THE PERCEPTIONS OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY IN THE FILIPINO
AMERICAN COMMUNITY: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY
Cheryl Lynn Vera Cruz Jugueta
B.A., University of San Francisco, 2007
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2010
THE PERCEPTIONS OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY IN THE FILIPINO
AMERICAN COMMUNITY: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY
A Project
by
Cheryl Lynn Vera Cruz Jugueta
Approved by:
____________________________________________, Committee Chair
Chrystal C. Ramirez Barranti, Ph.D, MSW
________________________
Date
ii
Student: Cheryl Lynn Vera Cruz Jugueta
I certify that that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the Project.
_________________________________, Graduate Coordinator ____________________
Teiahsha Bankhead, Ph.D, MSW
Date
Division of Social Work
iii
Abstract
of
THE PERCEPTIONS OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY IN THE FILIPINO
COMMUNITY: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY
by
Cheryl Lynn Vera Cruz Jugueta
This study sought to examine how culture and family values impact the perceptions of
pregnant Filipina women about themselves. It also explores the experiences of these
women and describes the perceived perceptions of Filipino Americans toward adolescent
pregnancy. There is a limited amount of published academic literature focusing on social
problems in the Filipino American community; therefore, this project will allow future
researchers to expand on the findings in order to provide more information on working
with Filipino Americans. This research project can help inform professionals in
designing effective pregnancy prevention and/or effective parenting programs and
providing culturally appropriate services that best meet the needs of Filipina women and
their families. The seven subjects for this project were currently 19 years and older, were
pregnant between the ages of 13 and 17 years of age, and had parents who immigrated to
the United States from the Philippines. An in-depth interview method was used whereby
this researcher solicited and discussed these women’s experiences with adolescent
pregnancy, how they perceive(d) themselves, what discussions they had with parent(s),
guardian(s), and/or family members, and how the Filipino culture and values impacted
their perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. The common themes that emerged included
iv
family support, interdependence and perseverance, motivation, and religion. The
predominant findings concluded that Filipino culture and values influence the perceptions
of adolescent pregnancy. Therefore, it is important for professionals to acknowledge the
variety of cultures when working with pregnant adolescents. By doing this, it allows
professionals to go beyond the general knowledge about working with these populations
and provide services that are even more effective.
____________________________________________, Committee Chair
Chrystal C. Ramirez Barranti, Ph.D, MSW
v
DEDICATION
In memory of my loving grandfather, Raymund Jugueta, whose faith, love, and courage
has helped me achieve my goals.
Also in memory of my baby cousin, Christian Joel Inghog, who provides me with the
strength to get through difficulties and challenges in life.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My deepest appreciation to my family and friends for their love and support
throughout my education: My mama, Zenaida Galano, for her love, strength, and
compassion that has made me the person I am today; My papa, Arnold Galano, for
allowing me to be a part of his life; My mommy, Virginia Jugueta, who has provided me
with unconditional love and shelter; My siblings, Gwen Galano, Lorraine Galano, Arnold
Galano Jr., Alzen Bucio, and Lorylen Bucio, for being my inspiration; My auntie, Jocelyn
Inghog, who has always been there to provide me with love and support; My uncle,
Edgar Jugueta, who has been a father figure in my life; My aunties, Evelyn Mariano, Jane
Jugueta, Corazon Jugueta, and Estrelita Jugueta, for their guidance; My uncles, Noel
Inghog, Allan Bucio, Alfonso Jugueta, and Rogelio Jugueta, for their assurance; My
cousins, Kevin Mariano and Tristan Nathanoel Inghog, for allowing me to be their role
model; and My best friend, Steven Tran, who has provided me with encouragement and
laughter. Great thanks to the mothers who participated in my study, for allowing me to
share their stories. Thanks to my thesis advisor, Chrystal Barranti, for all her time,
guidance, and wise suggestions. Lastly, thanks to the Lord, for all the blessings and
allowing me to have the greatest people in my life.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication ................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................ xiv
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM .....................................................................................................1
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem .............................................................................. 3
Statement of the Research Problem .................................................................. 4
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................... 5
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 5
Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 7
Assumptions...................................................................................................... 8
Justification ....................................................................................................... 9
Limitations ........................................................................................................ 9
Summary ......................................................................................................... 10
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...................................................................... 11
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11
Filipino-American Culture .............................................................................. 11
The Filipino family ............................................................................. 12
Roles and obligations of each Filipino family member ...................... 12
viii
Religion ............................................................................................... 14
Filipino-American Values ............................................................................... 14
Hiya – Shame ...................................................................................... 15
Amor-propio – Self-esteem................................................................. 15
Utang na loob – Debt of gratitude....................................................... 16
Pakikisama – Going along with/being cooperative; togetherness ..... 17
Value of remaining chaste until marriage ........................................... 17
Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States .................................................... 18
Adolescent Pregnancy amongst Various Ethnic Groups ................................ 19
Risk Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy .......................................................... 20
Low community income ..................................................................... 21
Low self-esteem .................................................................................. 21
Sexually active friends and peer pressure ........................................... 22
Protective Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy ................................................. 22
Parent-child relationship ..................................................................... 22
Peer influence...................................................................................... 23
Sexuality Education in the United States ........................................................ 23
Abstinence-only sexuality education .................................................. 24
Comprehensive sexuality education ................................................... 24
Contraceptive methods........................................................................ 25
Ethnic Specific Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Programs ........................ 26
Youth development prevention program ............................................ 26
ix
Family life skills ................................................................................. 27
Adolescent Responses to Pregnancy............................................................... 27
Abortion .............................................................................................. 28
Adoption ............................................................................................. 28
Single parenting .................................................................................. 29
Dual/Shared parenting ........................................................................ 29
Marriage .............................................................................................. 29
Summary ......................................................................................................... 29
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 31
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 31
Research Design.............................................................................................. 31
Subjects ........................................................................................................... 32
Instrumentation ............................................................................................... 32
Data Gathering Procedures ............................................................................. 32
Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 34
Protection of Human Subjects ........................................................................ 34
Summary ......................................................................................................... 35
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS ............................................................. 36
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 36
Demographic Characteristics .......................................................................... 37
Findings from the Interviews .......................................................................... 38
Interview Summary for Evangeline ................................................................ 38
x
Family ................................................................................................. 39
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 40
Challenges and joys ............................................................................ 40
Advice from Evangeline to parents and family members ................... 41
Advice from Evangeline to adolescents .............................................. 42
Interview Summary for Charlene.................................................................... 42
Family ................................................................................................. 43
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 43
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 44
Advice from Charlene to parents and family members ...................... 45
Advice from Charlene to adolescents ................................................. 45
Interview Summary for Erica.......................................................................... 46
Family ................................................................................................. 46
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 46
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 47
Advice from Erica to parents and family members ............................ 48
Advice from Erica to adolescents ....................................................... 48
Interview Summary for Crystal ...................................................................... 48
Family ................................................................................................. 48
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 49
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 49
Advice from Crystal to parents and family members ......................... 50
xi
Advice from Crystal to adolescents .................................................... 50
Interview Summary for Arianne ..................................................................... 50
Family ................................................................................................. 51
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 51
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 52
Advice from Arianne to parents and family members ........................ 52
Advice from Arianne to adolescents ................................................... 52
Interview Summary for Tiffany ...................................................................... 52
Family ................................................................................................. 53
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 54
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 54
Advice from Tiffany to parents and family members ......................... 55
Advice from Tiffany to adolescents .................................................... 55
Interview Summary for Jenna ......................................................................... 55
Family ................................................................................................. 55
Discovery of pregnancy ...................................................................... 56
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood ........................... 57
Advice from Jenna to parents and family members............................ 57
Advice from Jenna to adolescents....................................................... 57
Common Themes ............................................................................................ 58
Family support .................................................................................... 58
Interdependence and perseverance ..................................................... 59
xii
Motivation ........................................................................................... 59
Religion ............................................................................................... 60
Summary ......................................................................................................... 61
5. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMNEDATIONS ................62
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 62
Discussion of the Results ................................................................................ 63
Study Limitations ............................................................................................ 64
Implications for Social Work Practice ............................................................ 65
Recommendations for Future Researchers ..................................................... 66
Summary ......................................................................................................... 68
Appendix A. Participant Consent Form .................................................................... 71
Appendix B. Guided Interview Questions ................................................................ 73
References ................................................................................................................... 78
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sample……..…………….. 37
xiv
1
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Adolescent pregnancy is becoming very prevalent within the Filipino community
in California (Espiritu, 2001). These pregnant adolescents are American-born children of
individuals who were born in the Philippines and immigrated to the United States. They
are affected by their country’s cultural norms, beliefs, practices, and traditions. The
author has been exposed to the social problem of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino
community where this author has lived. As a result of having so many Filipino families
residing in the area, the author has witnessed firsthand many of her friends and family
members who become pregnant at a very young age.
Exploring the subject of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino community is
interesting to the author because it is something she has been exposed to throughout her
entire life. During her high school years, the majority of her friends were experiencing
abortions, pregnancies, marriages because of being pregnant, and/or parenthood. The
author’s friends were also experiencing difficulties during this time. Some were kicked
out of their homes and shamed, while others had difficulty looking for jobs to support
themselves due to the lack of childcare and employment experience.
This issue of adolescent pregnancy became even more important to the author
when one of her close friends became pregnant. Maria Manubay (an alias given to
protect her true identity) was a single mother with three children, age 17 and twins ages
15. At the time, Maria and her family were living at the Filipino Plaza Apartments in
2
Stockton and were living paycheck to paycheck. In order to provide for her family,
Maria had to work double shifts in order to bring money to the table. Consequently,
Maria was barely home with her children. The children were enrolled at Thomas Edison
Senior High School and were earning above average grades.
This adolescent pregnancy story focuses on the eldest daughter, whom the author
will call Melissa Manubay. In the fall of 2002, Melissa Manubay was a seventeen-yearold senior attending Edison Senior High School in Stockton, California with a 3.6 GPA.
She was enrolled in two of the accelerated programs the school had to offer. The first
program was called the Gifted and Talented Education program, and the other, the
Magnet program. These programs had upper level materials and advanced placement
courses as well. Aside from the scholastic side of school, she was also involved with
JROTC as well as clubs such as the National Honors Society and California Scholarship
Federation. Melissa had plans to graduate from high school and then enroll in a Nursing
program at the University of San Francisco. However, her plans changed drastically once
she learned of her pregnancy. She comes from a family with strong traditions, a Catholic
faith, and the belief that sex and pregnancy are reserved for marriage between husband
and wife. It is for those reasons that Melissa kept her pregnancy a secret. As she began
to develop a “baby bump”, Melissa started wearing bigger sweatshirts and jeans, hiding
her pregnancy. Her pregnancy was unknown to others during her pregnancy term. No
one knew that months later she would deliver the baby by herself in her apartment.
Melissa delivered a beautiful baby girl and because of fear, she placed her baby in a tied
3
trash bag and abandoned the newborn in the apartment’s elevator. Fortunately, a tenant
of the apartment discovered the baby early and was able to call for medical assistance.
