families, environments, and community. It attempts to obtain the very essence of the experience (MacDonald, 2005;
Creswell, 2007).

43
Setting of the Study
The location for this research study was Franklin High School, a suburban, middle-class high school in Elk Grove, California. Franklin High School opened in
August 2002 and celebrated its first graduating class in 2005. The community surrounding the high school is one of the fastest growing suburban areas in the city of Elk
Grove, located directly south of California’s state capital city of Sacramento (Franklin,
2010).
Franklin High School is one of nine comprehensive high schools in the Elk Grove
Unified School District. The District also includes four alternative high schools, nine middle schools, 40 elementary schools, and an adult education program. The Franklin
High School complex includes its primary feeder school, Toby Johnson Middle School, and the 19,000 square-foot Franklin Community Library, a joint use facility operated in partnership with the Sacramento County Library system. As a cohesive 7-12 model, students are challenged with varied and rigorous curricula, while supporting their success through a comprehensive academic guidance and support program, and personalized educational planning. Students develop personal goals and plans as they work with their counselors and teachers to select challenging courses that align with graduation requirements, college entrance criteria, and personal interests (Franklin, 2010).
Demographics
The ethnic distribution at Franklin High School reveals a diverse cultural climate.
As of November 13, 2009, there were 2,791 students enrolled in the school as shown in
Figure 4.

44
White
Hispanic
African American
East Asian
Filipino
Southeast Asian
Other Asian
Asian Indian
Pacific Islander
Native American 15
56
72
96
0
185
270
311
475
459
852
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Total Enrollment: 2791
Figure 4 . Ethnic Distribution for Franklin High School. Data as of November 13, 2009.
Adapted from “Sisweb Reports” by the Elk Grove Unified School District, 2009, http://sisweb.egusd.net. Microsoft Word chart created by Carla T. Galbraith, 2010.
To interpret the ethnic distribution in Figure 4, the two largest populations are
White (862 students) and Asian (838 students). The Asian population is a combination of the following regions:


East Asian = the regions of China, Japan, Korea (311 students)

Southeast Asian = the regions of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia (185 students)

The Philippines, (Filipino) = the regions of Southeast Asia (270 students)

"Other" Asian (72 students)
These combined demographics are summarized in Figure 5.
45
Asian
838, 30%
White
852, 31%
All Other
167, 6%
African
American
459, 16%
Hispanic
475, 17%
Figure 5 . Demographic Summary for Franklin High School. Data as of November 13,
2009. Adapted from “Sisweb Reports” by the Elk Grove Unified School District, 2009, http://sisweb.egusd.net. Microsoft Word chart created by Carla T. Galbraith, 2010.

Academic Performance Index
The Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) granted an initial
46 accreditation term of three years beginning in the 2004-2005 school year. In 2007, the school received its first full accreditation term of six years. Following the 2007 WASC visitation, Franklin's Academic Performance Index (API) has grown steadily each year.
API is based on several standardized tests given to students in grades 2 through 11 during the academic year. API scores range from 200 to 1,000, with 800 being the state's performance goal. A school's academic progress is measured by how well it is moving toward that goal. At Franklin High School, the API scores have shown a steady incline to successfully reach the 800 mark, as shown in Figure 6 (California Department of
Education, 2009).

47
Figure 6 . API Growth for Franklin High School. API = Annual Performance Index.
Adapted from “Testing & accountability: API School Level Reports” by the California
Department of Education, 2009, http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ar/. Microsoft Word chart created by Carla T. Galbraith, 2010.
Disaggregated data of the subgroups in the most recent 2008-2009 school year revealed that all subgroups (i.e. American Indian, Asian, Filipino, Hispanic, Pacific
Islander, White, Socio-economically Disadvantaged, English Language Learners, and
Students with Disabilities) met their API growth targets. However, the African-American subpopulation did not. Of the required five percentage point growth target, the African-
American subgroup grew by only one percentage point (Franklin, 2010).

48
Access to Students
Prior approval from the Research and Evaluation Department of Elk Grove
Unified School District allowed access to the district database for purposes of having the proposed research study supported with evidentiary data. After permission was granted, the researcher distributed and collected signed assent forms for the students and consent forms from their parents.
The researcher and the principal agreed that data collection and access to the participants should not intrude upon the instructional minutes of the teachers. For this reason, the principal approved the use of the Wednesday "late start" schedule. At Franklin
High School, classes begin at 7:55 a.m. each day with the exception of Wednesday. On the Wednesday "late start" schedule, school does not begin until 8:55 a.m. in order to accommodate faculty planning such as departmental meetings, parent conferences, and teacher preparation. For this reason, the Wednesday schedule allowed student participation without interruption of the learning environment.
If students could not accommodate the Wednesday morning schedule, an alternative meeting time was reserved directly after school at 3:00 p.m.
Participants
Purposeful sampling (Patton, 1990) of all students included the following criteria:

Students must be classified as African-American.

Students must be currently enrolled at Franklin High School.

Students m ust be in the 12th grade.

Students must currently have a cumulative GPA of 3.5 and above.

49
Cumulative GPA includes all grade points calculated from the 9th grade through entry to the 12th grade. Cumulative GPA was selected as a route to gage the academic achievement maintained throughout the secondary years, rather than a one-time report card. In a similar, cumulative pattern, students in the 12th grade were selected rather than individual freshman, sophomores, or juniors so that the experiences from four years of high school could be examined for each participant.
Once the students were identified, the researcher contacted their parents/guardians via telephone followed by the delivery of consent forms and assent forms to be signed and returned to the researcher. The consent and assent forms explained the purpose of the study, as well as a thorough explanation of confidentiality, volunteerism, and the time commitment. These forms are located in Appendix F.
Ethical Protection
According to Brown (2008), Creswell (1998) recommended attending to these ethical issues in the research process: (a) anonymity, (b) disclosing or failing to disclose the purpose of the research, (c) how to treat information shared, “off the record,” (p.134) and deciding whether the researcher should share personal experiences. Ethical issues were addressed by assuring anonymity via a process in which pseudonyms were substituted for participants’ real names. Ethical issues were also addressed by using an informed consent form to disclose the following:
1.
Purpose of the research study.
2.
Name of person conducting the research.

50
3.
Research to be conducted under the auspices of California State University,
Sacramento.
4.
Faculty, staff, and researcher’s contact information.
5.
Information regarding the participants’ right to discontinue participation.
The informed consent form served as a tool to protect human subjects from any physical or psychological harm. All facts related to the study were divulged prior to the beginning of the study and submitted to the university, the school district, the school, the parents of the participants, and to the participants. In addition, all data was maintained solely by the researcher and kept in a locked file cabinet in the researcher’s home for a period of five years from the date of publication of this research study.
Data Collection, Analysis and Interpretation
The qualitative research tools for this study were a questionnaire, a survey, and focus group discussions. Each participant was given a Background Information
Questionnaire to return to the researcher. In addition, a survey was given to test the theoretical frameworks. Finally, focus group discussions were conducted. The discussions began by directly acknowledging that the students were considered outstanding based on their good grades. The researcher followed the acknowledgement by asking the participants to describe their experiences at home and how their parents and family members contributed to their academic success. The participants were also asked similar questions pertaining to school and community, and how friends, classmates, and teachers contributed to their academic performance. Questions pertaining to the
Achievement Gap and racial issues included the participant's feelings towards the

stereotypes associated with being identified as African-American. The participants expressed their perceptions of lived experiences by describing the phenomenon they
51 experienced (Hatch, 2002; Merriam, 2002).
Once the data was collected and recorded on audio tape, the transcription process memorialized the participant's remarks. The researcher employed the "analysis continuum" by Krueger (1994). His continuum model offers the practical steps of taking raw data, condensing them into descriptive statements, and interpreting the finding. The application of this method is discussed in Chapter 4.

52
Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Introduction
The focus of this study is to reveal the attributes of top performing African-
American high school students. Chapter 1 presented an introduction to the research problem, followed by the review of literature in chapter 2 and the research methodology in chapter 3. This chapter will begin with descriptions of the participants and their parents. Findings related to the theoretical frameworks of this study are presented.
Finally, the data obtained from a questionnaire, a survey and focus group discussions will be analyzed through Krueger's (1994) "analysis continuum." The steps of this process begin with raw data, descriptive statements, and conclude with interpretation (Rabiee,
2004).
Description of the Population
At the beginning of the 2009-2010 school year, there were 2791 students enrolled at Franklin High School (EGUSD, 2009). Of this amount, the 12th grade Class of 2010 consisted of 762 students with the following demographics: African American: 127,
Asian Indian: 24, Cambodian: 2, Chinese: 58, Filipino: 61, Hawaiian: 1, Hispanic: 134,
Hmong: 7, Japanese: 20, Korean: 2, Laotian: 3, Native American: 2, Other Pacific
Islander: 11, Other Asian: 22, Samoan: 1, Vietnamese: 32, White: 255 (EGUSD, 2009).
This study includes a sample from the 127 African-American students in the 12th grade at Franklin High School who meet the criteria of possessing a grade point average

53
(GPA) of 3.5 or higher. Additional indication of academic performance is evident in the results of the California Standards Test (CST).
Grade Point Average
Of the 127 African-American students enrolled at Franklin High School, 25 met the criteria of possessing a GPA of 3.5 or higher in order to be invited to participate in this research study as shown in Appendix E. After a two-week window to respond to the invitation, 16 students successfully completed the Parental Consent Forms and Student
Assent Forms found in Appendix F. Six of the participants were male and ten of the participants were female. A list of the participants and their qualifying GPA to participate in the study is shown in Table 6 (EGUSD, 2009).
Table 6
Research Study Participants
________________________________________________________________________
Cumulative Grade Point Average
______________________________
Participants Gender Class Rank Weighted Unweighted
________________________________________________________________________
Student A
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
Student J female female male female female male male female female female
122
3
262
267
244
177
179
301
260
267
4.08
4.71
3.59
3.58
3.64
3.86
3.85
3.50
3.60
3.58
3.56
4.00
3.59
3.55
3.50
3.36
3.43
3.32
3.23
3.28

54
Student K
Student L
Student M
Student N female female male male
29
29
114
217
4.49
4.49
4.11
3.72
3.92
3.93
3.89
3.30
Student O
Student P female male
238
42
3.65
4.41
3.55
3.82
________________________________________________________________________
Note . GPA = grade point average; AP = Advanced Placement courses; Cumulative GPA includes the average of all grades earned from the 9 th
grade through the 12 th
grade as of
November 13, 2009; Weighted GPA includes a higher grade point calculation for AP courses; Unweighted GPA does not include a higher grade point calculation for AP courses. Adapted from “Sisweb Reports” by the Elk Grove Unified School District, 2009, http://siswebreports.egusd.net
California Standards Test
A cross-examination of the academic performance of the student participants includes information from the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) program. As stated in Chapter 2, each spring, California students take a battery of standardized tests that comprise the state's STAR program. These tests, called the CST (California
Standards Test), measure student achievement of state academic content standards in
English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science for grades 2-11.
Students in kindergarten, grade 1, and grade 12 do not participate in the STAR program
(Ed Data, 2009). The CST results for the participants in this study are shown in Table 7.

55
Table 7
California Standards Test Results for Participants
________________________________________________________________________
CST Scores for Participants A - P
________________________________________________________________________
English /
Language
Arts
High School
Summative
Math
A A B P P P P P P P A A
P A B P B P A P
P P B A
P A
Algebra II
Geometry
Physics A
B BB
B
B
P
P P
Chemistry
Biology
Earth
Science
P B BB B B B B P B B B A
P
P
Life Science
US History
P
A A B B A A P B P A A A P B A
World History P P FBB
________________________________________________________________________
Note . A = Advanced score; P = Proficient score; B = Basic score; BB = Below Basic score; FBB = Far Below Basic score. Adapted from “Sisweb Reports” by the Elk Grove
Unified School District, 2010, http://siswebreports.egusd.net

Participant Background Information
Each student was given a Background Information Questionnaire that identified
56 their parent's marital status, parent's educational level, parent's occupation, student living arrangement and spiritual beliefs, if applicable (Appendix B). All information was obtained from the questionnaire and no clarifying questions were asked by the researcher.
Individual descriptions of each of the 16 participants are provided, followed by the parent's educational levels and occupations shown in Table 8, the parent's marital status and student living arrangement shown in Table 9, and spiritual beliefs shown in Table 10.
Student A.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father holds a Bachelor of Science in Accounting and works as an accounting manager and a part-time real estate agent. The mother holds a Bachelor of Science in Nursing and works as a nurse.
Student B.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father has attended some college and works as a compliance representative at the Franchise Tax
Board. The mother has attended some college and is a Mary Kay consultant and homemaker.
Student C.
This student lives in a two-parent household with the mother and stepfather. The mother is a high school graduate and works as a nurse. The stepfather is a high school graduate and is enlisted in the Navy. The only information indicated about the biological father is that he plays professional football.

57
Student D.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who is divorced from the biological father. The mother holds an Associate's degree and works as a licensed vocational nurse (LVN).
Student E.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who has never been married to the biological father. The mother is a high school graduate and works as a fiscal assistant. The father is single and has attended some college. His occupation is unknown.
Student F.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who is divorced from the biological father. The mother holds a Bachelor's degree and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree and works as an engineer. The father holds a
Bachelor's degree and works as an enrollment officer.
Student G.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father holds a college degree and has worked as a lobbyist. He is currently the Chief of Staff for a Senator. The mother holds a Master's degree and works as a teacher.
Student H.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who is divorced from the biological father. The mother holds a college degree and works as a real estate broker. The father is single and is a high school graduate. He is currently incarcerated.
Student I.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father holds
Bachelor's and Master's degrees and works as an auditor. The mother holds a Bachelor's degree and works as a full-time student.