When Melissa’s baby was discovered in the elevator, she was immediately
brought to St. Joseph’s Hospital. After being at the hospital for a month, the baby was
released to foster parents. Melissa’s uncle and auntie went through an adoption process
and were given custody of baby Lily. In April of the year 2003, baby Lily celebrated her
first birthday and alongside her was her birth mother, Melissa. At that time, Melissa was
celebrating her “cousin’s” first birthday.
Background of the Problem
In 2000, the United States Census Bureau collected data that illustrated the largest
proportions of Asian Americans. The data collected showed that there were over 2.4
million Filipino Americans residing in the United States, making Filipinos the second
largest Asian group; China being the largest with 2.7 million and Asian Indian being the
third largest with 1.9 million (U.S. Census, 2000). Although Filipinos reside all across
the United States, data showed that California is home to the largest Filipino American
population and is estimated to increase significantly by the year 2020 (U.S. Census,
2000). With the increase of the Filipino American population, the understanding and
awareness about the Filipino culture, values, traditions, and beliefs is becoming more
important.
Regardless of Filipinos composing one of the largest Asian populations in the
United States, little is known about the social issues in the Filipino community. A very
important social issue is adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino American community.
4
Second-generational Filipina Americans have the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy
and out-of-wedlock pregnancy when compared to other Asian American groups (Espiritu,
2001). It is revealed that six percent of the total number of births to Filipina American
mothers was to adolescent mothers, which was higher percentage than all other Asian
American groups. Filipina Americans who are born and raised in the United States are
almost four times more likely to get pregnant and give birth than their immigrant-born
counterparts (Espiritu, 2001). In spite of the fact that Filipino American adolescents are
engaging in higher levels of sexual activity amongst the Asian population, there has been
little knowledge about safe sex education. Filipino pregnant adolescents are also less
likely to have a conversation about safe sex practices or sex at all with parents, guardians,
or family members (Espiritu, 2001).
In order to better serve the largest pregnant adolescent Asian group within the
United States, it is imperative that gaps in knowledge about the Filipino American
population be addressed. After recognizing their social and cultural strengths, social
workers and other professionals can then develop culturally appropriate interventions and
programs that work toward the goal of successfully helping the Filipino pregnant
adolescent population with an improved quality of life.
Statement of the Research Problem
Research has shown that there is an increase in adolescent pregnancy in the
Filipino community making it a significant social problem (Espiritu, 2001). There is a
lack of knowledge about resources and services available that acknowledge the distinct
values, norms, and traditions of the Filipino American community. These resources and
5
services are needed in order to reduce the rate of adolescent pregnancy and/or increase
the rate of successful adolescent parenting. The absence of effective social work
practices with Filipino American families does limit the ability for human service
providers in developing culturally sensitive programs. Not only will these programs be
hindered, but the appropriate services readily available to the Filipino community may
also be limited.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine what cultural factors and values impact
the perceptions of Filipino pregnant adolescents about themselves. It will also explore
the Filipina women’s experiences with adolescent pregnancy, as well as examine the
perceived perceptions of Filipino Americans toward pregnant adolescents. Specifically,
this study seeks to explore how Filipino culture and values might influence Filipino
American women’s perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. The significance of this study
for social workers and other professionals is imperative since the current understanding
of adolescent pregnancy among the Filipino community is limited. Likewise, it is hoped
that findings from this research contribute to a needed body of knowledge that may assist
health professionals in designing effective programs and providing culturally appropriate
services that best meet the needs of Filipino pregnant adolescents and their families.
Theoretical Framework
Individuals who may have experienced painful and stressful events such
pregnancy in adolescence need compassionate and competent social work interventions.
Due to these factors, this study utilizes three theoretical frameworks that provide
6
meaningful frameworks for research with this population: the ecological perspective, the
social constructivist theoretical framework, and the strengths perspective.
Firstly, from an ecological perspective (Germain, 1991), the interconnectedness
and the reliance of people and their environment are seen as a whole where one cannot
exist without the other. The relationship between the person and the environment is
described by the mutual exchanges where the individual and the environment shape,
change, and affect one another (Payne, 2005). Therefore, this perspective is most
effective when working with the minority population such as Filipino adolescents. In the
Filipino culture, family plays an important role in an adolescent’s life; therefore, the
change that comes with being pregnant as an adolescent seems to be much greater.
Concurrently, the adolescent’s pregnancy then becomes a major life change for the
Filipino family as a whole as it forces the family to change their way of life. The
ecological perspective would address these needs of how environmental systems must
accommodate the needs and changes of the family unit and the individual. This also
allows the social workers to become aware of the role that cultural practices play in the
individual’s upbringing. For example, it allows healthcare professionals to acknowledge
the effect of Filipino culture and values on pregnant adolescents, as well as their effects
on the individual’s family.
The second theoretical framework used in this study is the social constructionist
perspective. This theory takes into consideration how an individual’s particular belief
has been shaped by social forces including mutual cooperation and interaction with a
social worker (Greene, 1999). Additionally, social constructionist theory describes the
7
process of meaning that occurs as people construct their stories and scripts along with the
significance of language. An example is through narrative approaches where the client is
the expert in telling his or her life-story; in this case it would be Filipina women sharing
their experiences as pregnant adolescents. As a result, social workers will be provided
with detailed and powerful information that will assist them in successfully working with
the Filipino community.
Lastly, from a strengths perspective, each person is capable of increasing both
their own independence and mutual dependence (Anderson, 2003). This approach delves
into the individual, their families, and their environment. By these insights, this
perspective focuses on the individual’s strengths to maximize the effectiveness of an
outcome. In addition to these capabilities, many adolescents who come from Filipino
backgrounds, traditions, and beliefs are able to deal skillfully and promptly with new
situations and difficulties such as adolescent pregnancy. These cultural characteristics
among Filipino families help strengthen their family as a whole. Filipino families also
incorporate their extended family along with their friends into their family unit. With this
strengths approach, professionals will better understand individuals in their family
context and will be able to identify the individual’s strengths through the knowledge,
resources, and abilities that they presently have.
Definition of Terms
Adolescent Pregnancy. Refers to an adolescent or underage girl (usually within
the ages of 13-17) becoming pregnant.
8
Culture. Refers to a system of shared meanings, similar experiences (giving rise
to those meanings), rules for living (myths, symbols, and metaphors), world view, and a
commonly held sense of life’s purpose.
Filipina. Refers to women from the Philippines or to women who have Filipino
ancestry.
Filipino. Refers to people from the Philippines in general, a person having
Filipino ancestry, or men in particular.
Filipino American. Refers to Filipinos in the United States, regardless of place of
birth and immigration status; includes immigrants, permanent residents, U.S. born
citizens, students, temporary workers, and tourists who decide to stay permanently in the
United States.
First-Generational Filipino American. Refers to an individual who was born in
the Philippines, then immigrated to the United States.
Perception. A result of attaining awareness or understanding of; a mental image.
Second-Generational Filipino American. Refers to an American-born child of a
First-generational Filipino American.
Assumptions
For the purposes of this study, the researcher assumes that participants will
respond to interview questions as honestly as possible. The researcher should also
assume that professionals have limited awareness about adolescent pregnancy and
adolescent pregnancy-related issues in the Filipino American community. Filipino
pregnant adolescents are generally an invisible and overlooked group due to specific
9
cultural issues that are based upon Filipino culture, values, beliefs, and attitudes toward
adolescent pregnancy.
Justification
Although the United States has a growing population of Filipinos since the early
1900’s, there is still a need of culturally competent professionals to provide adequate
resources for the Filipino American community. Likewise, additional studies on Filipino
pregnant adolescents should be investigated to attain a basic understanding of the Filipino
cultural model of adolescent pregnancy. Conceivably, the findings from this study will
motivate social workers as well as other professionals to be captivated with the Filipino
culture, value, and background. Additionally, the research findings will be made
available to social workers and service providers alike to provide them with valuable
knowledge and increase in competency in working with Filipino pregnant adolescents.
This study of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino community fits into the social
work’s core values and ethical principles. The National Association of Social Workers
Code of Ethics (1999) states that Service is one of the six core values of which all social
workers aspire. The ethical principle of service states that, “Social workers’ primary goal
is to help people in need to address social problems.” A social problem particularly in
the Filipino community is adolescent pregnancy. The findings from this research study
will help social workers address this social problem.
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. Firstly, this study is an exploratory and
qualitative study that include participants only from the San Joaquin County. Thus,
10
emergent themes in the data analysis cannot be generalized to the entire Filipino
population due to the limitations of the sampling method (convenience and non-random).
Secondly, the study is limited to the experiences and opinions of only the Filipino
American adolescents who were pregnant. Other Filipino participants such as the parents
of the adolescent parents were not interviewed. Lastly, this is a retrospective study which
relies on memories that could be several years old rather than a more recent current recall
of the exact experiences, feelings, and thoughts that the participants had when they were
pregnant.
Summary
As the size of the Filipino American population continues to grow, the number of
pregnant Filipino adolescents will increase. More studies need to be conducted so that
professionals who work with pregnant adolescents can implement research-based
practices when working with this population.
The rest of this paper is organized into four chapters: Chapter 2 presents a review
of the literature, Chapter 3 describes in detail the methodology of the study, Chapter 4
presents the data collected through one-on-one interviews, and finally, Chapter 5
discusses the overall finding of this study and concludes with recommendations for the
future research on persons who were pregnant as adolescents.
11
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This literature review will provide social workers and related service providers
(those working with pregnant Filipina adolescents and their families) an overview of the
history along with the culture and traditional values pertaining to the Filipino-American
population. This chapter is divided into nine sections that are substantial to
understanding the experiences, perceptions, and impact of culture and values on pregnant
adolescents within the Filipino community. These sections include (a) Filipino-American
Culture, (b) Filipino-American Values, (c) Perceptions of Adolescent Pregnancy (d)
Adolescent Pregnancy Amongst Various Ethnic Groups, (e) Risk Factors for Adolescent
Pregnancy, (f) Protective Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy, (g) Sexuality Education in
the United States, (h) Ethnic Specific Pregnancy Prevention Programs, and (i) Adolescent
Responses to Pregnancy. Having a basic understanding and awareness for this
population will provide a foundation for building successful relationships with the
Filipino community.
Filipino-American Culture
The term culture is described as a system of meanings embodied in symbols that
provide people with a frame of reference to understand reality and animate their behavior
(Geertz, 1973). In the Filipino community, two critical examples of core symbols and
structures of culture are family and religion.
12
The Filipino family. In the Filipino culture nothing can be more important than
the family. To better understand Filipinos is to accept the complete centrality of the
family (Wolf, 1997). The Filipino family is described as being basically nuclear, but
functionally extended. This means that most families consist of the parents and their
children, but there is also recognition and respect for the ties between the nuclear family
and the extended family. A Filipino family serves as the foundation to all relationships,
provides support and security, and continues to help individuals function throughout their
entire life (Gochenour, 1990). Because of this strong relationship between close family
members, family ties are highly valued.
Roles and obligations of each Filipino family member. The Filipino family as
stated above consists of parents, children, uncles, aunties, cousins, close friends, and most
importantly grandparents. Each person plays an important role in the Filipino family.
The father in the Filipino family usually presumes the role of primary provider, as well as
the authority figure. The mother in the Filipino family tends to be the one in charge of
the household. She also takes the role as the children’s mentor becoming the first to
assist the children with their education (Roces & Roces, 2000). Although, parents
sometimes still assume these types of roles in the Filipino family, many parents seem to
be more open-minded, are more likely to be authoritative parents rather than
authoritarian, and play equal roles of providing for the family.
Literature presents three primary parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and
authoritative (Campbell & Gilmore, 2007). Parents who use the authoritarian parenting
style tend to place much emphasis on disciplining their children. When children of
13
authoritarian parents do not meet their parents’ demands, their parents become furious.
These parents tend to give conditional love which makes it difficult for children to obtain
self esteem and can destroy what self-esteem they have been able to develop (Pong,
Johnston, & Chen, 2010). On the other hand, permissive parenting places emphasis on
the children’s self-esteem where they grow up without negative emotions such as anger
or frustration. Permissive parents tend to allow their children to do whatever they please
and do not discipline their children for bad behaviors (Rodriguez, Donovick, & Crowley,
2009). A parenting style that incorporates both the authoritarian and permissive
parenting styles is the authoritative parenting style. Authoritative parents develop a close
relationship with their children, providing them with nurture as well as setting rules and
guidelines that they expect their children to follow (Heaven, Ciarrochi, & Leeson, 2010).
Filipino parents are more likely to use the authoritative parenting style which allows the
parents and the children to develop a healthy relationship.
Next to the parents, the oldest siblings play a very important role in Filipino
families and are respected always. An older brother, who is called Kuya (koo’-yah) by
his younger siblings, and an older sister, who is called Ate (ah’-tae) by her younger
siblings, take next of kin when it comes to taking responsibility for the family (Roces &
Roces, 2000). This becomes imperative in large families when parents cannot look after
their children because of work. The older children are taught early in life that their role
in the Filipino family is to take care of younger siblings and also provide them with
guidance. For the oldest daughter, this duty is important because it helps provide her
training and experience in becoming a wife and a mother (Roces & Roces, 2000).
14
Grandparents, who are called Lolo (low-low’) for grandfather and Lola (low-lah’)
for grandmother, also partake in caring for the family, especially in child care. When the
children are usually too young to care for one another, it is usually the grandparents who
are first called to help the parents look after the children (Almirol, 1982).
Religion. The family system is further enlarged by its religious and/or spiritual
affiliations. Approximately, 81 percent of Filipinos are Roman Catholics, and so the
Catholic faith also plays a central role to the Filipino culture (Central Intelligence
Agency, 2006). The Roman Catholic religion serves as the foundation to the Filipino
belief and culture system because it helps individuals get through trials and tribulations
with strength and optimism. The religion tends to be practiced by the Filipino people in a
concrete and personal manner (Gochenour, 1990).
In the Catholic religion, sexual relationships outside of marriage are viewed as
immoral (Christiansen & Jenks, 2002). If one is unmarried and engages in sexual
relations it is considered morally wrong in the Catholic faith. Although, there are a
considerable amount of individuals as well as adolescents engaging in pre-marital sex,
opposition is very strong in this religious community (Christiansen & Jenks, 2002).
Therefore, one can safely assume that there are many challenges during an adolescent’s
pregnancy, especially in the Filipino population due to the community’s strong religious
background.
Filipino-American Values
Filipino values play significant roles in the life of each Filipino. These values are
passed down to each generation and are given much meaning in the Filipino community.
15
These values include hiya (hee’-yah), amor-propio (a-mor pro’-pee-oh), pakikisama
(pah-kee-kee-sa’-mah), utang na loob (oo-tang’ nah lo-oob), and the value remaining
chaste until marriage.
Hiya – Shame. The primary value used to help motivate and control the behavior
of Filipino individuals and the Filipino society as a whole is hiya. Roces & Roces (2000)
describe hiya as “a universal social sanction, creating a deep emotional realization of
having failed to live up to the standards of society” (p.34). This value allows Filipinos to
respect and conform to the behavioral norms of society. Filipino parents teach their
children that problems should be kept private (within the family) and not publicized or
confided in others (ie. friends, counselors, etc.) because it leads to gossip, embarrassment,
and shame to the family. In other words, because an individual in the Filipino
community is highly interconnected with the family unit, a problem that an individual
may have creates shame to a family entirely because it implies that parents did not do a
good job at raising their child (Wolf, 1997).
Amor-propio – Self-esteem. The Filipino society is characterized by many
positive traits, most importantly amor-propio. Having amor-propio is having self-esteem
or self-respect. Filipinos tend to be more conscious about how others perceive them.
They become very sensitive to attacks on their own self-esteem, in turn, Filipinos learn to
also be sensitive to the self-esteem of others. This high regard for amor-propio allows
individuals to maintain togetherness in the Filipino society and in one’s family, but may
also give rise to the willingness for one to sacrifice personal dignity to avoid another
from losing their self-respect (Agbayani-Siewert & Enrile, 2003). For exmaple, a
16
Filipino can be racially discrimintaed against, but because of amor-propio one will not
speak up for themself in order to save the other’s amor-propio and to avoid an altercation.
Amor-propio can also be described as personal pride, saving face, and avoiding hiya. For
example, the meaning of amor propio here is to avoid hiya from disrespecting an older
person or elder by avoiding confrontation and submitting to whatever the elder says
(Luckman & Muñoz, 2005). In other words, one should respect an elder’s opinion and/or
suggestion without disagreement.
Utang na loob–Debt of gratitude. Utang na loob can be understood in the
Filipino culture as the reciprocity of an obligation or the debt of gratitude (Andres, 1994;
Gripaldo, 2005; Roces & Roces, 2000). Andres (1994) further explains utang na loob as
more complex than just repaying a debt because an individual is expected to repay the
favor with interest. This can be quite intricate for the person receiving the favor because
the obligation is not readily quantified; therefore this leads to a reoccurring cycle of utang
na loob between the benefactor and the beneficiary.
Utang na loob within the family is expressed differently than how it is expressed
in other relationships. In the relationship between a parent and a child, utang na loob is
understood in a more complimentary context rather than a mutual obligation because
parents do not feel like they have a debt to their children (Andres, 1994; Jocano, 1999).
Since the day of birth, children are raised by their parents and taught the value of family.
Children also learn about what obstacles their parents had to go through in order to raise
them. Parents may sometimes sacrifice their own education in order to provide for their
children by obtaining employment. As a result, the children will feel obliged to care for
17
their parents when they are older because of everything their parents have done to better
their lives when they were younger (Jocano, 1999). This utang na loob is an everlasting
debt that builds a stronger relationship between the parents and the children. If the
children were to ignore what their parents have done for them while growing up and not
repay them with care when they are elderly, they would bring hiya to themselves
(Andres, 1994).
Pakikisama–Going along with/being cooperative; Togetherness. Pakikisama is
described as the ability to get along with others and implies camaraderie and togetherness
(Santos, 1997). It is a Filipino value that assists with attaining smooth social interactions.
An individual is taught that they have responsibilities toward their family and
community, and therefore should maintain harmony within these relationships. In order
to do so, one gives in to the opinion of one’s family and/or community. The individual
does anything and everything to help the group in their advancement while sacrificing
one’s own happiness for the happiness of the group (Andres, 1994; Jocano, 1999; Santos,
1997). Pakikisama can also be seen as extending support or offering help to neighbors
who are in need. For example, when a Filipino family is having trouble paying for their
mortgage, a family who is also from the Filipino community will offer financial
assistance because one should never struggle alone. This illustrates the importance of
togetherness and is stressed through this idea of pakikisama.
Value of remaining chaste until marriage. In order to gain a full understanding of
the perceptions of the first generation Filipino American parents, the Filipino culture, and
the family values that they try to impose on the second generation Filipino adolescents, it
18
is important to explore how sexual activity is viewed in the Philippines. Sexual activity
amongst adolescents is viewed negatively in the Philippines. Not only is sexual activity
looked down upon amongst adolescents, but also amongst older adults who are not yet
married (Medina, 2001). In addition to the traditional views that the Filipinos have
regarding premarital sex and sexual intercourse at a young age, Filipinos have developed
a perception of how a female adolescent should act and behave. A young Filipina is
expected to acknowledge and incorporate the Filipino traditional views into her life. The
female adolescent is supposed to remain innocent, pure, and a virgin until marriage
(Medina, 2001).
Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States
Adolescent pregnancy is a social problem that occurs throughout the United
States across different ethnicities and socioeconomic backgrounds (Docksai, 2010).
Between the years 1991 and 2005, the birth rate for adolescents in the United States
dropped every year. In the year 2006, the birth rate amongst adolecents increased by
three percent. By the year 2007, statisctics show that there was a one percent increase
within one year in the birth rate for adolecents; the birth rate increased from 42 births to
43 births for evey 1,000 female adolescents (Teen birth rate rises again, 2009). With this
increase, the Untied States continues to maintaina significantly higher birth rate for
adolescents than other developed countries (Richards, 2009).
There are concerns about adolescent pregancy in the United States because of the
possible impact it has on the adolescents. Women who experience pregnancy as
adolecents may face hardships in locating employment which may place them in a higher
19
risk for financial struggles. They are more likely to live below the poverty line in the
future and depend on government assistance to provide for their family. Studies found
that when an adolescent’s education is interrupted by childbearing, opportunities are
restricted (Borkowski et al., 2007). It is also probable for both the adolescent mother and
child to expereince many health complications due to the lack of health insurance as well
as due to their age (Clement, 2003). Clement discovered that adolescent mothers are
more likely to have low-birth weight babies and low-birth weight babies are usually born
prematurely. In addition, Clement’s study indicated that 10 % of mothers ages 15 to 19
had low-birth weight babies compared to 8.3 % for mothers of all ages (2003). The
challenges related to adoelscent pregnancy are significant and come with a high cost at
many levels for individuals and communities. Society should make preventing adolescent
pregnancy a top priority.
Adolescent Pregnancy amoungst Various Ethnic Groups
There is a growing number of ehtnically diverse populations in the United States.
Therefore, pegnancy rates amongst these diverse populations should be discussed.
Although current research shows that there is beginning to be a decrease in adoelscent
pregnancy amongst most ethnic groups, the patterns of childbearing still exists (Cultural
Differences Influence, 2002). Young African Americans are still almost three times more
likely than young Caucasian Americans to conceive during their adolescence. African
American adolescents between the ages of 15 and 19 have a pregnancy rate of 126.3 per
1,000 adolescent girks in 2006. The pregnancy rate for Caucasian American adolescents
in 2006 was 44 per 1,000. The Latino American and African American pregnancy rate
20
for adolecsents are both disproportionally higher than other ethnic groups; Latino
American adolescents having a pregnancy rate of 126.6 per 1,000 in 2006 (Viadero,
2010).
Although other ethnic groups do not have adolescent pregnancy rates that are as
high as Latino Americans and African Americans, their rates should also be discussed.
The pregnancy rate for Native Americans ages 10 to 14 is 1.3 per 1,000 adolescent girls
in the year 2000. For the Native American adolescents who were pregnant between the
ages of 15 and 17, there is a rpegnancy rate of 39.6 per 1,000 adolescents (Teen
Pregnancy, 2002). The adolescent pregnancy rate for the Asian Pacific Islanders
population is said to be 0.3 per 1,000 adolesent girls in 2000 (Teen Pregnancy, 2002).