58
Student J.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who is divorced form the biological father. The mother holds a Bachelor of Science in
Management and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. She works as a client broker representative. The biological father is single and has attended some college. His occupation is unknown.
Student K.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who has never been married to the biological father. The mother holds a Bachelor of Arts in
Nursing and a Juris Doctorate degree. She works as a lawyer. The father is married and holds a Bachelor of Arts in Architecture and City Planning. He works as an appraiser.
Student L.
This student is the sibling of Student K. Identical background information was provided.
Student M.
This student lives in a single-parent household with the mother, who is divorced from the biological father. The mother holds a Bachelor's degree and works in pharmaceutical sales. The father holds a Bachelor's degree and works in maintenance.
Student N.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. Both parents hold Bachelor's degrees and work as computer engineers.
Student O.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father holds a college degree and works as a graphic design teacher. The mother has attended some college and works as the children's ministry director at their church.
Student P.
This student lives in a two-parent, married household. The father has attended some college and works as a product technician at Apple Corporation. The mother is a high school graduate and works as a credit analyst at Wells Fargo Bank.

Table 8
Parent's Educational Levels and Occupations
________________________________________________________________________________
Participants Father Mother Guardian
________________________________________________________________________________
Student A B, Accounting / Real Estate B, Nurse
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
Student J
Student K
Student L
Student M
SC, Compliance Rep.
N/A, Pro Football
- -
SC, N/A
B, Enrollment Officer
M, Chief of Staff / Lobbyist
HS, incarcerated
B, M, Auditor
SC, N/A
B, Appraiser
B, Appraiser
B, Maintenance
SC, Mary Kay / Homemaker
HS, Nurse
A, Licensed Vocational Nurse
HS, Fiscal Assistant
B, M, Engineer
M, Teacher
B, Real Estate Broker
B, Full-time Student
B, M, Client Broker Rep.
B, JD, Lawyer
B, JD, Lawyer
B, Pharmaceutical Sales
HS, Navy
Student N
Student O
B, Computer Engineer B, Computer Engineer
CD, Graphic Design Teacher SC, Children’s Ministry
SC, Product Technician HS, Credit Analyst Student P
________________________________________________________________________________
Note
. HS = high school diploma; SC = some college; A = Associate’s degree; B =
Bachelor’s degree; M = Master’s degree; JD = Juris Doctorate degree; CD = unknown college degree; N/A = unknown answer
59

60
Table 9
Parent's Marital Status and Student Living Arrangement
________________________________________________________________________
Biological Parents
_______________________________
Participants Married Divorced Never Married Living Arrangement
________________________________________________________________________
Student A
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Parents
Parents
Mother & Stepfather
Mother Only
Mother Only
Mother Only
Parents
Mother Only
Parents
Student J
Student K
Student L
Student M
X
X
X
X
Mother & Stepfather
Mother Only
Mother Only
Mother Only
Student N
Student O
Student P
X
X
X
Parents
Parents
Parents
________________________________________________________________________

61
Table 10
Participant’s Spiritual Beliefs
________________________________________________________________________
Spirituality
________________________________________________________________________
Are you Spiritual?
Yes/No/Indifferent
Does Spirituality help you in school?
Yes/No/Indifferent
Name of organized religion, if applicable
Student A
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
Student J
Student K
Student L
Student M
Student N
Student O
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes/Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Catholic
Baptist
Christian
N/A
Christian
Christian
Christian
Christian
Catholic
Christian
Christian
Non-Denominational
Baptist
Catholic
Christian
Student P Yes Yes Christian
________________________________________________________________________
Note . N/A = No answer given.

62
Data Analysis and Interpretation
This research study uses qualitative methods to gather, analyze and interpret data.
As stated in previous chapters, the conceptual framework of phenomenology effectively captures the phenomena of the lived experiences of African-American students who have defied the academic Achievement Gap in America (Jewell, 2003; Cooper, Fusarelli &
Randall, 2004; Singleton & Linton, 2006; Barr & Parrett, 2008). Within the conceptual framework of phenomenology, hermeneutic phenomenology was used to interpret the participant’s responses (Hatch, 2002). According to Max van Manen (2002),
“phenomenology becomes hermeneutical when its method is taken to be interpretive.”
The qualitative tools used to satisfy the research questions of this study are a questionnaire, a survey and focus groups.
Questionnaire Data
The Background Information Questionnaire located in Appendix G was developed by the researcher in order to gather descriptive data about the participants and their parents. In order to reduce the amount of time to conduct individual interviews with
16 participants, the questionnaire was delivered to the participants to complete at home and return to the researcher’s secretary on the next day.
Survey Data
A survey was used to support the theoretical frameworks of this study: Attribution
Theory and Locus of Control Theory. According the Weiner (1974), Attribution Theory is used to explain the cause of achievement. The causes or “attributions” are classified in three dimensions: Locus of Control, stability and controllability (Weiner, 1974, 1986).

Within the Locus of Control (LOC) dimension, the Locus of Control Survey developed
63 by Julian Rotter (1966) was used to determine the participant's internal or external reinforcement beliefs. Individuals with a high internal LOC believe that events in their lives result primarily from their own behavior and resources. However, those with an external LOC believe that forces out of their control (i.e. powerful others, chance, fate) determine the events in their life (Rotter, 1966). The survey used in this study is located in Appendix H and the results of the survey are shown in Table 11.
Table 11
Locus of Control Survey Results
________________________________________________________________________
Locus of Control
____________________
Participants Internal External
________________________________________________________________________
Student A
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
Student J
Student K
Student L
Student M
Student N
Student O
Student P
4
9
6
10
10
11
11
9
10
9
7
9
10
10
10
15

64
________________________________________________________________________
Note . 0-11 = Internal Locus of Control; 12-23 External Locus of Control. Adapted from
“The Rotter Locus of Control Scale: The comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability, validity and dimensionality” by Marsh, H. W. and Richards,
G. E., 1986, Journal of Research in Personality , 20 , p. 509-558.
Focus Group Data
The researcher facilitated focus group discussions with the 16 student participants. Due to scheduling conflicts, college interviews, sports and club meetings, three focus group meetings were held rather than one group meeting. The first session included nine students; the second session included three students; and the third session included the remaining four students. All of the focus group meetings were identical in time allotment and questioning.
There was only one primary research question and three secondary research questions for this study shown in Table 12. To support the primary and secondary research questions, the participants were asked questions relating to their lives, the
Achievement Gap and their personal motivation. These questions are located in Appendix
I. The focus groups questions were grouped into nine categories that opened a rich, robust discussion about their feelings regarding race and academia. The nine focus group question categories are indicated in alphabetical order: Achievement Gap, Acting
“White”, Advanced Placement an d Honors Courses, Community Influence, Parental
Influence, School Influence, Self, Spirituality, and Stereotype. Each of the nine categories provides evidentiary data to respond to the primary and secondary research questions.

The organization of the research questions and the focus group questions are found in
65
Table 12.
Table 12
Research Questions and Focus Group Question Guide
________________________________________________________________________
Research Questions Focus Group Questions
________________________________________________________________________
PRQ: What are the attributes of academically successful
African-American students who have performed contrary to the low performance identified in the Achievement Gap? 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
SRQ1: What is their awareness of the Achievement Gap?
Do they believe it exists?
SRQ2: Has perceptions about being classified as an African-
American affected their educational experience?
1
2, 7, 9
SRQ3: Who have been the most influential people in their lives? Why? 4, 5, 6, 7
________________________________________________________________________
Note . PRQ = primary research question; SRQ = secondary research question
With permission from the parents and the students, the discussions were recorded on audio cassette tapes and transcribed with the use of Microsoft Excel and Microsoft
Word. The verbatim transcription of the participant’s responses to the focus group discussions is located in Appendix J. Next, the researcher was “immersed” in the

participant’s verbal details by replaying the tapes repeatedly until familiarization and “a
66 sense” of the discussions was gained (Rabiee, 2004).
Code Assignment
During the process of familiarization, open coding , according to Strauss and
Corbin (1990) allowed the researcher to “break down, compare and categorize” the data.
It is the part of the analysis concerned with identifying, naming, categorizing and describing phenomena found in the text. (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Rabiee, 2004). The coding of the transcription was organized within individual tables for each question and shown in Table 13 through Table 21. All participants were identified by pseudonym letters A through P.

67
Table 13
Responses to Focus Group Question 1: Achievement Gap
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
W have higher incomes
W are better educated
W are more stable/two parents/better environment
W have positive image/stereotype
B have negative image/stereotype
W have pride in education
B have no pride in education
W have higher expectations
B have lower expectations
B have positive parental expectations
B need positive parental support/influence
W have support systems
B, C
B, C
B, C, H
D
D, G, M, O
E
E, P
F
F
N
F, G
I, H
B have no support system
W have better backgrounds
B have rough backgrounds
Motivated to defy Achievement Gap
K
H, J
J
K
B are intimidated by W
W are preferred by teachers
B have to prove themselves in class
W live in better neighborhoods
B suffer from internalized oppression
N
M
________________________________________________________________________
Note . W = white students; B = black students.
J
L
L

68
Table 14
Responses to Focus Group Question 2: Acting “White”
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
I do not listen to "acting white" references
Being labeled "acting white" does not bother me
Term “acting white” is not used at Franklin
Confidence in yourself
I am acting human, not “acting white”
I am acting educated, not “acting white”
Color should not matter
Motivated to defy the term “acting white”
Motivated to break negative stereotypes
A, P
A, B
A
A
B
F, H, I, J, L, O
A, B
B
B
Positive black family support
“Acting white” is an irritating and ignorant term
Never heard of the term “acting white” from my friends
Term “acting white” is not used in liberal, diverse California
Sacramento/Elk Grove is racist
Accused of acting “ghetto” even though I’m smart
B
F, J, K, L
M, N
A, B
F
J
________________________________________________________________________

69
Table 15
Responses to Focus Group Question 3: Advanced Placement Courses
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
I have a positive mindset towards AP classes
B have a negative mindset towards AP classes
B do not have self confidence
B are not motivated to take AP classes
I challenge myself to take AP classes
Some B do not take the challenge
B intimidated by W in AP classes
I am not intimidated by W
I think I am better than W
A
G
A
D, B, F, G, I, A
I
I, P
J
K
K
Positive teacher support for B students
I am the only B male in AP classes
I take all honors and AP classes
K
M, N, P
A, B, I, J, K, M, N, P
B do not want the extra work
Teacher encouraged me to take AP classes
Accused of acting “ghetto” even though I’m smart
O, P
O
G
________________________________________________________________________
Note . AP = Advanced Placement; W = white students: B = black students.

70
Table 16
Responses to Focus Group Question 4: Community Influence
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
Jack and Jill
The Links Beautillion Gala
Alpha Kappa Alpha Debutante Ball
I am a math tutor
National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE)
F, K, L, P
F, K, L, M, P
F, K, L, P
J, K
K
Church
Volunteer work
K, L, M, N, O
K, L, M
Involved in community activities A, B, E, I, L
________________________________________________________________________
Table 17
Responses to Focus Group Question 5: Parental Influence
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
My parents helped me
My mom helped me
N, O, P
B, M
Black students are not exposed to education B
Dysfunction at home motivates me to do the opposite (succeed) E, J
Mom is not involved
Our babysitter was a strong black woman
Dad is supportive, but not in the home
J
K, L
K, L
Grandmother was influential
Positive expectations from black parents
Academically competitive with sister
K, L
N, O, P
K, L
________________________________________________________________________

71
Table 18
Responses to Focus Group Question 6: School Influence
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
My school is preparing me for college
Our school offers a lot of AP courses
Our school is academically challenging
We have good teachers
Our teachers have high expectations
Our teachers care
We have a lot of African-American students at Franklin
African-American students at Franklin perform well
Involved in school clubs
Involved in school sports
Involved in community activities
I do not take AP classes
A, J, L, P, O
B, J
F, J
B, P, O
L, P, O
M
C
C
A, G, H, I, L
A, B, C, G, I
A, B, E, I, L
D
Our school is rigorous
You are frowned upon by peers if you do not take AP classes
Teachers should stop being prejudiced
Not aware of the large Achievement Gap
F, J, K, L
J
K
M
Franklin is a good school
Race does not matter at Franklin
N
N, P, O
________________________________________________________________________
Note . AP = Advanced Placement.

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Table 19
Responses to Focus Group Question 7: Self
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
I need an education/college to succeed
I have always loved to read, loved knowledge
Self motivated
I get satisfaction from getting As
Need an education to earn money
A, I
A, B
B, D, E, H, K
B
B
Need an education to help people
Playing sports motivates me. I can’t play if GPA is low.
Parents are supportive/most influential
B
C, M
Grandparents are supportive
Mother motivates me, most influential
Sister/brother motivates me, most influential
C, M
C
D, F, H, I, K, O
D, P
Dysfunctional father motivates me to do the opposite (succeed) E
I want to do better than unsuccessful adults
Father motivates me, most influential
Middle school teacher motivated me, most influential
God, church, prayer motivates me, most influential
Awareness that I will always be black
I can do better than the stereotype
Positive peer influence
F, O
G, N
J
L
M
N
P
________________________________________________________________________
Note. GPA = grade point average.

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Table 20
Responses to Focus Group Question 8: Spirituality
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
I am spiritual
My spirituality helps me in school
A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, J, K, L,
M, N, O, P
Participate in church feedings
Youth leadership team at church
African dance group at church
Involved at church
A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, I, J, K, L, M,
N, O, P
J
K
N
L, O
Church influences me
Church awarded money for good grades
M
K
God, church, prayer influences me L
________________________________________________________________________

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Table 21
Responses to Focus Group Question 9: Stereotype
________________________________________________________________________
Code Assignment Participant Source
________________________________________________________________________
A smart African-American is not normal
Stereotypes subconsciously affect B
Peers are amazed that some B perform well academically
Biracial student accused of acting more W than B
Negatively judged because I am black
Stereotypes from W have followed me
Stereotyped by fellow B
Accused of being white-washed (black person acting white)
B misunderstood as hostile
Take pride in being African-American
Irritated with B confirming/perpetuating the stereotype
B have to prove that they are intelligent
A, J
A, H
A, C, K, J, M
C
D, K, L
F
F
F
K
K
L
L, J
Stereotypes cause me to do the opposite (succeed)
No one looks at stereotypes anymore
N
O, P
________________________________________________________________________
Note. W = white students or white people; B = black students or black people.
Data Reduction
Data reduction is accomplished through comparing, contrasting and pasting similar quotes together (Rabiee, 2004). Krueger and Casey (2000) describe two avenues to approach the reduction of data: specialized software or “indeed, by hand.” There are several brands of computerized qualitative software designed to “assist the researcher with data coding, management, and analysis” (Bryne, 2010). However, for this study, the
“computer-based approach for cutting, pasting, sorting, arranging and rearranging data” was achieved through the use of Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word (Rabiee, 2004).