This value does not represent the rate of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino American
community, but is a rate that covers a variety of other ethnic groups. The Asian Pacific
Islanders population has subgroups that include Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans,
Indian Americans, Japanese Americans, and many other Asian American subgroups. The
adolescent pregnancy rate for Asian Pacific Islanders is too general where it does not
reflect the various rates of each sub populations. It is obvious that the rate of adolescent
pregnancy for Filipino Americans is quite lower than the rate for Latino Americans, but it
is important to research its effect on the Filipino community.
Risk Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy
In order for society to reduce the number of adolescents becoming pregnant, it is
important to be aware of the factors that increases the chances of adolescent pregnancy.
21
Factors that will be discussed are low community income, low self-esteem, having
friends who are sexually active, and having sexual pressures by from peers.
Low community income. Poverty plays a significant role in regards to adolescent
pregnancy (Pacheco & Plutzer, 2008). A survey by the National Campaign to Prevent
Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy discovers that 28 % of United States adolescent parents
come from families living at or below the poverty line (Docksai, 2010). Displays of
poverty through poverty itself, unemployment, and limited education have a great impact
on young adolescents, especially on adolescent pregnancy (Kirby, Coyle, & Gould,
2001). These individuals living below poverty tend to be more vulnerable and hopless,
limiting their ability to plan a hopeful future (Young, Martin, Young, & Ting, 2001).
Low self-esteem. Adolescents who love in communities with low income and live
below the poverty level often are not hopeful that their lives will change and become
better. These adolescents develop a low self-esteem and feel powerless to change their
situation (Sullivan, 1993). Those with high self-esteem expereince a better quality of life.
On the other hand, low self-esteem places persons at risk for anxiety, suicidal behavior,
lack of motivated, depression, delinquency, and conduct disorder (Fournier, 2009).
Research illustrates the connectedness between self-esteem and adolescent
pregnancy. Adolescents with lower self-esteem is more likely to engage in sexual
intercourse and become pregnant at a young age. Low self-esteem in adolescents is said
to be a factor that is more likely to result in adolescent pregnancy. It is found that as selfesteem decreases, sexual activities increases. The adolescent girls feel that when they
22
engage in sexual intercourse, they have more power and are more important (ModrcinTalbott, Pullen, Zandstra, Ehrenberger, & Muenchen, 1998).
Sexually active friends and peer pressure. Adolecents face many obstacles and
challenges while growing up. Most adoelscents are trying everything to fit in and be
accepted by peers. Peer pressure may have positve effects such as motivation,
encouragement, and success, but can also have negative effects such as impaired
judgment and risk-taking behaviors. The pressure to be sexually active is very strong
amongst adolescents. When there are persons in a group of adolescent friends engaging
in sexual intercourse, it pressures the other individuals to also engage in sexual activities,
therefore, it leads to an increase risk of becoming pregnant (Bernstein, 2001).
Protective Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy
In order to help decrease the rates of adolescent pregnancy in the United States, it
is important to identify protective factors for adolescent pregnnacy. These factors
include the parent-child relationship and positive peer influnce.
Parent-child relationship. The relationship between parents and adolescents is
one of the biggest influences as to whether or not an adolescent engages in sexual activity
and as a result becomes pregnant at a young age (Biggs et al., 2010). Current studies
discovered that close relationships between adolescents and their parents were found to
protect adolescents from early pregnancy (Lipovsek, Karim, Gutierrez, Magnani, & del
Carmen Castro Gomez, 2002). The quality of their relationship makes a difference in the
decisions that adolescents make regarding sexual intercourse. It is important for parents
to have open communication with their adolescents and not only discuss issues regarding
23
school, homework, drugs, and alcohol, but also sexual activity. According to Guzmán et
al. (2003) communication about sexual intercourse, prevention of pregnancy, and
contraception between parents and adolescents hinders the age of an adolescent’s first
sexual intercourse.
Peer influence. Peers in an adolescent’s life have great impact on an adolescent’s
development as well as some effect on decisions made about sexual activity. Peer
influence is sometimes seen as negative peer pressure by most adults, especially
regarding topics such as sexual activitiy. Research suggests, however, that peer influence
can be more positive than what is generally assumed. Despite, what is thought by adults,
58.9 % of adolescents state that adolescents provide one another with positive influences
when it comes to decisions made about sexual intercourse (Norman, 1999). Adolescents
are able to provide one another with information about how to safely engage in sexual
intercourse as well as reduce the risk of pregnancy or contracting sexually transmitted
diseases (Norman, 1999).
Sexuality Education in the United States
Almost all of the adolescents attending school in the United States receive sex
education information at least once between junior high school and high school (Immell,
2001). Although sex education is taught in schools, the information provided may vary.
There are in fact some student who do not receive information about sex education
because paretns have the choice to prohibit their children from participating in these
classes or programs. The two forms of sexuality education taught in the United States
include abstinence-only sexuality education and comprehensive sexuality education.
24
Abstinence-only sexuality education. Abstinence-only sexuality education is one
of the two main forms of sexuality education taught in the United States. Abstinenceonly programs teach adolescence that the only way to prevent pregnancy is from
abstaining from engaging in sexual intercourse (Brindis & Davis, 1998). A few of these
abstinence-only programs encourage adolescents to wait to have sex when they are older
adults, but a few also inform adolescents to not have sexual intercourse at all until after
marriage. Some research does suggest that schools that teach abstinence-only sex
education are quite effective in delaying sexual intercourse and pregnancy (Kirby &
Coyle, 1997).
On the other hand, there are professionals who work with the adolescent
population who have discovered that abstinence-only sexuality education does not help
with reducing sexual intercourse and pregnancy among adolescents (Kirby, 2002). There
is research that suggests that this form of education is less effective than other forms of
sexuality education, such as the comprehensive sexuality education (Manlove, Romano
Papillio, & Ikramullah, 2004). Many adolescents do not want to wait until after marriage
to engage in sexual intercourse. In fact, many adolescents are currently experimenting
with sexual activities. Therefore, the abstinence-only program does not provide enough
helpful information to adolescents that is effective for prevention of teen pregnancy
(Kirby, 2002).
Comprehensive sexuality education. The other main form of sexuality education
is comprehensive sexuality education. Comprehensive sexuality education covers
abstinence as a positive choice, but also provides information about contraceptive
25
methods as well as safer sexual practices to help lower the risk of spreading sexually
transmitted infections and reduce adolescents’ risky sexual behaviors (Quillen, 2009).
Comprehensive programs send the important message to adolescents of abstinence as the
best choice. However, such programs also provide information about sexuality, sexual
behaviors, and contraceptives. With all this information, adolescents can be well
equipped for safe sexual activity whether they decide to abstain until after marriage or
engage in sexual intercourse (Constantine, Slater, & Carroll, 2007). Present research
states that comprehensive sexuality education which provides thorough information about
sex, pregnancy, prevention, life skills development, and academic support is effective in
reducing pregnancy amongst adolescents (Rosenthal et al., 2009).
Contraceptive methods. Comprehensive sexuality education teaches adolescents
about the different contraception available to help reduce the risk of pregnancy (Brindis,
1998; Realini, 2004). There are a variety of types of contraception that vary in their
effectiveness of preventing pregnacy, in how much they cost, in how easy they are to use,
and if they also protect against sexually transmitted diseases. Two forms of
contraception that is commonly used are the birth control pills and the condoms. These
two contraceptives, when used together, increases the protection against both pregnancy
and sexually transmitted disesases (Hillman, Negriff, & Dorn, 2010). There are
contracptions specifically for males and some specifically for females. It is important to
know about these different types of contraception available for both males and females.
It essential for adolescents to know that if they engage in sexual intercourse, they are
always at risk for pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. With safer sex practices
26
and good decisions made about contracption, one can greatly reduce the risks (Raine,
Gard, Boyer, Haider, Brown, et al, 2010).
In the United States, adolescents are more likely to engage in sexual activity prior
to the age of 15 and to have been involved in more than one sexual relationship
(Borkowski et al., 2007). Data gathered suggests that only 55 % of United States
adolescents under the age of 16 years old and 70 % of women over the age of 19 years
old use contraceptives during their first sexual intercourse (Guttmacher Institute, 2006).
It seems that adolescents in the United States are more like to experience pregnancy,
childbearing, and abortions than other developed countries such as Sweden, France,
Canada, and Great Britain because they are less likely to use contraceptive methods
(Borkowski et al., 2007).
Ethnic Specific Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Programs
The goals of prevention programs are to increase the knowledge and awareness
about risks of adolescent pregnancy in communities in the United States. Prevetion
programs use a variety of approaches to help decrease adolescent pregnancies throughout
the cultural communities (Kirby, 2002).
Youth development prevention program. In addition to sexuality education in
schools, the United States has youth development prevention programs. This prevention
program incorporates adolescent activites such as sports or interests and hobbies with the
increase of self-esteem and the encouragement to succeed in future goals (Kirby, 1997).
This prevention program has helped specific cultures such as the Filipino culture where
parents have many expectations of their children regarding education and choosing
27
professions that will secure their future (Wolf, 1997). Incorporating activites and
education with the prevention of adolescent pregnancy is the main factor in youth
development prevention programs. Research has found that adolescents who participated
in these programs for serveral months, have increased the use of contraception, therefore,
lowering the rates of adolescent pregnancy (Corcoran, O’Dell Miller, Bultman, 1997).
Family life skills. Another type of adolescent pregnancy prevention program
currently being used in the United States is family life skills. This program uses the
social learning or social cognitive theory as the model to their program (Kirby, 1997).
Social learning theory is a theory that helps individuals learn a new behavior through
observation and modeling (Payne, 2005). Social cognitive theory also values
observations, but also incorporates the individual’s personal values and ethics that is
involved in how the person makes decisions (Greene, 1999). This program teaches
adolescents specifically about the various types of contraception that is available to them.
Many of the programs provide adolescents with contraception and teach them how to
properly use them. Filipino adoelscents are more open to this type of program because it
balances the goals of prevention programs with the experiences and culture of Filipino
adolescents (Manderson, Kelaher, Woelz-Stirling, Kaplan, & Greene, 2002).
Adolesent Responses to Pregnancy
Adolescents who experience unplanned pregnancy may come into contact with
feelings of uncertainty about how to respond to their pregnancy (Borkowski et al., 2007).
They may feel very shocked, overwhelmed, or confused. Pregnant adolescents may have
worries about their future as well as their baby’s future if they carry their baby to term. It
28
is very important to know that there are many options available for adolescents who are
in this situation. It is also essential for pregnant adolescents to know in detail about these
choices and choose an option that is the best for her and that is in the best interest for her
baby. These options include abortion, adoption, single parenting, dual/shared parenting,
or marriage.
Abortion. Unplanned pregnancies may lead to the consideration of abortion for
some adolescents and their families. Research (Hard Decisions, 2005) found that almost
44,000 of 116,000 pregnant adolescents in California chose to have an abortion in the
year 2000. Amongst this 44,000 were 1,620 adolescents under the age of 15 (Hard
Decisions, 2005). Reasons as to why adolescents consider abortion include their
awareness that they are not mature enough to be parents, recognition of not being able to
financially support a child, and concern that childbearing at a young age may negatively
impact their education and effect the child’s future (Kirkman, Rowe, Hardiman, Mallett,
& Rosenthal, 2009).