75
For each of the nine focus group questions, Tables 13 through 21 indicated the responses from the participants. The responses were given an open code and recorded in the “Code Assignment” column. Next to each code assignment, the pseudonym for each participant who gave the same or similar answer was indicated in the “Participant
Source” column. Once the code assignments were completed, the themes that surfaced from the coalescing of the open codes were grouped next to each focus group question and shown in Table 22.
Table 22
Thematic Reduction of Focus Group Code Assignments
________________________________________________________________________
Focus Group Questions Thematic Reduction
________________________________________________________________________
1. Achievement Gap
2. Acting “White”
3. Advanced Placement
Socioeconomics
Stereotype
Self Motivation
Family Influence
Racial Resiliency
Self Motivation
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Stereotype
Family Influence
Racial Resiliency
Self Motivation
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Stereotype
Racial Resiliency

76
4. Community Influence
5. Parental Influence
6. School Influence
Socioeconomics
Family Influence
Racial Resiliency
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Spirituality
Self Motivation
Family Influence
Self Motivation
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Self Motivation
Racial Resiliency
7. Self Self Motivation
Family Influence
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Stereotype
Spirituality
Racial Resiliency
8. Spirituality
9. Stereotype
Spirituality
Stereotype
Self Motivation
Racial Resiliency
________________________________________________________________________
As the major themes began to emerge, the seven final themes that were sifted from the participant’s responses and open coding of the focus group discussion were indicated in the “Thematic Reduction” column in Table 22 (Rabiee, 2004). These seven final themes addressed the primary and secondary research questions. Some of the answers overlapped several different themes, which is an indication of the robust discussion.

The frequency of these themes refers to the number of times that the individual theme occurred within the thematic reduction of the nine focus group questions. The
77 frequency was calculated and recorded in Table 23.
Table 23
Frequency of Final Themes to Address Research Questions
________________________________________________________________________
Frequency of Themes Final Themes
________________________________________________________________________
8
7
5
Self Motivation
Racial Resiliency
Stereotype
Family Influence 5
5
3
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Spirituality
2 Socioeconomics
________________________________________________________________________
Summary
This chapter presented qualitative data obtained from a questionnaire, a survey, and focus group discussions. All information remained consistent with the purpose of addressing the research problem. The final themes in this study revealed seven attributes of academically successful African-American students: (1) Self Motivation, (2) Racial
Resiliency, (3) Stereotype, (4) Family Influence, (5) Academic, Teacher, School Support,
(6) Spirituality, and (7) Socioeconomics. Of these seven, the two main attributes that frequently appeared were Self Motivation and Racial Resiliency. The data also revealed

that socioeconomics does not appear to be a strong factor that influences academic achievement. This revelation is possibly due to the fact that this study occurs at a high
78 school located in an upper to middle-class neighborhood. Yet, the Achievement Gap is still evident at this school. In essence, motivation and racism do not always coincide with monetary status.

79
Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to discover the attributes of African-American high school students who have defied the Achievement Gap. This chapter begins with findings from the participants in this study and a discussion of the conceptual and theoretical frameworks as they relate to the primary research question. Recommendations for educational leaders are given and the study concludes with reflections from the researcher.
Summary of the Findings
Participant Academic Performance
The participants in this study were required to possess a cumulative grade point average (GPA) of 3.5 and above. As stated in chapter 3, cumulative GPA includes all grade points calculated from the 9th grade through entry to the 12th grade. Cumulative
GPA was selected as a route to gage the academic achievement maintained throughout the secondary years, rather than a one-time report card.
Although GPA was used as the sole criterion, GPA is not the only factor that correlates with intelligence. GPA is subjective, that is, some schools are more academically rigorous than others. To support the description of “top performing” students as indicated in the title of this study, the GPA of the participants was triangulated with standardized testing data, namely, the California Standards Test (CST).
Scores from the CST are placed into five levels from highest to lowest: Advanced,
Proficient, Basic, Below Basic, and Far Below Basic (Ed Data, 2009). The African-

80
American participants in this study were significantly impressive with 67% of their scores ranging in the Advanced and Proficient levels. Profoundly, two of the participants displayed an outstanding performance on the CST with Advanced scores in every test subject (EGUSD, 2009).
Participant Parental Information
The participants in this study are the offspring of educated and successful
African-American parents. These African-American parents, too, have defied the
Achievement Gap by not succumbing to their disenfranchised backgrounds. Of the 16 participants, only four reported that their parents did not earn a college degree.
It was noted that the marital status of the parents in this study was consistent with the matriarchal dynamic found in many African-American families. There were only seven participants who lived in two-parent, married households. The remaining nine families were matriarchal due to divorce (five parents) or single-parent births (four parents). The evidence of matriarchal African-American families is supported by Jewell
(2003) with statistics to document the rise in African-American divorce rates from 104 per 1,000 in 1970, to 220 per 1,000 in 1982. A key observation is indicated in her book entitled Survival of the African-American Family: the Institutional Impact of U. S. Social
Policy , which states:
By 1980, divorce had become epidemic to African-American couples, with
African-American college-educated women being the most likely to occupy a divorced status. The alarming increase in divorce among African-American men and women was not the only reason that the structure of African-American

81 families began undergoing change. Separation and out-of-wedlock births also had a significant impact, as evidenced by the growing number of female-maintained families. (p. 19-20)
Despite this dynamic within the structure of African-American families, stellar academic performance was maintained by all of the participants of this study.
Theoretical Framework Interpretation
The theoretical frameworks in this study were Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1974) and Locus of Control Theory (Rotter, 1966). As stated in chapter 1, Attribution Theory includes three sets of characteristics to explain success or failure in academic pursuits: (1)
Locus of Control, (2) Stability, and (3) Controllability (Weiner 1980, 1992; Purdue,
2009).
First, in order to assess the participant's Locus of Control, the Locus of Control
Survey developed by Rotter (1966) was used to determine one's belief about their ability to "control the events" in their lives. A passage taken from the participant's Psychology -
AP Edition textbook (Zimbardo, Johnson, Weber, & Gruber, 2007) states:
If you believe that studying hard will lead you to good grades, you have an internal Locus of Control, and you will behave differently from those who have an external Locus of Control and believe that grades depend on luck or on the teachers' biases. (p. 321)
The Locus of Control Survey found in Appendix G consisted of 29 questions. Six of the questions were filler items and 23 of the questions were scoring items. The participants who scored between zero and 11 possessed an internal Locus of Control and the

82 participants who scored between 12 and 23 possessed an external Locus of Control. Not surprisingly, 15 of the 16 participants possessed an internal Locus of Control which is consistent with the large amount of responses related to the theme of Self Motivation in the focus group discussion data located in chapter 4.
Next, all three of the characteristics of Attribution Theory were tested as they related to the academic success of the African-American participants. Descriptions of the characteristics are indicated as follows:
Characteristic 1: Locus of Control . All but one of the participants possessed an internal Locus of Control. An internal locus is consistent with self motivation and self esteem (Weiner, 1980, 1992; Zimbardo et al., 2007).
Characteristic 2: Stability . Racism, stereotypes and the acceptance of skin color are unstable in that the effects of race are not consistently negative in every setting.
However, resiliency and "protective factors" (Garmezy, 1993; Celico, 2008) assist students in overcoming the negative aspects of race (i.e. being adversely classified as
African-American).
Characteristic 3: Controllability . All of the participants recognized that hard work, determination, success or failure toward earning good grades in school is a controllable choice. Academic achievement and effort translate into college entrance and subsequent adult accomplishments (Zimbardo et al., 2007; Purdue, 2009).
Based on the responses from the Locus of Control Survey as it related to the predictions from Attribution Theory, the participants in this study were all successful in their academic pursuits due to their internal Locus of Control and their controllability

83 over their personal commitment to academic excellence. Although the unstable aspect of race is ever-present, the recommendations for this study will aid in increasing the resiliency of African-American students until "they live in a nation where they are not judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character" as proclaimed by
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1963 (Jakoubek, 1989).
Conceptual Framework Interpretation
As stated in chapter 1, “phenomenology is used as a qualitative research methodology that can meet the challenges of fully engaging the complexities of racial and ethnic difference” (Martinez, 2006). Within the realm of phenomenology, the interpretive vehicle for the methodology was hermeneutical phenomenology, which combines both interpretive (hermeneutic) and descriptive phenomenological methods for the purpose of examining the lived experiences of people being studied (Hatch, 2002).
Therefore, the conceptual framework of phenomenology was applied to the interpretation of the focus group discussions to address the primary research question.
Primary Research Question
This study consisted of one primary research question: What are the characteristics of academically successful African-American students compared to the low performance identified in the Achievement Gap?
The final themes of the lived experiences that originated from the focus group discussions were identified as the seven characteristics of academically successful students: (1) Self Motivation, (2) Racial Resiliency, (3) Stereotype, (4) Family Influence,
(5) Academic, Teacher, School Support, (6) Spirituality, and (7) Socioeconomics.

Self Motivation . Each of the participants in the study possessed inner determination to achieve their academic goals despite their awareness of African-
American stereotypes and the low performance of African-American students indicated in the Achievement Gap. Responses related to Self Motivation occurred in eight of the
84 nine focus group questions.
Racial Resiliency . The students in this study were not only aware of their ethnic classification, but they felt the negative effects of low socioeconomic status and perceived institutionalized racism within their high school. Responses related to Racial
Resiliency occurred in seven of the nine focus group questions.
Stereotype . The students in this study displayed a positive self-image despite their awareness of the negative connotation associated with African-Americans. In addition, frustration and disappointment was voiced in regard to some African-American students who perpetuate the stereotype by participating in the oppositional culture.
Family Influence . Support and academic expectations from the family unit was evident. Significantly, issues of race and stereotype were addressed in the home. The participants freely discussed their parent's expectations for college and behavior in the midst family dysfunction and racial perceptions.
Academic, Teacher, School Support . The participants felt that their high school was preparing them for college and that the teachers were supportive. Some of the participants mentioned that their Advanced Placement teachers offered support for
African-American students due to their awareness of the Achievement Gap and the low enrollment of students of color in upper division courses.

Spirituality . Descendents from slaves in the United States have traditionally consulted a higher power for strength in the midst of oppression. Every student in this
85 study indicated they participated in religion. Of the 16 participants, 15 indicated that spirituality helps them in school.
Socioeconomics . Socioeconomic status was not pervasive in this study; however it was mentioned in the focus group discussion. The students felt that White students lived in better neighborhoods and had more resources to support them in school.
However, socioeconomics did not appear to be a strong factor in academic performance.
Contextualization of the Findings
The anecdotal evidence from the focus group discussion revealed that each of the seven final themes not only related to resiliency, but each related to issues of race. These findings were contextualized into an illustration shown in Figure 7.

86
Figure 7 . Racial of Racial Resiliency. Resiliency is evident in the identified in the final themes. Each of the characteristics of academically successful African-American students is connected to resiliency as it relates to race. Microsoft Word diagram created by Carla
T. Galbraith, 2010.

In response to the primary research question (i.e. What are the characteristics of academically successful African-American students compared to the low performance
87 identified in the Achievement Gap?), the seven final themes that emerged from the focus group discussion serve as the characteristics of academic success from participants of this study. From these seven final themes, the "intrinsic nature of the factors that fall within the upper end of frequency" to answer the problem identified in this study are Self
Motivation and Racial Resiliency (Neu & Stewart, 2009).
Shown in Table 23, discussions pertaining to Self Motivation occurred as a response to eight of the nine focus group questions; and discussions pertaining to Racial
Resiliency occurred as a response to seven of the nine focus group questions. Therefore, the two most prevalent characteristics of students that are academically successful are
Self Motivation and Racial Resiliency.
Table 23
Frequency of Final Themes to Address Research Questions
________________________________________________________________________
Frequency of Themes Final Themes
________________________________________________________________________
5
5
3
8
7
5
Self Motivation
Racial Resiliency
Stereotype
Family Influence
Academic, Teacher, School Support
Spirituality
2 Socioeconomics
________________________________________________________________________

Conclusions from the Findings
Weiner (1974), in his theory of Attribution, states that "students' educational experiences will generally influence their achievement motivation more than the actual objective of those experiences" (Kea, 2009). He continues with regard to Locus of
88
Control Theory in that "students' beliefs about the reasons for their success will determine whether this assumption is true" (Kea, 2009). For the participants in this study, academic success was obtained due to their internal Locus of Control and their controllability over their personal commitment to academic excellence. As a result, their academic motivation never faltered and their consistency produced positive academic results.
Furthermore, academic success among African-American students is contrary to
Oppositional Culture Theory developed by John Ogbu (1939-2003). Oppositional Culture
Theory is associated with Involuntary Minority Theory found in chapter 1. It is summarized in the article entitled I (don't) Hate School: Revisiting Oppositional Culture
Theory of Blacks' Resistance to Schooling by Angel Harris (2006). Herein, the author describes Ogbu’s (1978) theory as follows:
Because African Americans are involuntary minorities -- groups historically enslaved, colonized or conquered who interpret the incorporation of their group into the United States as forced by white Americans (i.e., dominant group) --they experience or perceive barriers to success with regard to future employment and earnings due to racial discrimination and structural inequalities. These experiences/beliefs lead them to become disillusioned about the future and doubt the value of schooling. Consequently, they develop a culture oppositional to the

dominant group and resist educational goals, often resulting in early school withdrawal altogether (Harris, 2006).
By defying the Achievement Gap, successful African-American students thwart the theory of Oppositional Culture and become role models and positive examples to the
89 disengaged. This success translates into the overall success of academic institutions.
Recommendations
Broader Sample
This phenomenological study focused on the top performing African-American students at one high school in one school district. This study is authentic because it has never occurred in Elk Grove, California. The researcher recommends further study to be conducted within all nine of the high schools located in the Elk Grove Unified School
District in order to collect a broader pool of data. With the demographic and socioeconomic differences found in each school site, a larger phenomenological study will produce meaningful date to capture the holistic voice of the African-American community located in this district. Furthermore, a study of this nature can be applied throughout the greater Sacramento County region to compare and contrast the trends, successes and efforts to close the Achievement Gap.
Increased Participation in AP and Honors Courses
To increase academic performance and outcomes of African-American students, it is recommended that efforts to encourage African-American students to enroll into AP and Honors courses increase as well. College-preparatory and honors courses must be emphasized in elementary and middle school so that students can gain readiness and

naturally transition into AP courses upon matriculation to high school. This study has
90 proven that African-American students enrolled in AP and Honors courses earned higher grade point averages and were better prepared for college.
Racial Empathy and Dialog
Finally, race matters. West (1993), in his book entitled Race Matters states that
African-American people are seen as "problem people," rather than as “fellow American citizens with problems.” He continues by stating, “nearly a century later, we confine discussions about race in America to the "problems" black people pose for whites rather than consider what this way of viewing black people reveals about us as a nation” (p. 2-
3). It is recommended that “courageous conversations” regarding the disenfranchisement of African-Americans continue to occur, despite the discomfort of such dialog (Singleton
& Linton, 2006).
As evidenced in this study, the seven final attributes of successful African-
American students was Self Motivation, Racial Resiliency, Stereotype, Family Influence,
Academic, Teacher, School Support, Spirituality, and Socioeconomics. Each of these attributes related to issues of race. Certainly, racial issues continue to exist and discussions regarding the academic performance of students of color will continue to be a topic of research until the Achievement Gap is closed.
Researcher's Reflection
To answer the research question (i.e. What are the attributes of academically successful African-American students who have performed contrary to the low performance identified in the Achievement Gap?), the researcher expected the reduced

amount of racial issues at Franklin High School to be a factor in the positive, academic
91 environment. Furthermore, the researcher anticipated answers that applaud how there is a level playing field at Franklin that diminishes and eliminates the awareness of racial difference. Unfortunately, the researcher was mistaken.
Yes, the participants in this study mentioned how they "feel smarter" at Franklin, how "color doesn't matter" and how "the teachers are very supportive," yet the researcher could not ignore the double consciousness that the participants possessed. The term double consciousness was originated in 1897 by W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963) and was republished in 1903. It is described as the sense of "always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity." He continued by describing "an American, a Negro; two warring souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder" (DuBois, 1903)
The students in this study felt the burden of being African-American, but their resiliency enabled them to continue reaching their goals. For example, one of the participants (Student L) gives a brief monolog of frustration:
The saying is true, it sounds racist and cliché but it’s true, "everybody wants to be black but nobody wants to be." They want the glamour, they want the athletics, they want the style, rhythm, the coolness, but they don't want the history or the stereotypes. They don't want to be restricted when it comes to getting a job or when it comes to getting into college. When the cops come around, then they

don't want to be black. When it comes to everything else, “oh, I'm down…I'm cool,” but you don't really want to be black.
The researcher wondered about the feelings of another student who was not one of the participants in this study. This particular student was a key player on Franklin’s
92 varsity basketball team. During the championship game with thousands of fans and spectators enthralled in the close contest, the player received a bleeding injury under his eye. His wound was immediately tended, an adhesive bandage was placed under his eye, and he was returned to the court. The researcher could not ignore the fact that the player was African-American. His skin had a deep brown hue, nearly black, but the bandage was a contrasting pale flesh tone, nearly white. The bandage was overtly noticeable stretching under his eye and across his cheek bone. Perhaps there were no clear bandages available to blend into the skin tone. Perhaps bandages should be marketed in school spirit colors rather than pale flesh tones so that everyone is treated equally. Incidents including the standard shade of bandages are incorporated into Singleton and Linton’s
(2006) Color Line Exercise. This exercise is based on Peggy McIntosh's (1989) autobiographical work where she compared her life with African-American women. The
Color Line exercise spotlights "racial privilege as a corollary of racial discrimination"
(Singleton & Linton, 2006).
Obviously, the varsity basketball player ignored the implication of race and made the choice to stay focused on the goal. The only thing that mattered was winning the game, not the injury sustained during the game, nor his physical appearance. This observation serves as an analogy to the participants in this study. These African-

American students are self motivated, racially resilient and focused on the goal of academic performance. They are winning the game.
93

APPENDICES
94

Appendix A
Human Subjects Application
95

96
Appendix A
Application Form (Revised 07/2008)
Request for Review by the Sacramento State
Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects
(Submit 11 copies of this form and any attachments to the Office of Research
Administration, Hornet Bookstore, Suite 3400, mail code 6111.
Please type your responses or use a word processor.)
Project Title: A Phenomenological Study of Top Performing African-American High School
Students
Funding Agency (if any): N/A
Name(s) and affiliation(s) of Researchers: Carla Galbraith, Doctoral Candidate, CSU
Sacramento
Mailing address (or Department and campus mail code): 6323 Seyferth Way, Sacramento, CA
95823
(916) 613-9587, carla_teach@comcast.net
Telephone and e-mail address for researcher
November 1, 2009
Anticipated starting date
Dr. Daniel Orey
Name of faculty sponsor (for student research) orey@csus.edu
E-mail address of sponsor
1. Who will participate in this research as subjects (e.g., how many people, from what source, using what criteria for inclusion or exclusion)? How will their participation be recruited
(e.g., what inducements, if any, will be offered)?
The students who volunteer for this study must meet the following criterion:

Must be currently enrolled at Franklin High School.

Ethnicity must be classified as African-American.

Must be in the 12th grade and continuously enrolled at Franklin High School since the 9th grade.

Must currently have a GPA of 3.5 and above.

Must have scored in the Proficient and/or Advanced categories on the 2008
California Standards Test (CST).
Student volunteers who meet the criteria below will be asked to participate in the study. To avoid a conflict of interest, an authorized school official will send out flyers to students who meet the criteria. Students will contact the researcher if they are interested in volunteering to participate in the research. No adults are included in this study.

97
The researcher (who is also the vice principal) will not interrupt classroom instruction to conduct this study. All surveys and focus group discussions will occur at a designated location on campus once permission has been obtained by the parents. In addition, each student will be compensated with a $10 gift card from Starbucks, which may increase their interest in participation in the study.
2. How will informed consent be obtained from the subjects? Attach a copy of the consent form you will use. If a signed written consent will not be obtained, explain what you will do instead and why. (See Appendix C for examples of consent forms, an example of an assent form for children, and a list of consent form requirements. Also see Informed
Consent earlier in this manual.)
Consent and assent forms will be delivered to the students and their parents by the researcher’s secretary at Franklin High School. The parents and students will be instructed to return the permission forms to the researcher’s secretary by November 30,
2009.
*See attached copy of Parental Consent Form and Student Assent Form.
3. How will the subjects’ rights to privacy and safety be protected? (See Level of Risk earlier in this manual. For online surveys, also see Appendix B.)
All research records, audio tapes, and consent forms will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the researcher's work office. The information collected will be destroyed within six (6) months after the study is completed. In addition, the participant's names will not be used.
Participants will be identified only by a pseudonym in any reports or publications that may result from this study.
4. Summarize the study’s purpose, design, and procedures. (Do not attach lengthy grant proposals, etc.)
The purpose of this study is to examine the attributes that have contributed to the academic success of selected African-American students despite the academic Achievement Gap in
America. This study is a qualitative research design which uses the conceptual framework of phenomenology. Phenomenology focuses on the lived experiences of individuals.
The procedures to conduct this study include two qualitative research tools: individual surveys and focus group discussions. Participants (students) will complete the Locus of
Control Scale (survey) created by Julian Rotter in 1966. This 29-question survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. In addition, the participants (students) will be included in one focus group discussion for 90 minutes. The study will last from November
2009 to January 2010.

98
5. Describe the content of any tests, questionnaires, interviews, etc. in the research. Attach copies of the questions. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any, is involved in their use?
All survey questions and focus group questions seek to identify the causes of the academic success of the sample of African-American high school students despite the evidence of the
Achievement Gap. Since this study deals with resiliency in spite of racial issues, discomfort may occur as the participants (students) approach the questions dealing with their knowledge of the stereotypes associated with African-Americans and their opinion of racist experiences, if any, at Franklin High School.
In the event of discomfort, the participants (students) will be referred to their guidance counselor located in the Student Services building at the high school.
*See attached copy of Survey Questions and Focus Group Questions.
6. Describe any physical procedures in the research. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any, is involved in their use?
N/A
7. Describe any equipment or instruments and any drugs or pharmaceuticals that will be used in the research. What risk of discomfort or harm, if any, is involved in their use?
N/A
8. Taking all aspects of this research into consideration, do you consider the study to be
“exempt,” “no risk,” “minimal risk,” or “at risk?” Explain why. (See Level of Risk earlier in this manual.)
This study is considered "minimal risk" due to the maturity of the sample population. The participants (students) are the top performing African-American students at Franklin High
School who have maintained outstanding grade point averages throughout their high school experience. These students are aware of the nature of race and ethnicity, yet they have been able to thrive with excellent resiliency.
________________________________
Signature of Researcher
________________________________
Signature of Faculty Sponsor
(for student research)
____________________
Date
____________________
Date

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Questions about the application procedures for human subjects approval may be directed to the Office of Research Administration, (916) 278-7565, or to any member of the committee.
Questions about how to minimize risks should be directed to a committee member. Applicants are encouraged to contact a committee member whose professional field most closely corresponds to that of the researcher. See www.csus.edu/research/humansubjects/ for the current year’s due dates when submitting an application.

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To assure prompt review of your application,
ALL researchers should complete this checklist:

Have you written an appropriate answer for each question on the application form?
(Please do not attach research proposals, grant applications, etc. as the committee cannot read such documents.)
 Have you answered all of the questions on the application form? (Please enter “N/A” if a particular question does not apply to your research.)

Have you provided an e-mail address and a phone number where you can be reached on the application?

Have you (and any co-researchers) signed the application form? Did you submit an original copy of your application with those signatures?

Have you included your consent form with your application? Does that consent form identify you as the researcher and your department?

Does your consent form clearly describe what participants will be asked to do in your research? Does it clearly describe any direct benefit they will receive as a result of their participation? Does it clearly describe any risks they will be exposed to during their participation, and what you will do to minimize those risks?

Have you included with your application any screening forms that will be used to determine the eligibility of participants for your research?

Have you included with your application all tests, questionnaires, surveys, interview questions, focus group questions, etc. that will be used in your research?

Have you checked the grammar and spelling throughout all of your documents?

Have you prepared 11 copies of your complete application packet, including all attachments, for the committee?

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STUDENT researchers must also complete this checklist:

Have you met with your faculty advisor before preparing your application? Has your faculty advisor thoroughly reviewed all of your materials before you submitted your application?

Have you provided an e-mail address and a phone number where you can be reached on the application? Did you also include your home address on the application?

Have you included the name of your faculty advisor and that person’s e-mail address on your application?

Has your application been signed by you, any co-researchers, and your faculty advisor?
Did you submit an original copy of your application with all of those signatures?

Does your department have an approved Human Subjects committee that reviews student research projects? (As of July 2008, the approved departments are Child
Development; Communication Studies; Criminal Justice; Economics; Educational
Leadership & Policy Studies; Kinesiology & Health Science; Nursing; Psychology;
Public Policy & Administration; Social Work; Sociology; Special Education,
Rehabilitation & School Psychology; and Teacher Education.) If your research is in one of these departments, it must be reviewed and approved by that department’s committee first. Has your department’s committee completed the following form?
DEPARTMENT HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL
Project Title:
Student Researcher:
Faculty Sponsor:
A Phenomenological Study of Top Performing African-
American High School Students
Carla Galbraith
Dr. Daniel Orey
The ______________________________ Department’s human subjects committee has reviewed and approved this application. It requires review by the CPHS because the research is
( circle one ) Minimal Risk or At Risk.
________________________________________
Name of department’s human subjects chairperson
_________________________
E-mail address of chairperson
________________________________________
Signature of department committee’s chairperson
_________________________
Date

Appendix B
Human Subjects Approval
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November 12, 2009
To: Carla Galbraith
Doctoral Candidate
Educational Leadership & Policy Studies
6323 Seyferth Way
Sacramento CA 95823
From: John Schaeuble, Chair
Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects
Re: Protocol 09-10-038 (Oct)
“A Phenomenological Study of Top Performing African American High School
Students”
The Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects conditionally approved your application as
“Minimal Risk” at its October 19, 2009 meeting. With the additional materials you have provided, your project is now approved as Minimal Risk.
This IRB approval is with the understanding that you will promptly inform the Committee if any adverse reaction should occur while conducting your research (see “Unanticipated Risks” in the
CPHS Policy Manual). Adverse reactions include but are not limited to bodily harm, psychological trauma, and the release of potentially damaging personal information.
The approval applies to the research as described in your application. If you wish to make any changes with regard to participants, materials, or procedures, you will need to request a modification of the protocol. For information about doing this, see “Requests for Modification” in the CPHS Policy Manual.
Your approval expires on November 30, 2010. If you wish to collect additional data after that time, you will need to request an extension for the research. For additional information, see
“Requests for Extension” in the CPHS Policy Manual.
If you have any questions, please contact me at 278-6666 or the Office of Research
Administration at 278-7565. Thank you.