Adoption. When women become pregnant as adolescents, adoption is also one of
their options. These young adolescents may decide to carry their baby to term and then
choose to put them up for adoption. Young women are assuring that their children be
well supported financially, emotionally, and physically by making this responsible
decision (Moore & Davidson Sr., 2002). They are allowing theire babies to survive and
be raised by persons who have been wanting a baby of their own. Research illustrates
that only about 5 % of pregnant adolescents choose the option of adoption (Custer, 1993;
Moore & Davidson Sr., 2002).
29
Single parenting. An adolescent who carry their child to term and choose to raise
their child alone have one of the most challenging jobs any person can undertake
(Unmarried Moms, 2010). They are perecived as strong, responsible, and supportive
young women. In addition to the young women, young men who choose to take
responsibilty of parenting their child alone are also seen as strong, responsible, and
supportive young men. Adolescent parents may have the belief that no one else could
love their baby as much as they do and therefore choose to raise their baby by themselves
(Emge, 2006).
Dual/Shared parenting. In addition to the option of single parenting, adolescents
can choose to have dual or shared parenting (Unmarried Moms, 2010). Parents of the
child arrange custody (which can be an informal arrangement) in which the care of the
child is equally shared between both parents. This allows the child to have both parents
involved in his or her life.
Marriage. There are many adolescents who marry early because of unplanned
pregnancies. Although, they are not settled in their own lives, they choose to marry
because they feel that they need to be responsible and raise the baby as a married couple.
There are some families of pregnant adolescents who also encourage the young women to
marry the father of her baby to show that they are committed to one another and to their
baby (Gassanov, Nicholson, & Koch-Turner, 2008).
Summary
Adolescent pregnancy occurs throughout many cultures in the United States. The
literature review states rates of adolescent pregnancy in the Asian Pacific Islanders
30
population, but are not specific to the rates of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino
American community. In order to better understand how adolescent pregnancy is
perceived in the Filipino American community, literature about the Filipino culture and
values were explored. The combination of religion, an adolescent’s role in the Filipino
family and community, parent’s expectations, generational gap, and Filipino values all
contribute to the challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood of adolescents in the
Filipino American community.
Recent review of the literature also discusses rates of adolescent pregnancy in the
United States. There was discussion of risk factors as well as protective factors
associated with adolescent pregnancy. The literature also states the importance of
sexuality education in schools where the schools not only teach abstinence, but also teach
about contraceptive methods. It is important to provide adolescents with this information
rather than simply telling them to refrain from sexual activity completely. This provides
adolescents not only with the choice of abstinence, but also information about prevention
methods, therefore, lowering the risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. In
addition, the literature review states the options that are available to adolescents who do
become pregnant.
The following chapter presents the methodology of this research project.
Information about the research design, subjects, instrumentation, data collection
procedures, and data analysis will be given.
31
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study is threefold: (1) to examine what cultural factors and
values impact the perceptions of a pregnant Filipina adolescent about themselves, (2) to
explore the experiences of pregnant Filipina adolescents, and (3) to examine the
perceived perceptions of Filipino Americans toward pregnant adolescents. Specifically,
this study seeks to determine to what degree Filipino culture and values have affected the
Filipino Americans’ perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. This research will assist health
professionals in designing effective pregnancy prevention and/or effective adolescent
parenting programs and providing culturally appropriate services that best meet the needs
of Filipina pregnant adolescents and their families.
Research Design
Through the use of the research exploratory design, this retrospective study
focused on the perceptions and experiences of pregnant adolescents in the Filipino
community. Although there have been considerable amount of research dedicated to
adolescent pregnancy, there has been little attention given to adolescent pregnancy in the
Filipino community. Hence, exploratory designs are useful in order to help professionals
acquire a better understanding about topics pertaining to this specific population.
32
Subjects
Seven participants were obtained using convenience sampling and snowball
methods. All interviewees had to be Filipina women who were currently 19 years and
older at the time of the study, who were pregnant between the ages of 13 and 17 years of
age, and whose parents immigrated to the United States from the Philippines.
Instrumentation
The main data gathering techniques for this study were semi-structured
interviews, which included five demographic questions along with 22 open-ended
questions derived to answer the research questions (see Appendix B). In order to assure
that the research questions were addressed with the interview questions, the researcher
and her thesis advisor developed a matrix. The matrix enabled the researcher to develop
interview questions that addressed four areas: the subjective experiences of pregnant
Filipina adolescents, perceptions about themselves in relation to their pregnancy and their
culture, factors that influenced discussion about their adolescent pregnancy with family,
guardians, and friends, and the perceptions of the Filipino American community towards
the pregnant adolescents.
Data Gathering Procedures
The researcher conducted an exploratory study with Filipina women who were
pregnant at an adolescent age, who were 19 years and older at the time of the interview,
and who are a second generational Filipina American. The interviews were conducted at
the participant’s choice of a private and confidential location at a time convenient to both
researcher and participant. For example, interviews were held in such locations as the
33
participant’s home, the researcher’s home, and in a study room at San Joaquin Delta
College Library. The researcher fully explained the purpose of the study, the voluntary
nature of the study, any potential risks and benefits, as well as referral sources for
participants. The researcher also informed the participants that the interview was to be
audio taped. Participants were informed that they could discontinue participation before
the interview started, or to decide at a later time to stop the interview without
consequence. The research participants were asked to sign an informed consent form
prior to being interviewed.
Participants took part in a one to one and a half hour audio taped in-depth interview
that explored their experiences with adolescent pregnancy, how they perceive(d)
themselves, what discussions they had with parent(s), guardian(s), and/or family
members, and how the Filipino culture and values impacted their perceptions of
adolescent pregnancy. The researcher used an interview guide consisting of 27 questions
that was developed in order to obtain detailed responses for each question from each
participant. Using open-ended questions allowed each participant to further elaborate
their experiences. It also allowed the researcher to elicit more information that was
beneficial to the research work.
Once the interviews were complete, the researcher analyzed the interview data in
order to obtain a comprehensive view of the experiences and perceptions of Filipina
pregnant adolescents. The researcher also identified emergent themes from the
interviews.
34
Data Analysis
Through the use of in-depth, one-on-one interviewing techniques, the participants
participated in conversational interviews that the researcher audio taped with their written
consent. During the interview, the researcher collected data on individuals’ personal
histories, perspectives, and experiences regarding their pregnancy as an adolescent. The
audio tapes and the transcribed interviews became the primary source of data in this
study. Through analysis of the case studies, the researcher identified emergent themes
from the participants’ narrative stories. More specifically, the data was carefully
examined using content analysis and emergent themes were identified.
Protection of Human Subjects
The Division of Social Work Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects at
California State University, Sacramento has a protocol for conducting interviews with
human subjects. As required by the University, the human subjects application was
submitted for review. The human subjects application was approved and the interview
process was determined to be “minimal risk” due to the fact that participants may recall
stressful events as a result of discussing their past adolescent pregnancy. The participants
were informed of the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of the study, any
potential risks and benefits, and that they can discontinue participation at anytime without
consequence. The interviewees were also provided a list of mental health resources if
they should be needed. The researcher’s approval number given by the Committee is 0910-020.
35
Summary
The methodology of this study has been examined throughout this chapter. For
example, a thorough description of the participants and their rights to privacy and safety
were stated. Also, the study’s purpose, design, and procedures were summarized.
Following this chapter, the results in the form of interview summaries will be discussed.
36
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Introduction
This chapter will discuss in detail the information gathered from in-depth, one-onone interviews with seven Filipina women who became pregnant during their
adolescence. The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of these women
during their pregnancy as well as explore how Filipino culture and values might influence
Filipino American women’s perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. The women became
pregnant between the ages of 13 and 17 years old and had parents who immigrated to the
United States from the Philippines. During the interview, the women were 19 years and
older.
The first part of the hour-long interviews consisted of demographic information,
which included their age at the time of the interview, how many children they have and
their ages, whether they are involved in a spiritual or religions community, a description
about their family, and when their family immigrated to the United States. The
demographic information is important to understand the relationship between their family
backgrounds, traditions, culture, and values with their perceptions of adolescent
pregnancy. The second set of interview questions were expected to help the researcher
look at how the participants viewed themselves, their positive and negative experiences
during pregnancy, and the impact of culture and value on the perceptions of adolescent
pregnancy in the Filipino community.
37
Also included in this chapter is a summary of each interview subject. Original
names of participants have been changed in this report in order to keep their identities
confidential.
Demographic Characteristics
The demographic data gathered from the participants is analyzed and shown in
Table 1. The table provides the overall information about the individuals who
participated in this research project.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sample
________________________________________________________________________
Participant
Current Age Age at Pregnancy
# of Children
Religion
________________________________________________________________________
Evangeline
24
17
0
Catholic
Charlene
22
14
2
Catholic
Erica
20
13
1
Catholic
Crystal
19
16
1
Catholic
Arianne
22
17
2
Catholic
Tiffany
20
17
1
Catholic
Jenna
20
15
1
Catholic
________________________________________________________________________
Table 1 shows the current ages, the ages at pregnancy, the number of children,
and the religious affiliations of the 7 participants who were interviewed in the study (see
38
Table 1). Participants ranged in current age from 19 to 24 years old. The average current
age of the interviewees was 21 years old. The participants’ ages at pregnancy ranged
from 13 to 17 years old with an average of 15.57 years old. The interviewees’ number of
children ranged from 0 to 2 children. The average number of children of the participants
was 1.14 children. Nearly all of the participants described their families as being almost
extremely traditional Filipinos. Although, two participants stated that their families were
not traditional Filipinos in regards to whether or not they are active in their religion, 100
% of the interviewees reported that their families were affiliated with Catholicism.
Findings from the Interviews
The researcher interviewed seven Filipino American women who were pregnant
during their adolescent years. These interviews were conducted in the participants’
choice of a private and confidential location and lasted for about one hour. Three of the
seven interviews were done in a study room at San Joaquin Delta College, two were done
at the participants’ home, and two were conducted at the researcher’s home. All
interviewees were informed about the purpose of the study and the voluntary nature of
the study. They were also asked to read and sign a consent form prior to the interviews.
Interview Summary for Evangeline
On February 05, 2010, an interview was conducted with Evangeline at the
researcher’s home. At the time of the interview, Evangeline was 24 years old.
Evangeline is not a mother, but was pregnant as an adolescent.
39
Family. Evangeline’s family consists of her mother, her two sisters, her two
brothers, her grandparents, her uncles, her aunties, and her cousins. Evangeline’s family
immigrated to the United States in 1983 in order to receive better opportunities in life.
Evangeline describes her family as extremely traditional Filipinos and having a
strong Catholic faith. Evangeline rates her family a 9 out of 10 in terms of how
traditionally Filipino they are. Evangeline’s auntie and uncle are very involved with their
church. They are the directors of their church’s choir. Her family has been active
Catholic members since she was young and still continues to be strong Catholic believers
till this very day. Evangeline’s family believe that Evangeline’s generation should all
finish college as nurses and doctors in order to support their families. Her family
currently still does not allow Evangeline to have a boyfriend although she is 24 years old.
Evangeline states that she is very close to every member of her family. She was
raised by her mother, her grandparents, her uncle, and her auntie. Evangeline was able to
tell her family everything. Because they were all so close, Evangeline felt embarrassed
and anxious to bring up the conversation about sex or pregnancy.
While growing up, Evangeline did not receive information about sex, pregnancy,
nor prevention. She was told not to be like “her”, the young pregnant friend of
Evangeline. Evangeline learned a little bit about sex education from the Life Skills
program in elementary school and from the Health Education class in high school.
Although, schools provided sex education, they did not provide information about what
to do, where to go, or what services are available if you do become pregnant.
40
Discovery of pregnancy. Evangeline was 17 years old when she found out she
was pregnant. She missed her period and her body just “felt different.” Evangeline told
her boyfriend that there is a possibility of her being pregnant and he immediately
purchased a home pregnancy test. It was confirmed by the pregnancy test and also by a
blood test by her doctor that she was pregnant.
Evangeline knew that there was only one thing to do and that was to get an
abortion. Evangeline is the oldest in her generation, is the first to go to college, and is
suppose to be a pediatrician, so how can she also be a mother; she couldn’t. Evangeline
and her boyfriend did not know where to go or who to turn to. They did tell their two
close friends who were very understanding and very supportive of their decision.
Evangeline and her boyfriend searched the internet for abortion clinics, gave a clinic a
call, and set up an appointment for a consultation.
Evangeline was eight weeks pregnant when she had her abortion. She felt
frightened, sad, and also angry at herself. Evangeline also knew that she has done
something that the church did not approve of, but she also knew that if she continued
with her pregnancy, the church would still look down on her. When she walked out to
the waiting room of the clinic she saw that her two close friends were there, waiting for
her to see if she was okay. Evangeline saw the tears in her boyfriend’s eyes and knew
that this day will be something that will affect her forever.
Challenges and joys. It has been a challenge for Evangeline to fully accept her
decision to have an abortion till this very day, but she knew that she was not ready to be a
mother. Evangeline and her boyfriend have been together for seven years now and they
41
were able to surpass all the obstacles given to them. Evangeline is in her last year of
medical school and is pursuing her education in order to be a pediatrician. Her boyfriend
also finished school and received a bachelor of science in Engineering. Although, they
were sad about Evangeline receiving an abortion, they knew that it would definitely be
difficult to be where they are now in their education if they did become parents.
Evangeline and her boyfriend do feel as if they are now physically, emotionally, and
financially capable of being parents. They are hoping to have at the most four children in
the near future.
Advice from Evangeline to parents and family members. Evangeline provides
advice to parents and family members that inform them about how they can support their
child through the challenges that lie ahead. This advice is best understood if presented in
her own words as documented below.
If you have just learned that your adolescent is having a baby, you're probably
feeling a variety of emotions, from shock and disappointment to grief and worry
about the future. You may feel guilt, thinking that if only you could have done
more to protect your child this would not have happened. And although you may
also feel embarrassed by your adolescent's pregnancy and worried about how
family, friends, and neighbors will react, you will also be happy about the news of
a soon-to-be grandchild — especially if your child is older and in a mature
relationship. Whatever feelings you're experiencing, this is likely to be a difficult
time for your family. The important thing is that your adolescent needs you now
more than ever. Being able to communicate with each other — especially when
42
emotions are running high — is essential. Adolescents who carry a baby to term
have special health concerns, and your daughter will have a healthier pregnancy
— emotionally and physically — if she knows she doesn't have to go through it
alone. So remember that your adolescent is and will always be your daughter and
that you should continue to support her in every possible way.
Advice from Evangeline to adolescents. The predominant themes expressed in
Evangeline’s advice to adolescents are patience, understanding, and support. Evangeline
shares the following:
If you are a pregnant adolescent and worried about breaking the news to your
parents about your pregnancy, remember that your parents love you and care for
you. If they yell or scream after hearing the news, understand what they must be
feeling and listen to what they have to say calmly. Explain what happened to
them and talk with them. Do not yell back at them or fight their objections or
opinions because the problem will only escalate. If you feel that you cannot break
the news to them in person, write a letter to them instead. Tell them that you need
their support during this time and also write to them about your decision and what
made you come to that decision. Remember that you are not alone during this
time and that there are people who can support you.
Interview Summary for Charlene
On February 06, 2010, an interview was conducted with Charlene at San Joaquin
Delta College. At the time of the interview Charlene was 22 years old. Charlene is the
mother of Andrew and Eric, ages 7 and 3, respectively.
43
Family. Charlene’s family consists of her father, her mother, her sister, her
nieces, and her two children. Charlene’s parents met and married each other in the
Philippines and immigrated to the United States in 1975.
Charlene describes her family as being very traditional. On a scale of 1 to 10 with
10 being extremely traditional and 1 being not at all traditional, Charlene rates her family
as an 8 in terms of how traditionally Filipino they were when she was an adolescent.
Charlene describes values, cultural practices, and traditions as very important to her
family. Her family values the importance of togetherness. They also believe that their
children should finish school, get a job, then get married, have a baby, and then live
happily ever after.
Charlene describes her relationship with her family during adolescence to be very
estranged. Charlene states, “I did not have a close relationship with my mother and my
father was never there physically, only emotionally. I wasn’t close to my sister either, I
loathed her.” Charlene mentions that with this relationship with her family, she lacked
communication. Charlene did not receive information about sex education. She reports
that she only remembers hearing her parents telling her older sister not to become
pregnant, but that was it. Charlene only remembers receiving information about sex and
pregnancy from the Life Skills program in fifth grade.
Discovery of pregnancy. Charlene was 14 years old when she found out she was
pregnant. Charlene mentions that initially she noticed that her breasts were sore and
liquid was coming out; she thought she had AIDs. Charlene first informed her older
cousin, Meilene, about this and her cousin told her that these are signs of pregnancy not
44
AIDs. Meilene immediately took Charlene to Longs to purchase a pregnancy test. The
pregnancy test showed the pink line that states Charlene was pregnant. The next day
Charlene went to a clinic to confirm her pregnancy and they informed her that she is three
months pregnant.
Within one week, Meilene informed Charlene’s family about Charlene’s
pregnancy. Prior to the announcement, Charlene states, “I was nervous for my life.”
Charlene mentions, “My father gave me the silent treatment and my mother bitched at me
saying that I was not supposed to be pregnant before marriage.” Charlene’s parents felt
that Charlene has given up on her dreams in life and has ruined her life. They also saw
her becoming pregnant at a young age and before marriage as sin.
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood. In addition to the put downs
from her parents and her sister, Charlene experienced many other challenges during and
after her pregnancy. Initially, when Charlene was still attending school, she felt a change
in everyone’s attitude towards her. Most of her friends, who were all Filipinos, no longer
hung out with her at school and no longer called her after school. Charlene realized that
her friends’ parents advised them not to hang out with her because they felt that she
would be a bad influence on their children. After a few weeks, Charlene did not want to
attend classes because of the lack of social support at school. Charlene then completely
stopped attending high school.
After giving birth, these struggles continued for Charlene. Because Charlene did
not continue school, she was not able to take the Driver’s Education class; therefore, this
prevented her from being able to receive her driver’s license. Charlene found it difficult
45
to make it to their doctor appointments. In addition to the consequences of not
completing high school, Charlene found it difficult to locate a job that could adequately
provide for her and her child.
Charlene saw these as huge challenges, but knew that she needed to do something
to better her and her son’s life. Charlene enrolled herself in Stockton’s Adult School and
later received her General Education Development (G.E.D.). Although her parents were
upset with her becoming pregnant at a young age, they continued to provide her and her
son with shelter. Charlene is currently working as a receptionist in a doctor’s office and
is now attending San Joaquin Delta College; she hopes to be a nutritionist in the near
future.
One thing that Charlene points out is the most positive thing that came out of her
becoming a mother is that it helped her get out of using drugs, has helped her mature, and
has helped her be responsible.
Advice from Charlene to parents and family members. Charlene informs parents
and family about the importance of sex education early on in their children’s lives.
Charlene states, “Be open and straight up about sex and pregnancy. Let your children
know early on that children do not come from storks, they are a result of sex.”
Advice from Charlene to adolescents. Charlene expresses the significance of
being strong and never losing hope in oneself. Charlene mentions the following
statement:
Bring up the conversation with your parents about sex and pregnancy calmly.
The right time is any time to talk about sex. Even if you do get pregnant at a
46
young age, that does not mean you need to throw away your dreams; keep on
stepping.
Interview Summary for Erica
On February 28, 2010, an interview was conducted with Erica at the researcher’s
home. At the time of the interview, Erica was 20 years old. Erica is the mother of Dan
who is currently seven years old.
Family. Erica’s family includes her mother and her son. Erica’s mother
immigrated to the United States in 1980. Erica states that her mother is a very traditional
Filipina. Her mother attends church every Sunday and is also a member of a prayer
group. Erica rates her mother as a 9 out of 10 in terms of how traditionally Filipino she
is. Erica’s mother believes in saving face and avoids bringing shame to her family.
Erica was raised by only her mother. Erica and her mother had a very close
relationship. When Erica was 11 years old, her mother spoke to her about sex and how it
results in pregnancy. Erica’s mother did not speak with her about prevention, STD’s, or
what to do after becoming pregnant.
Discovery of pregnancy. A year before Erica’s pregnancy, Erica’s mother took on
two jobs in order to provide for Erica and herself. During this time, Erica, at the age of
12, was dating someone for the first time. Erica began to experiment with sexual
intercourse, initially using a condom, but then later discontinued using it. A day before
her 14th birthday, Erica found out she was pregnant. Erica was excited because she felt
that having a baby expressed her boyfriend’s love for her. When Erica informed her
boyfriend that she was pregnant, he seemed happy, but after a month he broke up with
47
her. When Erica informed her mother about her pregnancy, Erica’s mother kicked her
out of the house, but after a week she took her back in because she understands how it
feels to be pregnant at a young age; Erica’s mother was pregnant at the age of 17.
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood. After the break up with her
boyfriend, Erica decided to still keep the baby. Erica was in the eighth grade and
continued to attend school while she was pregnant. Erica mentions that she received
many looks and comments from peers, parents, and some school staff. She states that all
of these really affected her life, but she finished junior high school and was on her way to
high school.
While her friends were thinking about going out to watch a movie, Erica was
thinking about making dinner and changing diapers. Erica states, “It was hard, but I did
it. I didn’t give up.” Erica woke up at six in the morning to change the baby, get dressed,
and go to school. She had to be at the bus stop by seven to get to get to school by seventy
forty-five. Her school offered students childcare, but only if the student maintained a
good academic standing. Erica was a full-time student, worked part-time, and still had to
come home to take care of her son. Erica’s mother cared for her son while she was at
work. Erica graduated high school with honors with the class of 2007.
Erica is currently a college student working toward her accounting degree and is
working full-time for a law firm. She just turned 20 years old and she has a seven-yearold son that waits for her to get home and give her a kiss, and say, “I love you Mama.”
48
Advice from Erica to parents and family members. Erica states the value of
openly communicating a parent’s love for a child. Erica mentions, “My message to
parents is to love your child no matter what. Unconditional love is real love.”