Appendix C
School District Approval to Conduct Research
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Appendix D
School Site Approval to Conduct Research
106

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Appendix E
Invitation to Participate in Research
108

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Appendix F
Parental Consent Forms and Student Assent Forms
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PARENTAL CONSENT FORM
My name is Carla Galbraith and I am a doctoral candidate in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department at California State University, Sacramento. I am also one of the vice principals of Franklin High School. Your child is invited to participate in a study of African-American students for the purpose of my dissertation research. Your child was chosen due to their exceptional academic performance throughout their four years of high school. This study seeks to discover what your child believes to be the reasons for their academic success. Please read and ask questions before acting on this invitation.
Purpose of Research
The purpose of this study is to find the reasons for your child's academic success despite the academic Achievement Gap in America.
Benefit
Your child may not directly benefit from this research. However, the information provided will contribute to new research and help scholars to understand the academic
Achievement Gap involving African-American students.
Procedures
Your child will complete a 29-question survey relating to their academic success. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. In addition, your child will be included in one focus group discussion for 90 minutes. With the permission of the group, this discussion will be recorded. If you would like to preview a copy of the survey questions and the focus group questions, a copy will be available with my secretary during school hours, or for your convenience, I will email them to you. The survey and focus group will occur after school and snacks will be provided. The study will last from
November 2009 to January 2010 with no interruptions to your child's classroom instruction during the school day.
Risks
The questions I will ask are regarding your child's academic achievement and educational experiences. If your child experiences discomfort during the survey and group discussions, your child will be referred to their guidance counselor located in the Student
Services building. Moreover, your child is free to decline to answer any questions or withdraw from participation at any time.
Confidentiality
All research records, audio tapes, and consent forms will be stored in a locked file cabinet in my office at the high school. The information collected will be destroyed within six (6) months after the study is completed. Your child will be identified only by a pseudonym in any reports or publications that may result from this study.

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Compensation
Each student will receive a $10 gift card from Starbucks for participating until the end of the study.
Contact Information
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Carla Galbraith at (916)
613-9587 or cgalbrai@egusd.net. My dissertation chair, Dr. Daniel Orey, Professor, can be contacted at 916-278-531 or orey@csus.edu.
Your child's participation in this research is entirely voluntary. You or your child may decide to withdraw from participation in this study without any consequences. In addition, the researcher may decide to discontinue your child's participation in the study at any time. If you agree to participate in this study, please return this form by November
20, 2009.
Your signature below indicates that you understand this consent form and agree to allow your child to participate in the research.
___________________________________
Signature of Parent
____________________
Date
I agree to allow my child to be audio taped: ____ yes ____no
Signature of Parent: _______________________________ Date: ________________
___________________________________
Signature of Researcher
_____________________
Date

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STUDENT ASSENT FORM
My name is Carla Galbraith and I am a doctoral candidate in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department at California State University, Sacramento. I am also one of the vice principals of Franklin High School. You are invited to participate in a study of
African-American students for the purpose of my dissertation research. You were chosen due to your exceptional academic performance throughout your four years of high school.
This study seeks to discover what you believe to be the reasons for your academic success. Please read and ask questions before acting on this invitation.
Purpose of Research
The purpose of this study is to find the reasons for your academic success despite the academic Achievement Gap in America.
Benefit
You may not directly benefit from this research. However, the information provided will contribute to new research and help scholars to understand the academic Achievement
Gap involving African-American students.
Procedures
You will complete a 29-question survey relating to your academic success. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. In addition, you will be included in one focus group discussion for 90 minutes. With the permission of the group, this discussion will be recorded. The survey and focus group will occur after school and snacks will be provided. The study will last from November 2009 to January 2010 with no interruptions to your classroom instruction during the school day.
Risks
The questions I will ask are regarding your academic achievement and educational experiences. If you experience discomfort during the survey and group discussions, you will be referred to your guidance counselor located in the Student Services building.
Moreover, you are free to decline to answer any questions or withdraw from participation at any time.
Confidentiality
All research records, audio tapes, and consent forms will be stored in a locked file cabinet in my office at the high school. The information collected will be destroyed within six (6) months after the study is completed. Your name will not be used. You will be identified only by a pseudonym in any reports or publications that may result from this study.
Compensation
Each student will receive a $10 gift card from Starbucks for participating until the end of the study.

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Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. There are no right or wrong answers. You may decide to withdraw from participation in this study without any consequences. In addition, the researcher may decide to discontinue your participation in the study at any time.
Your signature below indicates that you understand this consent form and agree to participate in the research. Being in this study is up to you, and no one will be upset if you change your mind later. If you agree to participate in this study, please return this form by November 20, 2009.
Print your name: ___________________________ Date: _______________
Sign your name: ___________________________ Date: _______________
I agree to be audio taped: ____ yes ____no
Signature of Participant: ___________________________ Date: ________________
___________________________________
Signature of Researcher
_____________________
Date

Appendix G
Background Information Questionnaire
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Appendix H
Locus of Control Survey
117

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Locus of Control Survey
Julian Rotter's Locus of Control Scale (1966) measures the extent of a person's internal or external reinforcement beliefs. Indicate which of each statement you believe to be true, despite what you may wish to be true. There are no right or wrong answers. Answer all of the questions.
1. a. Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too much. b. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them.
2. a. Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck. b. People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
3. a. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest in politics. b. There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them.
4. a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world. b. Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries.
5. a. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense. b. Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings.
6. a. Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities.
7. a. No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you. b. People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others.
8. a. Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality. b. It is one's experiences in life which determine what they're like.
9. a. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. b. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action.
10. a. In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test. b. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying in really useless.
11. a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work, luck has little or nothing to do with it. b. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.

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12. a. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions. b. This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it.
13. a. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work. b. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow.
14. a. There are certain people who are just no good. b. There is some good in everybody.
15. a. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. b. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin.
16. a. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first. b. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability, luck has little or nothing to do with it.
17. a. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand, nor control. b. By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events.
18. a. Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. b. There really is no such thing as "luck."
19. a. One should always be willing to admit mistakes. b. It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes.
20. a. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you. b. How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are.
21. a. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. b. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three.
22. a. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. b. It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office.
23. a. Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give. b. There is a direct connection between how hard 1 study and the grades I get.
24. a. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do. b. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.
25. a. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me. b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life.

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26. a. People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. b. There's not much use in trying too hard to please people, if they like you, they like you.
27. a. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school. b. Team sports are an excellent way to build character.
28. a. What happens to me is my own doing. b. Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking.
29. a. Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. b. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level.
Scoring
One point was given for each of the following:
3.b, 4.b, 5.b, 10.b, 11.b, 12.b, 13.b, 15.b, 22.b, 26.b, 28.b,
2.a, 6.a, 7.a, 9.a, 16.a, 17.a, 18.a, 20.a, 21.a, 23.a, 25.a, 29.a.
0-11 Internal Locus of Control
12-23 External Locus of Control
References:
Marsh, H. W. & Richards, G. E. (1986). The Rotter Locus of Control Scale: The comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability, validity and dimensionality.
J ournal of Research in Personality , 20 , 509-558.
Rotter, J. (1966).
Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcements, Psychological Monographs , 80 , Whole No. 609.
Retrieved December 1, 2009 from http://www.ucalgary.ca/~lapoffen/tasha/rotter.htm

Appendix I
Focus Group Questions
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FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS
About the Focus Group Questions
The focus group questions are a qualitative research tool. All of the focus group questions are designed to address the primary and secondary research questions of this study, indicated below:

The primary question is: o What are the characteristics of academically successful African-American students compared to the low performance identified in the Achievement
Gap?

The secondary questions are: o What is their awareness of the Achievement Gap? Do they believe it exists? o Has perceptions about African-Americans affected their educational experience? o Who have been the most influential people in their lives? Why?
Focus Group Questions
1. Achievement Gap

White students typically perform better than African-American students on state and national standardized tests and in grade point averages (GPA). What are your thoughts about this overall difference in performance?
2. Acting “White”

What does "acting White" mean to you? Do your African-American friends believe that getting high grades equals "acting White?"
3. Advanced Placement and Honors Courses

Tell me about the Advanced Placement (AP) and Honors courses at Franklin High
School. Describe the racial-ethnic makeup of the students and teachers.

Do you know any African-American students who could do well in AP or Honors courses, but opted not to take them? If so, tell me about them.

What part, if any, have others played in your decision to enroll or not to enroll in
AP or Honors courses (i.e. parents, teachers, counselors)?

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4. Community Influence

Are you involved in the community (i.e. community service, organizations, etc.)?

Does influence from the community help you in school?
5. Parental Influence

Describe the expectations held for you by your parents/guardians.

Describe your parental support.
6. School Influence

Describe the expectation level that teachers uphold at Franklin High School.

What is it like being an African-American student at your school?

Do you participate in any extra-curricular clubs and activities? If so, does it help you in school?

In your opinion, what changes need to take place in education for African-
American students to experience a greater level of success in school?
7. Self

What motivates you in school?

Who is the most influential person(s) in your life?
8. Spirituality

Are you spiritual (i.e. tribal, cultural, meditation, pagan, religion, etc.)?

If yes, does your spirituality help you in school?

Are you or your family a member of an organized religion? If yes, please share the name of your organization.
9. Stereotype

What is your awareness of the stereotype of African-Americans?

Do you feel that other people make judgments about your academic ability based on your race? (Think about stereotypes, friends, family members, teachers, counselors, etc.)

Appendix J
Transcription of Focus Group Discussion
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125
Focus Group Transcription
The focus group discussion consisted of the responses to nine questions relating to
African-American experiences, perceptions, support and academic performance. These responses were recorded on audio tape with permission from the participants and their parnets. In addition, a Background Information Questionnaire was used to gather information about parental backgrounds, spirituality and opinions about the Achievement
Gap.
All of the responses were transcribed verbatim from the audio tapes. The responses written on the Background Information Questionnaire are indicated as “written response.” The actual identities of people and places mentioned by the participants were omitted (----) in order to preserve confidentiality.
Focus Group Question 1: Achievement Gap
White students typically perform better than African-American students on state and national standardized tests and in grade point averages (GPA). What are your thoughts about this overall difference in performance?
Student B (written response)
There are several reasons I believe are the cause of the academic Achievement
Gap between African-Americans and white students, not least of which are social and socioeconomic causes. White Americans tend to have higher incomes than the average
African-American, so even in that respect alone they have more money to send their kids to good schools and buy private tutor lessons and SAT prep classes. Another, perhaps larger reason, is the fact that white Americans are generally more educated that African-

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Americans, and their children are much more likely to be educated as well. Lastly, white families are sometimes more stable than black families, with both parents, so it's a better environment for their kids to grow up in.
Student C (written response)
White students usually have rich or successful parents. They get better education and more "less stressed out" lives. African-American still however can have rich/successful parents.
Student D
I think it's because, white people, they usually have more positive connotations associated with them, but we have a more negative image focused on us. So I think that's maybe why they usually perform better ‘cause they have... It's like they're expected to be smart and pay attention and get good grades while we're expected to be below everyone else.
Student D (written response)
I think this may be because of the images that are set in place for whites over blacks. Black people deal with a series of negative images such as drug dealers, prostitutes, "ghetto," etc. while whites are portrayed in a positive image such as executives, CEOs, lawyers, etc. I think because blacks don't see other successful black people on a daily basis, they feel they are supposed to act a certain way, usually a slacker.
Student E (written response)
I believe they do because they may study more and take their education seriously.
Some African-American students just don't care.

Student F
I believe that the Achievement Gap, um, really has to do with a level of expectation. There's a higher expectation for white students to do well and succeed in school and there's a lower expectation for African-American students to do well. And
127 then also it goes back to exposure and what your parent's exposure to education was. I think the biggest reason for the Achievement Gap definitely goes back to being a good parent. Okay... going back to it, I think like the biggest reason for the Achievement Gap definitely goes back to being like a good parent making sure your child does his homework.
Student F (written response)
In my opinion, they typically have better GPAs because I feel that there is a lower expectation level for African-Americans to succeed and do well on these tests so they are naturally going to perform lower. When society's expectations of you are to not do well on these tests and not get good grades, you start to believe it, and when you believe it, you start performing the way you believe. Also I believe that the amount of parent involvement reflects this also.
Student G (written response)
A big part would be the circumstances they were raised under. The other part would be what they see on TV and how they think black people are supposed to act.
Student H (written response)
This occurs because white kids have a better background. Their families are better supporters and they have a better lifestyle.

Student I (written response)
I believe this happens because white students have more support groups than
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African-Americans.
Student J (written response)
African-Americans are typically raised with a rough background opposed to white students who generally have things handed to them. Your background influences everything you do, especially your education.
Student K (written response)
Many times African-American students may not have the support system at home or the self motivation to achieve academically. Because the standards that have been set for them are low, they do not aspire to greater heights.
Student K
Um, well, I think that I'm definitely aware of the fact that the difference exists.
Um, as far as it being a deterring factor for me being that I couldn't do well just because there is an Achievement Gap, nothing like that has really occurred. If anything, it’s more of a motivator. Um, me doing not as well on standardized tests or GPA is not at all true.
If anything, I've done better than most white students. That factor hasn't really changed who I am as student. Although I definitely do think it can be something that's discouraging… knowing that as an African-American student when I walk into a classroom that statistically I'm going to do worse than my white counterpart… but that just hasn't been the case for me.

129
Student J
I definitely agree with Student K. I find it very intimidating when you walk into the class and see that you are one of the only black people in the class, especially as a female. It is very intimidating. People look upon you like “oh, she’s black, I don't want her in my group” or “she's black… she's not going to do anything.” It’s like, in most cases "I" would be the one to take a poster home and to finish it. Like people are caught off guard by stuff like that.
Student L (written response)
White students are predisposed to being more liked by teachers than black students. Black students must prove that they belong in the class.
Student M
Well, when I was little my mom always told me I was going to college so I never really thought about the Achievement Gap. So when I got to high school, it was kind of a shock to me.
Student M (written response)
Well, based on what I learned in African-American Cultural Studies, I think that it is internalized oppression. Some African-American students believe in the stereotypes that are said about African-Americans which cause them to not act to their fullest abilities. In other words, think bad about yourself, do bad in other aspects of life.

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Student N
For me, my mom she's always telling me I'm going to college, like even though the skin color you have… even though I'm like Nigerian, I still have to do very good. A lot of our family does good. We were brought up that way. That’s the way she raised me.
Student N (written response)
I believe that, in average, white people do better than blacks academically because white people have a lot of parental support and parental guidance. Also more white people have or get more income and live in better neighborhood. Neighborhoods influence academics and behavior.
Student O
Yeah I feel it’s that African-American students they feel like they don't need to achieve because they have sports to fall back on or they don't need to achieve because they have the stereotype in them so they don't try.
Student O (written response)
I think this happens because black students feel its uncool for them to excel and be intelligent. They are stereotyped.
Student P
I feel like they weren't instilled with the quality that "I actually do need to do my best on this test," even though they aren't being graded by my professor, or not, they don't know that everything they do is going to be taken into account. It’s like their test scores are actually important.