Advice from Erica to adolescents. Erica states how life can have many obstacles,
but with endurance they can get through it. Erica states, “My message to all the
adolescents out there is to never give up, you can make it. Hang on – life may be
difficult, but in the long run, it is worth it. Good luck!”
Interview Summary for Crystal
On March 03, 2010, an interview was conducted with Crystal at her home. At the
time of the interview, Crystal was 19 years old. Crystal is the mother of Karen who is
currently 3 years old.
Family. Crystal’s family consists of her husband, her daughter, her parents, and
her grandmother. Crystal states that although her parents lived in the same city, she lived
with her grandmother. She moved in with her grandmother at the age of 11 in order to
keep her company because she was living alone. Crystal’s grandmother and mother
immigrated to the United States from the Philippines in 1981 and her father in 1982.
Crystal states that her parents are not as traditionally Filipino as her grandmother.
Crystal rates her parents as a 5 out of 10 in terms of how traditionally Filipino they are
and her grandmother as a 9. Crystal’s parents are members of a Catholic church, but
usually attend mass on holidays. Crystal’s grandmother is very involved with her church.
She attends mass very Sunday as well as some masses during the week.
49
Crystal states that she has a closer relationship with her grandmother than her
parents. She did not have personal conversations with her parents; therefore, she was not
educated about sex. Crystal felt that could not go to her grandmother for information
about sex and pregnancy because her grandmother was much older than herself. Her
grandmother only mentioned that Crystal should not have sex before marriage. Crystal
states that she did learn a little bit about the use of condoms during her health education
class, sophomore year of high school.
Discovery of pregnancy. Crystal was a junior in high school when she discovered
she was pregnant. She was pregnant with her boyfriend whom she has been with for two
years. Crystal assumed she was pregnant when she noticed that she had missed her
menstruation. Crystal went to her school’s student health center to have a pregnant test.
The pregnancy test confirmed that she was pregnant.
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood. The next day, Crystal and
her boyfriend informed both of their families about her pregnancy. Crystal’s parents
were furious because she is too young to become a mother. Her grandmother was also
very upset and disappointed in Crystal. Crystal’s boyfriend’s family was more open and
accepting of her pregnancy because the year before her boyfriend’s older sister by one
year was also pregnant. When Crystal’s baby was born, the negative emotions from her
family turned into positive emotions of joy and happiness because a precious baby girl
was born. Both Crystal’s and her boyfriend’s families encouraged them to get married in
order to form a healthy family for their baby. At the age of 18, Crystal and her boyfriend
got married with their 2-year-old daughter as one of their flower girls. Although, Crystal
50
experienced challenges with receiving acceptance from her family, she is thankful that
her “little bundle of joy” has reunited them and has made them a stronger family.
Advice from Crystal to parents and family members. Crystal provides parents and
family with information about how it is essential to provide early sex education
information and how it is always important to provide support in any difficult situation.
Crystal states that following:
Parents, it’s important to educate your children about what they can do to prevent
STD’s and pregnancy and what they can do if they do become pregnant. If your
children do become parents at a young age, it’s essential for you to guide them
and help them to become caring, responsible parents.
Advice from Crystal to adolescents. Crystal also stresses the importance of asking
questions, whether it would be about sex education or simply about guidance and help.
Crystal mentions the following:
If you have questions about sex and pregnancy, don’t be afraid to ask your
parents. It may be that they just don’t know how to initiate the conversation with
you, but have wanted to speak with you about this topic. If you’re an adolescent
parent, don’t be afraid to ask your family for help because they are always willing
to be there for you.
Interview Summary for Arianne
On March 04, 2010, an interview was conducted with Arianne at her house.
Arianne was 22 years old at the time of the interview. Arianne is the mother of Raquel
and Joseph, ages 5 and 2, respectively.
51
Family. Arianne states that her family consists of her daughter, her son, her
parents, her brothers, and the father of her children. Arianne’s mother immigrated to the
United States in 1979 and her father in 1974.
Arianne describes her family as persons who were not quite traditionally Filipino.
She rates her family as a 5 out of 10 in terms of how traditionally Filipino they are.
Arianne mentions that some values, cultural practices, traditions, and expectations of her
from her parents were to go to school, finish college, take care of her parents, find a good
husband, and then have children.
In terms of Arianne’s relationship with her family, she states that she had a very
“rocky” relationship with both her mother and her father. She did mention that she had a
very close and supportive relationship with her sister. Although Arianne did not have a
“perfect” relationship with her parents, her parents continued to give her advice,
especially in sex education. They spoke to her about sex, pregnancy, the use of condoms,
and available services. In addition to her parents, Arianne reports that she also received
sex education information in fourth grade through a school program.
Discovery of pregnancy. Arianne was 17 when she discovered she was pregnant.
The first person she told was her younger sister. Her sister was very supportive and
excited to be an auntie. Arianne also informed her boyfriend that they were going to
have a baby. When Arianne told her parents about the news, she received unbelievable
reactions. They were really excited because they felt that it was great to have a
grandchild while they are still young enough to run around and play with them.
52
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood. Although, Arianne’s parents
were accepting of her pregnancy, other Filipinos were not. She overheard criticisms from
many older Filipinos. They said negative comments about her such as Filipino words
that meant overly sexually active, slut, and a bad influence. With comments like these,
Arianne started to lose her self-confidence and also though negatively about herself.
With the support and positive comments from her sister, she was able to increase her selfesteem.
Currently, Arianne is working towards becoming a Certified Nursing Assistant.
Arianne and her boyfriend recently broke up, but are still living together with their two
children. Arianne believes that her children are great motivators and that they have given
her a reason to strive harder to reach all her goals.
Advice from Arianne to parents and family members. Arianne informs parents
and family about the significance of empathy during this difficult time. Arianne states,
“Be patient and understanding. Remember how it was when you were younger.”
Advice from Arianne to adolescents. Arianne informs adolescents about the
importance of asking for help. Arianne mentions, “Never be afraid to ask for help
because everyone deserves a second chance.”
Interview Summary for Tiffany
On March 26, 2010, an interview was conducted with Tiffany at San Joaquin
Delta College. At the time of the interview, Tiffany was 20 years old. Tiffany is the
mother of Jarrett who is currently 3 years old.
53
Family. Tiffany states that her family consists of her father, her mother, her two
sisters, her son, and her four nieces and nephews. Her parents were both born and raised
in the Philippines and immigrated to the United States in 1974. Her parents have recently
had a divorce, but are still close friends.
Tiffany describes her family as extremely traditional Filipinos. She rates her
family as a 10 out of 10 in terms of how traditionally Filipino they are. Tiffany states
that they hold a strong Catholic background and attend church every Sunday.
Catholicism plays an important role in her family’s lives. Before every party, gathering,
and holiday dinner, Tiffany’s family holds a rosary prayer. Her family also believes in
having close relationships with other family members and friends, avoiding
controversies. Tiffany’s parents expect her and her siblings to also live by their family
values and traditions, enrolling and finishing college in order to financially support their
family, marrying a Filipino, having children, and also teaching their children about the
Catholic faith.
Tiffany describes her family as quite close to one another. Although, she had this
kind of relationship, she did not share everything with her family. She was expected to
have a perfect life with no problems; therefore, there wouldn’t be anything personal she
would have to share with her family. Her parents did not share information about sex
education because they felt that talking about it would encourage their children to engage
in sexual activity. Tiffany was able to receive information about sex education from a
program in the seventh grade. She also learned about sex prevention in her health
education class in high school.
54
Discovery of pregnancy. Tiffany’s older sister became pregnant also at the age of
17, two years ago and Tiffany told herself that she would not become pregnant at a young
age because she knew it would be very difficult. Tiffany was 17 when she found out she
was pregnant. When she found out, she felt really frightened and did not know how to
tell her parents. Tiffany did not directly tell her family about her pregnancy, they just
noticed that her stomach was getting bigger. It was hard to hide her stomach because she
is a very thin young lady. Tiffany was four months pregnant when her family asked her
whether or not she was pregnant. When Tiffany acknowledged that she was pregnant,
her parents let her know that they were very disappointed in her. They stated that
because Tiffany seen what challenges her sister gone through; they expected her to have
tried to avoid any chances of pregnancy.
Challenges and joys or pregnancy and motherhood. It was initially difficult for
Tiffany during her last trimester of her pregnancy because she still did not have full
acceptance from her parents. Tiffany did not know what to expect once she gives birth,
she was hoping for some advice from her parents. When baby Jarrett was born,
everything changed, her parents were more accepting and supporting.
Tiffany believes that pregnancy was a positive experience for her because it made
her a better person. She also had to realize that she wasn’t just an adolescent anymore,
but also a mother. Becoming a mother made her mature quickly and become more
responsible. She states that everything she does, she does for her son; he is her
motivation and what keeps her going.
55
Tiffany also states that she experienced and is still experiencing some difficult
and unhappy times. She mentions that sometimes adolescents who have unexpected
pregnancies aren’t financially stable. Having a child means buying diapers, milk, and
clothes which can all be very expensive. In addition, it can also be stressful to be a
mother at a young age because attending school means looking for a babysitter all the
time. Although, her parents also work they do try to care for her son during their days
off. They also try to provide some help with the basic necessities for Jarrett.
Advice from Tiffany to parents and family members. Tiffany reports that
discussing sex education with a child can be difficult and uncomfortable, but important.
Tiffany mentions, “Just sit down with your children and politely talk to them about sex
education. Do not be afraid because this will actually help your children.”
Advice from Tiffany to adolescents. Tiffany continues with advice to adolescents:
“Just ask questions!”
Interview Summary for Jenna
On March 26, 2010, an interview was conducted with Jenna at San Joaquin Delta
College. At the time of the interview, Jenna was 20 years old. Jenna is the mother of
Andrew who is currently 5 years old.
Family. Jenna mentions that her family consists of her mother, her sister, and her
son. Jenna states that her mother immigrated to the United States from the Philippines in
1983.
Jenna describes her mother as not a very traditional Filipina. Her mother divorced
her father when she was 10 years old. Jenna’s grandparents advised her mother not to get
56
a divorce and to just work things out. They believed that every relationship has its ups
and downs and also can also be resolved. Jenna’s mother was then shamed after having a
divorce. Jenna’s mother is Catholic, but does not practice. She does encourage Jenna to
attend mass regularly.
Since Jenna’s mother is a single parent, she works as much as possible in order to
support Jenna and her sister. This later left Jenna and her sister with an estranged
relationship with their mother. Jenna lacked the emotional support needed from her
mother because her mother was always working. Her mother was not able to provide
Jenna with information regarding sex and pregnancy. Jenna did receive some
information about sex education in her junior high school, but received most information
from her peers.
Discovery of pregnancy. Jenna was pregnant at the age of 15. Jenna’s
menstruation was irregular, therefore she was unaware that she may at all be pregnant.