Focus Group Question 2: Acting “White”
What does "acting White" mean to you? Do your African-American friends believe that getting high grades equals "acting White?"
Student A
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Um definitely me, I don't listen to that. I've heard it all my life with my cousins and my friends. I know what I can do/what I'm going to do with my life, so it doesn't bother me. I also notice that it's the area that I live in too. California… very open, liberal, everybody's mixed up, there's different races. Being at Franklin, I don't get that a lot here.
We're all so used to each other having friends of different races and colors, it's not a problem, but outside, like I went to ---- Middle School, ooh it was a problem there. I think that you have to have confidence within yourself. You have to know what's in you.
Student B, part 1
Um I think there shouldn't even be that kind of definition of acting white because what I think what we're doing is acting human. We're not acting, like, like I mean that we're all interested in different things and I don't think the color of your skin should define what you do. It should be just "you're human." You should do whatever you want.
Student B, part 2
Well fortunately for me I haven't really been exposed to a lot of situations where, well obviously I've been exposed, but I haven't had in a lot of situations where people are like "oh, why are you always acting white." Like, I've been told that maybe a couple times. It doesn't really bother me. Actually in a way it kind of encourages me 'cause I like breaking stereotypes. I like being myself and knowing that I may be different and I'm still

myself. Like Student A said, we live in Sacramento valley. It's one of the most diverse
132 places in the United States, and I'm really fortunate to be here, but like my whole family, like on my dad's side and mom's side, they're all really focused on school and everything so they're definitely not putting me down, so I think that helps.
Student F, part 1
Okay, I just want to say that acting white is the most bogus term I've ever heard in my life and it is also the most irritating, and like, undermining term to me. Whenever I hear it, the term "Oreo" or "you’re trying to act white" or different things like that, it's like, because I want to do something with my life - be successful, go to college, I don't curse, um I speak with correct grammar and proper English - it's I'm considered to act white. But in the past, back in like the 60's and 70's when African-Americans were like at their peak, that's all everyone else did. So are we all acting white, or just acting black and everybody else is acting the way white people expect them to act?
Student F, part 2
I just want to say that my experience has been totally different in the whole
Sacramento/Elk Grove area. I guess because I'm a male that it's different but I've experienced... like to this day, this time, this week, I've been called white-washed... this time this week I've been called that by white or Caucasian people, by black people, Asian people... I've been called that by all different sorts of races. I'm like "what are you talking about? I am black." They'll say, "oh well, you’re not like other black people." So what are other black people like? I mean like the small percentage that aren't doing well so?

Student H
Um, I think when people say, um, they’re acting white it's like basically their
133 acting educated. Like a lot of black people especially in high school, they like, they want to fit in so it's like they try to act what they're expected to be and they're afraid of acting who they are and stuff like that.
Student I
She said what I was going to say.
Student J
In Leadership (class) today, I was talking to one of my associates and she goes out of nowhere, "you're really white at heart." I looked at her and I go, "what do you mean, white at heart?" And she goes, "you know what I'm talking about." I laughed it off and during sixth period I was thinking, what makes me white? Is it because I'm involved (in school) and I'm like the only black person in the class? And I'm like confused. I don't act white. I'm a very loud person and I will laugh extremely loud. My whole family is loud.
But because I'm like loud some people take it like ghetto. I'm in the dance group. In the dance room, I'll be laughing really loud and I'll hear "You're so black," or "its fine, you're black."
Student K
People have said that "you're whiter than me" to me. No I'm not whiter than you,
I'm smarter than you.

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Student L
I was with one of my friends that goes to ---- High School, he's also a pretty high achieving student. He's involved in ASB (Associated Student Body) and different activities on campus, does the student announcements and things like that, and he said that a student had said to him, "you sound white." We've all heard that... well the majority of us in this study have heard that, and he turned to the student and said, "no I don't sound white, I sound like I have a future. You're ignorant!" And I thought that was a really good way to put it. I don't sound white, I'm not trying to sound white, just because I'm educated and articulate. Education and articulation don't equal white. Like that's so ignorant. You think that black people can't sound like this, well our president is black. Do you think he's acting white? I'm black - I'm acting white? So every articulate black person has some aspiration to be white? That's completely not true... that's just ignorant.
Student M
Like, I've never really heard that. I've never heard my friends say "you're acting white." I've never heard that.
Student N
Well, uh, maybe it's the friends that I hang around with, but I've never heard that.
Student O
Um it's like the stereotype... they feel that education/achievement is being white…and because I'm not full black, they tend to be like "oh you're a white girl,
Creole/black."

Student P
For me, they said that to me before. It's weird because when I'm in my classes,
135 when you look around, all you see is white, Asian. In my classes you kind'a know the select group of black people that might be in your AP classes. Um, I don't associate myself with anyone that would call me that.
Focus Group Question 3: Advanced Placement
Tell me about the Advanced Placement (AP) and Honors courses at Franklin High
School. Describe the racial-ethnic makeup of the students and teachers. Do you know any
African-American students who could do well in AP or Honors courses, but opted not to take them? If so, tell me about them. What part, if any, have others played in your decision to enroll or not to enroll in AP or Honors courses (i.e. parents, teachers, counselors)?
Student A
Um all my friends are like... they tell me like "why do you do this?" I'm so glad
I'm so fortunate I don't think that way. I just see a different mindset. I think it's sad, it's them, it's their parents, it's their self confidence… they don't think that they can do it.
Um, my friend's a genius and she doesn't care. I just want to hit her and just want to infuse her with some motivation. I wish she would see how bright she is.
Student D
I think that um, they don't have maybe much motivation. Like Student A was saying, I think maybe they don't have much influence - maybe other people telling them

136 they can't do it all the time and if they keep seeing that all the time then maybe they start to believe it.
Student B
Well not really. Well I know some of my friends, um even some of my non-
African-American friends, like they're maybe smarter than me, or really smart, and they're not in the top 10 or 20 because they didn't take a certain AP class. I know one friend, she's in STEM (School of Technology, Engineering and Media Communications) or something, and they're required to do regular classes and her GPA goes down. It's still above a 4.0, it's still really good, but maybe she's not in the top 10 because of that.
Student F
Yes I do know some African-American students that are really bright and everything like that. They just don't have any motivation or inspiration or want to do better and succeed.
Student G
Well a lot of my friends, my black friends, I know them and I know their parents and how they were raised and they were raised a lot like me and then like they just turned to other stuff. Like, it’s one thing to be ghetto, but when you start being ghetto that's different. Like when you just change and go down different roads and you have all these opportunities, it's kind'a sad to see.
Student I
A lot of my friends, not to put them down, but a lot of my friends don't take the challenge. I'm not going to say they're dumb 'cause their not, but - and I'm not going to

137 feed into the stereotype - but a lot of high percentages of students aren't top performing.
It's like they say "because my friends aren't doing it, I don't want to do it." I don't think like that. I challenge myself.
Student J
It's very intimidating when you walk into classrooms and even in Leadership
(class) the majority of the class is white. There are maybe four or five students that are black. I'm not sure of any teachers on campus, if there are any black teachers. Ms. ---- is the only one. There's a group of students that we all know that take AP classes. We all can name who the smart black people are on campus.
Student K, part 1
For someone like me, pretty much all my classes are honors classes or AP. Um whereas there is a student that's really good in math so they might take AP Math but nothing else or their really good in English so they take AP English and nothing else but for someone like me, I don't know most of the black kids in school. Uh, they probably know my name, I probably don't know their names and I don't say that because I'm all
"up here" but it's because I've never had classes with you. Um, and you know, usually when I walk around its usually the Asian kids that speak to me and say hi to me on campus. The other kids probably think I'm better then them, but it's not, I just don't know you.
Student K, part 2
Much like Student J was saying how a lot of times in AP and Honors classes she feels intimidated, maybe I had that feeling initially, maybe it's the way that I've been

raised, um, and I'm in an organization called Jack-n-Jill where we talk a lot about the
138 issues and stereotypes, acting white-washed, and um, a large group of the African-
American kids in the AP and Honors classes are in Jack-n-Jill, but I think that because of that environment, I've kind of grown up. When I walk into that classroom, you may not think it, I hate to say this and it sounds bad, but I do think I'm better and more intelligent than most of the people in the classroom. When I speak up I'm not afraid and I'm not intimidated by you at all just because of your skin color. It doesn't faze me at all. I walk into a classroom thinking I'm one of the smartest people there and operating under that assumption, I really feel no sense of intimidation in any of my classes. The only class that I think that I might have felt some intimidation in is AP Calculus just because of the subject matter, but Mr. ---- made sure that it wasn't an issue at all. I think that he actually goes the extra mile of making sure that African-American students do well in his class.
Um, he kind of singles us out - not in a negative way. He has written letters of recommendations for many students. He actually has taken me aside and said "I'm really glad that you have taken my class. There aren't many African-American females that take
AP Calculus. I really want you to do well. If you need tutoring, if you want to come to my class before school or during lunch, I'm in his math lab." He's really gone the extra mile to make sure that I understand everything. I think that's a really good thing.
Student M
All my friends are kinda like me. Basically I've been in a honors class at least since the eighth grade. Every year I've taken an honors math course so it kind of led me into more of honors classes and opened up kind'a honors courses. I took honors English

139 which wasn't my strong point but I wanted to strengthen my writing so I went into that to make myself stronger. And this year I decided that I would take a lot more AP classes this year because I've already experienced it. In a lot of the classes for instance in the first term there were two African-American males in the class so it was kind'a difficult. I was like "okay, this is weird." Then after that, the other black guy dropped out. It was just me, it was kind'a weird. I was looking around the class and was like "wow, I'm the only black guy in here." Uh honestly, I figured I'm a smart black guy.
Student N
Yeah. Um, since ---- Middle School, my English teacher said I was retarded and I wouldn't go anywhere. Yeah, she said that to my mom, so my mom got mad and she took me to ---- Middle School. I didn't have that much of a bad grade. I think it had something to do with race. When she took me to ---- Middle School, that was the first time I experienced honors classes and she put me in Honors English because it was an English teacher that said that (I was retarded). I kind'a started doing Honors from that point forward. Then I went to High School, and like Student M, I noticed that I was the only black person in the class. It gets real awkward when we’re talking like about black history kind'a things so it always feels awkward. Like now, I couldn't imagine not being in honors classes ‘cause I'm in there like every term.
Student O
There are other black people that should take the class and don't cause they don't want the extra work. Um, the AP classes I've been taking are mainly Art cause that's what

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I want to major in. My classes basically consist of Asians and whites. My teachers basically pushed me to take that class because he saw my potential.
Student P, part 1
I feel like there are many people that could take an AP class but they just choose not to... "Oh I heard they were hard," when in reality it’s just a tiny bit more than what they will be experiencing in a CP (college preparatory) class. There's just this mental thing they feel it’s just too much work.
Student P, part 2
Well the ethnic make up...you get used to seeing a couple black faces… you gotta get used to seeing Asian and white faces. I know for me, you hardly ever see African-
American males… like you never see that.
Focus Group Question 4: Community Influence
Are you involved in the community (i.e. community service, Boys & Girls Club, etc.)? Does influence from the community help you in school?
Student F
Jack and Jill.
Student J
Tutoring in math subjects. MAP…Math Assistance Program… program from
MESA (Mathematics, Engineering, Science Achievement) that Student K created for 7 th and 8 th
graders at ---- Middle School, church feedings and tons of stuff.

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Student K
Jack and Jill of America Incorporated, volunteer for St. John's Shelter for Women and Children, member of the Pulse Youth Leadership team at my church, member of
NSBE (National Society of Black Engineers).
Student L
Far West regional teen president for Jack and Jill of America Inc., St. Mark's
Shelter for Women and Children, Sacramento Dream Center and very involved in our church. Volunteer at Special Olympics.
Student M
I also go to church. I don't go as much as I probably should. Dealing with that, like, it kind'a influences me too. He's always watching… like if He doesn't help or influence… He's always watching, so you gotta make sure you do the right thing and stay on the right path. And I've always been involved in the Salvation Army around
Christmas time.
Student N
Uh, I'm involved in church. We have an African dance group where like two years ago we did a fundraiser to help like malaria in Nigeria to help medical missionaries.
Student O
Church.
Student P
Jack and Jill support.

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Focus Group Question 5: Parental Influence
Describe the expectations held for you by your parents/guardians.
Describe your parental support.
Student B
Well, I think parents definitely play a large role in our success in academics.
Personally my parents started really early with me, like, my mom taught me. Like, I didn't go to preschool, but my mom taught me everything I needed to know. By the time I got to kindergarten, it was pretty much a breeze and so I ended up skipping first grade, but like, I just got exposed to education. But I think not everyone... not a lot of black people even have that exposure early on... maybe they don't have that support and push from their parents. My mom has a friend who works at an elementary school in a mostly black area and she talks a lot about how a lot of parents don't really care about their kids success in school, an like, how they'll go in for the conferences with their nails done and everything, but like, but their kid won't, like, dress right, or like, they're not being taken care of as much and their education isn't as important to the parents.
Student J
My home situation isn't like the perfect picture. Well, verbal and physical abuse dealing with my dad. He left with everything and left us with nothing. My home life is what really pushes me to get good grades. I've always felt like I've never amounted to anything towards my dad and he's never pushed me to do anything. I've never been told to do my homework or "watch your grades." If anything, if I come home with a B he was like “why didn't you get an A?” It was like he was never pleased so it was me always

trying to prove someone wrong and turning from that, trying to convince other people
143 around me that as you grow older, there’s always someone telling you "no." Like my mom she is involved, but not really, I do a lot by myself. She doesn't appreciate me, like she’s not involved. Like on Saturday mornings, I'll get up and be like “I gotta go take the
SAT” and she'll be like “oh okay.” She's not really that involved. She's just realizing when I came home from the black student fair (college fair), when I got accepted into a couple of schools, she was like “oh my gosh!” She was really proud of me. She's just now learning to say that she's proud of me. A lot of that stuff, when students walk around and say "well I don't have this and I don't have that," use that as a positive influence and don't let that be the reason why you don't do anything because now you look stupid and now you're the stereotype. I do not let that get in the way of anything. Like my mom is foreign, she’s from Jamaica. She's not a citizen. She just now graduated with her masters.
She had to go back to school, like all my family has not went to college right out of high school, so I'm like one of the few that have to be motivated from a negative. It's still a positive to me the way I look at things.
Student K
I was born to a single mother in Oakland, CA so statistically I probably should have not been where I am today but um, my mom is really, really strong, really motivated. She always made sure that my sister and I were afforded every opportunity that she didn't have growing up. That being said, my mom is a very busy woman, she works a lot, so we had Ms. ----, from first grade to sixth grade. She would pick us up and take us home. Ms. ---- was an ex-marine, so she was very strict. She's also from the

144 south, so she was a big cooker. I went through a fat stage in fifth grade, um but Ms. ---- didn't take any mess. We met her through church. She helped us a lot but after fourth grade she couldn't help us with our homework anymore. She said "don't even ask me,” but it was alright because we had each other, we had this little sibling rivalry I guess. It wasn't about doing good for our mom, it was about doing good for ourselves because if
Student L beats me I'ma feel bad. Um honestly, I’ve never seen my report card. In high school I took it upon myself to go to my counselor and start checking my transcript. Um my mom, she's never seen a piece of homework that I've done. She's never read an essay that I've written. She's never looked at a test. She gets report cards and assumes that it’s going to be good. It's never been an incentive for getting good grades. Honestly I would feel horrible if I got bad grades. One time, I submitted my report card to church because the church was giving 5 dollars for A's and my mom said I could never do that again.
And I had to give it back. Even though my dad has not really been involved, he gets an A for effort. He would come and volunteer in our class in elementary school on his weekends from the Bay Area, he gives credit where it's due and commends our mom in doing a really good job in raising us. He tries really hard but he has his own thing going on and I understand that. I don't hold anything against him for not being around, not being the mentor or father figure, I know he tried really hard. His mother has been an amazing influence in our lives. We moved to Sacramento… we didn't know anybody here… she kept us after school. She graduated from Howard 50 years ago and to have someone like that in my life is amazing.

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Student L
My mom has never pushed me, if I got a bad grade on a test or a quiz she'd be the first person I'd call, "mom I didn't do so well." She'd say, "you know it's okay, it doesn’t matter, it's just one test" and she's always let me know that my grades don't define me.
The way I do in school and my academics don't define the type of person I am, so I need to go outside of school to develop my character, you know. Getting an A doesn't make me a good person, although so far basically that's what I've been getting. My dad, he lives in Oakland. I live in Elk Grove so he can’t be around as much as I know he would like to be but throughout elementary school, every other Friday, he would come and grade papers in class To this day, a lot of people in high school know who my dad is. “Bring
Your Parents To School Day, oh there's Mr. ----, the big tall man." So he definitely did the best he could being involved. He calls all the time to see where I'm at. But my parents haven't been the strongest force in pushing me academically. I would definitely say that competition between my sister and I is a large motivator. I got my first and last C in fourth grade. The first term of fourth grade, um, it was our first year in public school and they had an honor roll system, and they had an assembly and they called out every name on the honor roll system. My sister was called and I wasn't called and I didn't know why
I wasn't called… they must have made a mistake. The teacher said, well you got a C and they don't call students who get C's. Oh okay, so I never got a C again. So wanting to do as good or better than my sister was a strong motivator. As far as now, I'm really more self motivated because I know I've been working so hard all this time, at this point there's no reason to stop. School isn't particularly hard for me. In class I'm one of those people

146 that like to talk, I like to be informed so in order to give informed insight in class discussions, I have to do my work.
Student M
When I first started school, my mom had to help me because she understood the math that I was taking because, um, the stuff that I was studying was more difficult. She helped me with the basic stuff first, so I got a mastery of that and then I used that stuff and apply it more today. I kind'a have little patterns and stuff that I do that makes stuff a little easier.
Student N
Like my parents grew up in Nigeria so they got an education, but it wasn't like to the full, so they gave me the basics… same thing with Student M, they taught me until I got to a certain point then I went after school to learn from my teachers.
Student O
My mom said “I didn't get to go to college so I want you to be able to have that opportunity and privilege to go.” And my dad went to college and he said it’s a really good experience and something that will help me later in life. They say don't worry about your ethnicity, it’s not your focus, you just need to go to college.
Student P
Well, uh, for me my parents kind'a told me that "you're going to college" at a young age. From then on, you know, it was all about helping me out when I needed help and making sure I knew things when I was young. As I got older they didn't have to tell me as much because I already knew that I had to do this. It just wasn't an option to not go

to college, so it just helped me to work harder. My dad, he went to school for like two
147 years. He didn't finish his degree, so he wanted all of his sons to go to college and graduate. He wanted us to experience what he couldn't.
Focus Group Question 6: School Influence
Describe the expectation level that teachers uphold at Franklin High School.
What is it like being an African-American student at your school? Do you participate in any extra-curricular clubs and activities? If so, does it help you in school?
In your opinion, what changes need to take place in education for African-American students to experience a greater level of success in school?
Student A, part 1
I know that I'm staying up late all night trying to complete my homework for AP classes. It’s not easy and I know that I'm challenging myself… I know that I'm preparing myself for college at this school and I know that I'm going to do fine because obviously they’re preparing me very well.
Student A, part 2
I'm Academic Decathlon (club) and I'm the only black student in there but it’s really… I enjoy it a lot. I'm in HOSA (Health Occupations Students of America). I'm the secretary. And I'm in the Creative Writing Club. I love to write and I do community service out of school with the county.
Student B, part 1
Yeah, um, like the last two students said, our school offers a lot of AP courses which I think is really good because whether your challenge is just one course or three,

four or five, take as many as you need to challenge yourself in this school… and also
148 teachers not babying you... you're supposed to get your work done, and like a lot of AP teachers are like “if you pass the AP Test then I'll go back and change your grade to an A, but if you have lower than a C then I'm not going to do that.” Obviously you've been slacking throughout the course, so just keeping up or teachers helping the students challenge themselves and not giving excessive homework but keeping them busy. Part B
(of the focus group question), um yeah, I think also just having students knowing that we have AP classes and about what AP classes are and how they can challenge you, and also teachers, if they’re a good teacher and you feel like you're learning something, then I think students are a lot more motivated to try instead of a teacher who assigns busy-work and lets you do whatever - I don't think students would be motivated to work hard if that were the case. Well a lot of teachers are good, well some of them are.
Student B, part 2
I run track and field, I'm doing it this year, I did it last year, and freshman year I ran cross-country last year and the year before. I am in Interact Club… I've been all 4 years. I'm in Link Crew this year… I like that a lot and I do community service outside of school… I volunteer at elementary schools a lot and with foster family organizations.
Student C, part 1
Um I know just one thing, the difference about Franklin HS, (well I've been to four different states during my school career life), and I noticed that we have a lot more
African-American students here at Franklin and it's kind'a good to know that there's a lot more students like me doing well. Um, last 2 years I was in Hawaii and we only had 6

149 black students at our school and a lot of them didn't perform very well so it's kind'a good to know that a lot of people here are doing the same thing and kind'a into the same things
I am.
Student C, part 2
Uh, I've been on varsity soccer for all four years I'm also on the Everton Soccer
Program…competitive soccer.
Student D, part 1
Um, I took an honors class my junior year and I found it to be really challenging and I learned a lot about myself. But like, I think you should only take AP and honors classes if it’s for you, helping you out - and not for the title of having “oh I was in an
Honors or AP class.” You need to do it for other reasons. My sister’s fiancé actually took all of these AP classes and when he got to college none of his units transferred, so it was just like a waste for him. I actually used the opportunity to grow as a person.
Student D, part 2
How many people that are African-American are employed at this school ‘cause if we keep seeing white teachers educating us were going to look at them like they are supposed to be in power and they’re supposed to be in the front and we need people of our own color educating us. It does make a difference .
Student D, part 3
Um I don't participate in much but I am in the Salsa Club. I've done regional occupational programs, legal careers, all three classes, and AVID.

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Student E
I just do community service. I used to play basketball and I used to play soccer.
Student F
Um, I think that what makes a school academically rigorous is courses that students are actually challenged in and actually learn something, not courses where students have the attitude of “well this course is easy so I'm just gonna take it to get my easy A.” Like, courses that are actually going to challenge them and push them, uh, beyond them and push them to their potential.
Student G
I play football. I used to play basketball. I’m debating on running track this year. I was in MESA for a minute and I dropped out.
Student H
I'm in Link Crew and Leadership and also I help at the elementary school and I was in BSU (Black Student Union), but I don't know what happened to it. I’m in MESA.
Student I
Um, Leadership. I play soccer outside of school. I do a lot of community service I do a lot of college preparation over the summer and stuff. BSU.
Student J
Franklin is definitely rigorous. I understand that we all have the same standards because we are in the same school district but the teachers here make everything competitive. It's a college prep school so there’s not a day, everyday, the teacher says
“this is going to happen in college. If you don't do it now, then you're gonna pay for it

there, so you better choose up.” Like, you know, it's definitely a reality check. The
151 teachers are very supportive. I know like no other teachers are so supportive. They are willing to stay hours after school just to help you out. It’s very rigorous. We offer a lot of
AP and CP classes. I've never thought to take a normal class, it's always been an honors class, even if you don't want to or you want to be lazy… you don't take normal classes. I feel like you are looked down upon if you don't take Honors or AP - if you're not challenging yourself here at Franklin - especially with our API score, and all that other stuff.
Student L, part 1
Franklin High School is academically rigorous, um depending on your course selection. This year my AP classes are: Spanish Literature, Literature and Composition,
Statistics, Comparative Government, American Government. So I definitely have a rigorous course load, but manageable. I think that the teachers uphold a very high level of expectations of Franklin students, especially in the AP classes where the students that came before you are attending Harvard, Stanford, UC Berkeley, and UCLA. You are often compared to those students. They want to see us achieve and go as far as their past students.
Student L, part 2
Fusion Dance Company, VP National Honors Society, Jr. Class President, School
Board Rep, Interact Club.

Student K
I think um, Student L and J have summed up that Franklin High School is definitely an academically rigorous school, especially the class of 2010. I'm ranked number 29 in the class and I have a weighted GPA of 4.48. I think that speaks to how
152 competitive or how inflated things are. In any event, I think that the prejudices a teacher has based on the color of one’s skin need to stop. Again the student is only going to live up to the expectations. I walked into a middle school… I founded the program MAP (a math tutoring prograp), and we were giving speeches and we were talking to the classes about getting involved and I saw this teacher singling out one student telling him to be quiet, pay attention, look up. To be quite honest, he wasn't doing anything offensive and it was just like “why are you yelling at him? If he's not going to do something bad, you're going to make him do something bad.” The prejudices need to stop. If teachers truly want
African-Americans to be successful they have to treat them like everyone else. Don't give them special treatment especially not in a negative sense. Stop singling African-
Americans out as far as disciplinary actions go. If you have a preconceived thought that
“I'm not going to do as well as the other kids,” then maybe I won't.
Student M
I think it has a lot to do with, like, the teachers, ‘cause like a lot of the teachers are really nice and if you want help they'll really find time to help you and they won't like leave you out to dry basically and be like "uh well I really don't have time for this" I guess you can go to other schools where it’s not like this where people don't have as close bonds with teachers, so at this school I believe the teachers, like, they’re really, really

good at what they do. They make sure they have a good combination of teaching/assistance, well not really assistance but kind'a like that. I would say that for
153 the, um, experience, like what kind of experience African-Americans get out of school, I took African-American Cultural Studies and a lot of people don't really know the
Achievement Gap is like that much. When I looked at that, I was like “wow.” I didn't know it was that bad until I saw the Achievement Gap data and I thought it would be like closer than that.
Student N
I think Franklin is a really good setup because like, I didn't really experience anything racial here and I don't know what it is about Franklin but when you first come over here you feel like you can do better.
Student P
Uh, the teachers here are good teachers. They have crazy expectations. Especially for AP classes they expect you to treat them like college courses even though you're at the high school level. My AP Physics teacher continues to lecture us about how you should treat this like a college course - you need to be studying. The teachers have a very high expectation and we do our best no matter what our skin color might be. In fact, some teachers are a bit more encouraging. It’s great.
Student O
I agree with Student P.
Focus Group Question 7: Self
What motivates you in school? Who is the most influential person(s) in your life?

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Student A
Um I think it’s also me, myself. I know the things I want to do. I know I can’t get as far as I want to if I don't have an education and there are things in life that I want to do… parents help to. When I was little I use to pick up books and just read, read, read. I have a thirst for knowledge, I want to know, I want to learn, I want to explore, I want to do things, I want to touch people and I can't do that, impact people, and I can’t do that if
I'm not educated enough. I wouldn’t understand, so it helps.
Student B
For the most part I'm pretty self motivated… and like, I get satisfaction from getting A's. I just feel like I've achieved something and to answer the question definitely my parents are the most influential people in my life. Teachers are not as influential but a lot of them, especially the ones that are really good teachers and the ones I really get familiar with, I like them and feel comfortable with and they have taught me a lot and that’s good. I agree a lot with Student A. I think when I was younger a lot of motivation was making a lot of money when I was older. My parents used to tell me "oh when you're older, if you do good in school and go to college, you will get a lot of money.” Now that's still apart of the motivation but I really, really want to help people and I think I'll be able to do that better if I learn my stuff. I like learning anyway.
Student C
Um, I think soccer has motivated me because you have to have grades to play and also my personality. I always wanted to be the best and do the best I can at almost

155 everything. And um, I think my family... my parents and my grandparents have always… um, they’re not hard on me, but they’re still supportive people.
Student D
I'm pretty much like the other students. I'm self motivated but, um, ‘cause I like to learn, and when I was younger I did get paid for good grades, so that kind'a like kept with me. I don't get paid now. but I want to get good grades. Like a C is like an F to me. I have high expectations and my mom and my sister, actually my family in general, they motivate me…and, um, I remember I was struggling with my times tables
(multiplication) and then my mom, she made me every single day write them out 10 times, like one through twelve and I really learned it.
Student E
I'm pretty much self motivated. My mom don't tell me, like, she cares about my grades but at the end of the day I do it for myself. I'm trying to get somewhere and I don't worry about nobody else. And like, my dad, like, he was like the most influential person.
He was the dude that sold drugs and smoked weed. I don't want to be nothing like him…
I don't want to be like forty (years old) and just starting to figure out what I want to do with my life. I'm sorry, I just can't do that. I mean, you (dad) wasn't there for me, and I don't want my kids to feel like that towards me.
Student F
What motivates me in school is looking at older adults and saying like, “I want more for myself, I want to do better.” And like, what also motivates me is when people tell me I can’t do something and like I won’t be able to succeed. Like, it motivates me to

156 exceed their expectations, like tenfold, and show them I can do whatever I put my mind to. And also, the most influential person in my life is probably my mother. She’s really hard on me, and like, just from back when I was in elementary school I had to read…TV wasn’t allowed during the week and instead of TV, had to read. My mom’s been really hard on me and I guess it’s paid off.
Student G
Um, probably the most influential person is my dad because he came, like, from nothing to something. Like I have a lot of stuff, so like, I better make it, you know. He always told me like “you don't know how blessed you are.” I was like “whatever,” but now I'm starting to realize it.
Student H
I'm self motivated and also my mom, well she lived with my great-grandparents and my grandparents and they didn't motivate her at all in the Bay Area. So she felt me and my sisters should be motivated, so she talks to us and makes us read even though we don't want to sometimes. She makes us read business books now – like Real Estate or financial stuff even though it’s really boring. I still read it…
Student I
Um I think the idea of college motivates me because you have to have grades to go to the top colleges and I want to go to private schools, so you have to have good grades. And, um, the most influential person is my mom because she didn't have all the opportunities that I have now so she just wants the best for me - and gave me all the stuff that she wasn't able to accomplish, so I just want to make her proud.

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Student J
Mr. ---- in middle school, he was strict, straight forward. No one liked him… he was funny though, but he just wouldn't take anything. Like you come in the classroom talking and he would make you stand outside in the cold for five minutes in line, boy/girl lines… he did not play (i.e. he was strict). I was a TA for him and he heard about my situation and he was like, “you can amount to anything.” I always doubted myself, he was like the only inspiring person in my life at that time and like now, I have a lot of friends who tell me I can amount to a lot of things but he was the first person and he's always keeping up with me like "what are you doing now” and “get this done." He's definitely a positive influence in my life.
Student K
Um, I'm self motivated, I know what I have to do to get to where I want to be, and the most influential person is definitely my mom.
Student L
The biggest influence in my life I would say is like God and church and prayer.
Reading the bible, you can… I get a lot of peace of mind knowing that there's someone that loves me regardless of how I do in school and different things like that. My parents do of course too, but my religion has definitely been a big motivator.
Student M, part 1
Yeah, I kind'a look at it as, like, I'm always a minority. So I really don't let that affect me. Hey, how can I do that when I'm gonna always be black? There's no way I'm not ever not gonna be black.

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Student M, part 2
What motivates me is a combination of my mom and my dad. Also in athletics, you can’t really have bad grades and it’s kind'a hard to slack off if you are trying to excel in your sport. You have to be as diligent with your studies as you are with your sport.
You can’t slack off and expect to excel. Like my Dad would be the most influential person in my life. I've seen the way that he works and he comes home like at ten maybe every night and stuff and he does a lot multiple different types of jobs and, um, he works at Berkeley High and he does other jobs fixing stuff…I kinda see what he does and how he does it. He lives in Antioch. My mom is at home with me.
Student N
Well in terms of what motivates me, like I said before, the whole race thing… I can do better then what people say. The most influential person is my dad. He always tells me that when you start something you have to finish it all the way. So when I started off freshman year, I did good and felt like I had to keep that up.
Student O
Um, I think that with all the other classes (12 th
grade students) that have graduated and gone, I want to do more than what they've done ‘cause a lot of them didn’t work hard enough to move on and go to college. A lot of them still live at home. That kind of motivates me to do more ‘cause I don't want to be like them. At the same time I feel bad
‘cause I want to help them ‘cause I have more experience at getting to know what I need to do and where I need to go to get into college. A lot of the people that were my

159 classmates and have graduated aren't really doing anything and that motivates me to do more. My mom mostly because she didn’t get the chance to go to college, so...
Student P
Yeah I'ma have to say something like that. I have two older brothers so… and they’re both in college and I've always been motivated to kind’a follow in their footsteps.
My brothers were great examples and they've always motivated me even though they don't talk to me all the time about it. Not only that, but just my friends around me… I wouldn't want to be one of the ones that’s left behind not going to college and everybody else is leaving. That's always a good motivation…and you just hear about all these great things that people do and you just get inspired by that, so, um, I'ma say my brothers and friends more than my parents.
Focus Group Question 8: Spirituality
Are you spiritual (i.e. tribal, cultural, meditation, pagan, religion, etc.)? If yes, does your spirituality help you in school? Are you or your family a member of an organized religion? If yes, please share the name of your organization.
The responses for this question were indicated on the Background Information
Questionnaire and organized in Table 10.

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Table 10
Participant's Spiritual Beliefs
Student A
Student B
Student C
Student D
Student E
Student F
Student G
Student H
Student I
Student J
Student K
Student L
Student M
Student N
Student O
Student P
Are you Spiritual?
Yes/No/Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes/Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Does Spirituality help you in school?
Yes/No/Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Indifferent
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Name of organized religion, if applicable
Catholic
Baptist
Christian
N/A
Christian
Christian
Christian
Christian
Catholic
Christian
Christian
Non-Denominational
Baptist
Catholic
Christian
Christian
Focus Group Question 9: Stereotype
What is your awareness of the stereotype of African-Americans? Do you feel that other people make judgments about your academic ability based on your race? (Think about stereotypes, friends, family members, teachers, counselors.)
Student A
When I was growing up in elementary school, people thought I was smart, well they knew I was smart, but thought I was different for being smart because I was black

161 and they like thought “how come she doesn’t dress ghetto or talk loud or be like mean or rude?” and I didn't do that, you know, people though I was weird. I think that African-
Americans grow up with this stereotype. It takes root and subconsciously affects how we perform. I never got that from teachers “she's black so she should perform lower than other students,” but from my peers themselves they were one the ones saying “it's not right that you're getting good grades… it’s not right that your going somewhere.”
Student C
Uh I think that personally a lot of my friends kind of stereotype me, they kind’a think that I'm not black because I'm like smart and like I play soccer and stuff and do a lot of things that typically white people do, so I kind’a get the stereotype. Well people say that I’m not really black because I do the things I’m interested in. Yeah, I noticed because
I'm mixed race that people say I'm more white than black even though I'm the same.
So….
Student D
Um,. to add on to what Student A was saying, um, when I first moved out here I had… I'm sorry - when I moved to Elk Grove, people didn't really want to talk to me because I was from the Bay Area and they just assumed that all people form the Bay are just loud, ghetto, mean and rude and I'm like “well don't judge me ‘cause yeah, I’m from the Bay Area but I'm not like that”… they were really judgmental. The students in the area when I moved into the area, I did really, I distanced myself from the kids here and just started talking to the teachers, which they were helpful but...(yeah, I kinda lost my train of thought…)

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Student F
Okay, like, I just want to say with my experience personally with like stereotypes and stuff, um, I grew up around… almost since birth… I grew up in the southern part of
Ohio which is like really racist and I lived there ‘till I was three and then I moved to
California, moved to a little town called Morgan Hill, pretty much like a predominately white town… grew up - I was the only black kid in my junior high school from like 2nd -
6th grade and there was one other kid there. I was always stereotyped, like I found myself stereotyped by, like, not only Caucasian or white people, but by my own people saying
I’m white-washed, and um, “you think you're better than yourself just because you're smart” and stuff like that.
Student H
A lot of African-American students also use the stereotype against themselves.
Like they don't feel they can do as good because of what they see on the media and a lot of people who are African-American don't get good grades so when they get an A or B they get really excited and they don't really expect it as much because of what they know of the media and how they don’t do good.
Student K
Um I consider myself articulate and eloquent. I would definitely say that. I like speaking in front of groups of people. I like asking questions. I’m not afraid to ask questions. But I hate walking into a classroom where everyone in the class and sometimes including the teacher assumes that I'm not supposed to be there or that I'm dumber than them and that my questions are just ignorant. But in all actuality, if I hadn't

163 asked the question, somebody else would have asked it. I'm just vocal... and I also don't like it when I speak up in class like when there's a debate going on, I feel like because I'm
African-American the teacher takes my argument as hostility rather than me making a point, "why are you getting so angry, calm down, lower your voice" when I'm really just speaking to the class when any other student would. I feel really insulted when… I feel like after being at Franklin after four years, the grades that I've maintained, the activities
I'm involved in and the classes that I've taken, people around campus know that I'm a smart person and I feel so insulted when people in class laugh at me or they act like what
I'm saying isn't valid.
I still feel the need to prove myself. Earlier this week I had a Harvard interview and the interviewer… despite the fact that I'm applying to Harvard, you've seen my SAT scores, you know what my GPA is and I'm sitting here talking to you about the literature that I've read and a lot of it is stuff that you've read during your Harvard education… would ask me "how do you think you would react around rich people?" as if to assume that I'm not going to Martha's Vineyard this summer or that I've never had the experience to be around a person who has money. Just simply because of the color of my skin ‘cause it's certainly not based upon what I've said to you in our conversation.
Um, so I think that the stereotypes are awful. Sometimes I pride myself on having cultural identity. I'm proud of being African-American. I'm proud of being me. I'm just proud of who I am. I hate being the black perspective of the classroom…like the person that the teacher automatically turns to. I love being black... but every now and then I find myself going “ugh!” Just being “ugh.” Something I didn't get to say about stereotypes…

I'm involved in engineering a lot and that's what I want to do, hopefully. I'm a junior
164 member of the National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE). I did a conference this summer at Cal Poly Pomona it was an engineering conference and there was a few parent chaperones. I was one of the older ones so I kind’a hung out with the NSBE students.
Then the students that were in the program…a few of us were on the couch watching
CNN's Black in America 2 and it was me and a bunch of the students and a mom. During the commercials we would discuss what we just saw and the mom looks at me and she said "you don't sound like you look" I said "oh really" and she mocked me by saying "oh really.” I really didn't know what to say this was a grown woman that said you look like you would be ghetto or fast... what part of me looks that way? She said “oh don't mind me, I'm just a stereotyper - you shouldn't take it personal.” From this experience I wrote my personal statement for my Common Application and I started with a quotation from
Zora Neal Hurston: “At the end of the day I'm working on me. I no longer deal with the ignorance of people with that type of myopic vision of people who are too small to see me, bother me, or deflect me from the type of person I'm trying to be.”
Student L, part 1
I'm definitely aware of African-American stereotypes: we don't work hard, we're not smart, everyone wants to be a rapper, everyone wants to be an athlete, you’re gonna end up in jail, you’re gonna commit crimes, drugs, you don't want to achieve, yeah, your loud, ghetto…it’s a label that people often give to African-Americans, although I'm aware of the stereotypes it often times doesn't anger me but I'm a little irritated when I see
African-American students around campus like really perpetuating stereotypes, like when

165 they’re being exactly who white people think your gonna be like… “Oh look at the loud black girl getting in a fight. Oh she's so ghetto.” Because they’re gonna automatically… they put that label on the entire group of students. They’re gonna be like “oh look at that loud ghetto girl… oh black people are so loud, black people are so ghetto.” Hold on… that's one person, but it allows them to pass judgments on an entire group of people.
When you’re in class when one black student is disruptive, automatically other students start to think that all black kids are disruptive and it goes beyond just students because I know with teachers there's often times… even if they’re not overtly racist - ‘cause most teachers aren’t… but there's like an internal thing that they have, like, when you step into my class they already have some judgments passed on you, whether they are showing it or not, often times they don't show it but you say "I need to prove myself, I need to prove that I'm not loud that I'm ghetto, that I'm articulate, that I'm intelligent, that I have something to contribute to the class environment. You definitely need to prove yourself to break stereotypes so that they know not to box you in with other students that they've labeled.
Student L, part 2
The saying is true, it sounds racist and cliché but its true, "everybody wants to be black but nobody wants to be..." They want the glamour, they want the athletics, they want the style, rhythm, the coolness, but they don't want the history or the stereotypes.
They don't want to be restricted when it comes to getting a job or when it comes to getting into college… when the cops come around then they don't want to be black.

166
When it comes to everything else “oh I'm down, I'm cool,” but you don't really want to be black.
Student J
Um I'm definitely aware of all the stereotypes like Student K and L have already explained like "loud" or "ghetto" or “you were brought up with no money” or “no dad” and all that stuff. One of the main things that throw me off with stereotypes at Franklin are when students or teachers or directors or any type of adult goes “oh, you're in honors classes, you're in AP classes, you have a 4.0, whoa.” Like they are just thrown off by the fact that… I'm not sure if just because I'm black, like if you have a 4.0, if you're smart you have to be white or be a nerd. If you're black, I have to be in the house studying all the time. Well I'm involved in extracurricular activities. I'm involved in Leadership and
I'm respected on campus… and because of that, people automatically assume that I can't get good grades, so that throws me off as one of the stereotypes.
Student M
A lot of people stereotype. I can see it in certain classes and stuff. I have to live with it anyway, so I might as well just keep on going.
Student N
Well I feel like people do stereotype you because of your race but, um, that kind’a drives me to do better to show that it’s not about your race but what you do.
Student O
Not as often as I thought they would because the stereotype “oh black people – they’re dumb, their loud” and they see people and say “oh yeah, she’s heck’a smart” or

167
“he's heck’a smart” and they don't generally, like, depict it on what ethnicity you are but it's how you do in school.
Student P
Yeah, well I’m aware of it and I totally agree with Student O, like its different now. It’s not like "you're black so you're stupid" it's more of like your performance (the performance that you show now), it’s more like that.

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