One night, Jenna called her mother to come home early because she was having sharp
pains in her stomach and wanted to go to the emergency room. While her mother was at
the registration window in the emergency room, Jenna was sitting in the waiting area. A
few minutes later, her mother heard screams and panic coming from the waiting area;
someone screamed, “The baby is coming out!” Jenna was in labor! Jenna and her
mother found out that Jenna was already close to five months pregnant and was
delivering her baby prematurely. Not only was her mother shocked, but so was Jenna
because she had no idea that she was pregnant. Fortunately, Jenna was at the hospital
57
when she delivered her baby. Her baby was admitted to the hospital for almost four
months, but he is now a very healthy boy.
Challenges and joys of pregnancy and motherhood. After delivering her baby,
Jenna already started to hear comments of disappointment from her grandparents, her
aunties, and her uncles. Not only did they criticize Jenna, but also Jenna’s mother.
Jenna’s mother is very supportive of her and is currently helping Jenna raise Andrew.
Jenna went a full year without any support from her extended family. They did realize
that although Jenna was not very careful with her actions, she has become a better and
responsible person; they now are very accepting of Jenna, Andrew, as well as Jenna’s
mother. Jenna feels that if it wasn’t for her mother, she does not know how she would
have done it. She now has a very strong relationship with her mother and is thankful for
everything her mother did to help provide for her then as well as now.
Advice from Jenna to parents and family members. Jenna expresses the
significance of parents and family helping adolescents become independent from learning
from their mistakes. Jenna mentions, “Adolescents make mistakes, but also learn from
these mistakes. Allow them to grow and become responsible, but also be there to provide
help when they need it.”
Advice from Jenna to adolescents. Jenna reports the importance of having
patience and having faith in one’s own family. Jenna states, “Allow for your family to
have some time to process the news of you being pregnant. They will eventually come
around in the end because family is still very important!”
58
Common Themes
Using content analysis, this researcher identified repeating ideas across the
interviews within each major category. Emergent themes were then identified and these
are discussed here.
Family support. It may have been very difficult for the parents and family
members of the participants to grasp the idea that their little girls are pregnant, but they
were still able to provide support. Tiffany relays the following:
Adolescent pregnancy in my family was viewed negatively, but when I got
pregnant at the age of 17, my family accepted it. Family is important and we stick
together through thick and thin. I love my family for all the support they continue
to give me.
Crystal states,
My family was really angry and disappointed in me, but when my little bundle of
joy was born, all of this disappeared. My parents were happy to be grandparents
and my grandmother was happy to be a great-grandmother. Now my family is
strong because we are all together again. Until this day, my family helps me a lot.
Initially, parents felt that the adolescents gave up on their future once they became
pregnant, but later the parents recognized that the pregnancies actually increased the
adolescents’ maturity and responsibility, bringing a more hopeful and positive future.
Charlene relays the following:
My parents had a lot of expectations for me and when I got pregnant, I felt like I
failed. It didn’t stop me though. Now I have a job and I am going to school. I
59
will be graduating in June. So hopefully I’ll become a nutritionist soon. Just
recently my parents told me about how proud they are of me and my
accomplishments and this made me feel a lot better about myself because after 8
years I still felt like I have failed them. It was great to hear that from my family.
It really encourages me a lot.
Through content analysis, the researcher is able to conclude that this theme of family
support is seen throughout the lives of all the participants. These Filipino American
families provided these young Filipina women with emotional, physical, and financial
support.
Interdependence and perseverance. With all the support from their families,
these Filipina women were able to regain strength and self-confidence. Although at times
they may need some help from their families, they continue to be responsible young
mothers. At a very young age they were able to provide for not only themselves, but for
other human beings, their children. Erica states, “even if I was pregnant at the age of 13,
I did not give up. When I got to the age where could work, I worked. I wanted to work
so I can take care of my son.” Through the interviews, the researcher recognized the
participants’ hard work. They did not give up on their hopes and dreams when they
became pregnant, but developed better goals for themselves. The participants showed
their eagerness to continue school and attain a permanent employment position, all while
continuing to be wonderful mothers.
Motivation. The researcher also identified the theme of motivation from the
interviews with the participants. All of the participants mentioned one thing in common:
60
their children. The Filipina women expressed how their children are the motivation in
their lives and that they would do anything and will do anything for them. Arianne
mentions,
Even if I’m not with my children’s father anymore it’s okay. I live for my
children and they are the only thing that matters now. They motivate me and
make me want to be a better person. I am doing everything I can to give them a
better life.
Jenna also reports, “My son is my inspiration and I want to be the best mother ever. I
will do my best to be the best.” The participants stated that they are motivated to turn
their lives around to provide for their children whether it would be through school or
employment. These adolescent mothers open up their heart to their children’s gifts,
strengths and possibilities. Their children learn how to be in the world through their
parents and hold them as their inspiration, but they can also do the same with them. The
adolescent mothers also use their children as inspirations to open doors to many other
possibilities in their lives.
Religion. In this study, all of the participants state that their families come from a
Catholic background. Not all families are practicing Catholics, but all still hold on to the
Catholic faith and instill their religion, traditions, and beliefs on the adolescents. This
shows the importance of religion in the Filipino culture and how it is maintained even
through immigration. Erica states the following:
My mother was very religious and she made sure that I also believed in the
Catholic faith. She taught me how to pray and brought me to church when I was
61
younger. Of course, because she was so religious, the news about my pregnancy
was even more difficult to accept, but my mother has learned to accept my
pregnancy through prayers and the strength from God. Religion helped her get
through her pregnancy when she was an adolescent and religion has also helped
her accept my pregnancy.
Although, religion may be a great factor in how Filipino American parents negatively
view adolescent pregnancy, it is also a factor in how families reunite and maintain
strength after a difficult situation.
Summary
This chapter presented a summary of seven interviews with Filipina women who
were pregnant during adolescence. Although a small size, the participants were able to
share a variety of experiences that is very useful to this study. The interviewees provided
different perspectives on how family composition, family values, and Filipino culture
have impacted the views of adolescent pregnancy as well as when and how adolescents
inform their family about their pregnancy. The interviews can be used to understand the
perceptions of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino community. Discussion of the results
and implications of the findings and recommendations are presented in Chapter 5.
62
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The researcher interviewed 7 Filipino young women to gather information
concerning the perceptions of adolescent pregnancy in the Filipino community as well as
explore the personal experiences of Filipina women who were pregnant as adolescents.
The researcher felt that these women’s experiences during pregnancy could help inform
the social work field in increasing culturally competent practice with this population.
Their stories are also essential to the adolescent population that may be planning
pregnancy or engaging in sexual activity. The Filipina women shared their stories of
difficult or unhappy times during their pregnancy as well as positive moments. Each
participant also provided insight as to her culture and family values and how they
influence when and how she informs her family about her pregnancy, how she views
herself, and how the Filipino community views adolescent pregnancy. While each
participant shared their positive experiences, she also shared concerns and fears that
come with becoming an adolescent mother. All of the mothers felt that it was important
to share their stories in the hope that their experiences and journey could be a positive
impact for the field of social work to increase culturally competent practice and for the
adolescent Filipina population as a whole.
63
Discussion of the Results
The researcher intended to examine Filipina women’s experiences with pregnancy
during their adolescent years, as well as examine the perceived perceptions of adolescent
pregnancy in the Filipino American community. The predominant findings concluded
that Filipino culture and values do influence the perceptions of adolescent pregnancy.
They play a significant role in the lives of the Filipina women interviewed. Almost all of
the Filipina women who participated in this study described their family to be very
traditional Filipinos. Their traditional values, culture, and religious beliefs continue to be
upheld and embraced by their family regardless of strong American influences. The first
generation Filipino American parents introduce their culture and values to the second
generation Filipino American children, hoping that they would maintain the Filipino
beliefs and traditions. The study shows that the Filipina women interviewed did uphold
their family’s culture and values. This made it very difficult for them to inform their
family about their pregnancy as well as made it difficult for them to accept their own
pregnancy at a young age.
Another significant finding in the study was although the families were initially
shocked and angry when they were informed about their adolescent’s pregnancy, the
Filipino American families continued to appear strong and remain a close family system.
They demonstrated the traditional Filipino value of amor propio, which is equal to
compassion and refers to great understanding of any personal problem or issue in order to
maintain the strength and the image of the family (Jocano, 1999). This value permits the
64
family members to provide the adolescent with support and care, allowing for her to learn
how to be a strong, mature, and responsible mother.
It can also be concluded from the study that Filipino American parents and family
members do not provide their children with adequate information about sex, pregnancy,
prevention, or services available for pregnant adolescents. Although, some of the parents
of the participants mentioned not to engage in sexual activities, there is no discussion
about why. Adolescents become unaware of ways they can prevent pregnancy and
become unaware of what may result from sexual intercourse such as sexually transmitted
diseases. It is important that these parents provide their adolescents with more parental
guidance, reinforced by unconditional love, trust, and communication.
Study Limitations
The researcher encountered many challenges in conducting the research and
interviewing the participants in the study. Because some of the participants found it
difficult to locate a babysitter in order for the interview to be conducted, interviews were
held at participants’ homes; interviews were frequently stopped so the participants could
tend to their children’s needs. This illustrates the difficulties mothers have with either
locating or affording child care. In addition, the recruitment process was limited to
participants that the researcher or researcher’s family knew. The use of a convenience
sample and snowball sampling methods resulted in a non-probability sample. The ability
to generalize findings from this exploratory study is indeed limited. For example, one of
the researcher’s qualifications to participate in her study was that the participant resides
in the San Joaquin County. The participants did not actually reside in different cities in
65
the San Joaquin County, but all lived in Stockton, California. As a result, the research
findings cannot be generalized to the overall Filipino population because not only are the
participants from one city, but also because there were only seven participants used in the
study.
Despite the limitations, the stories told by the Filipina women who bravely shared
their stories for this research study, will help professionals working with Filipino/a
adolescents to increase the understanding of the Filipino/a experience, specifically the
experience of a pregnant adolescent and the impact of culture and family values on the
perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. If social workers and other professionals take these
experiences, traditions, and beliefs into consideration, then they may be better equipped
and more culturally competent to work with pregnant adolescents and implement more
effective interventions and culturally sensitive programs.
Implications for Social Work Practice
This research project, as an exploratory study can help shape further research to
improve culturally competent social work practice. Few studies have been done
concerning pregnant adolescents in the Filipino/a community. The author hopes that this
study will lead to more research regarding this population. It is the hope of the author
that this research project will be used, examined, and improved by her peers and
colleagues.
The information and findings gathered from this study can be helpful to the social
work profession in many ways. The three theoretical frameworks presented by the author
are very important in understanding why cultural competence is essential when working
66
with minority groups such as the Filipino population. When working with Filipino
American families it is also important to acknowledge their level of acculturation because
the perspectives of a Filipino American who has been in the United States for a long time
may indeed be different than a Filipino American who has recently immigrated to the
United States from the Philippines. Furthermore, many Filipinos who have acculturated
may still continue to hold the traditional belief system of the Philippines. Therefore, it is
crucial to grasp the significance of the culture and values that the Filipino Americans
acquire in order to conduct outreach and provide appropriate services and programs.
From this study the findings indicate that there is a need for change in the way
adolescents are taught about pregnancy and sex education and that parents and school and
agency administrators need to be more involved in this process. The researcher hopes
that this information will help social workers develop an adequate curriculum and will
also provide social workers with more knowledge in working with the adolescent
population. The researcher also hopes that the perceptions and experiences of these
women will make policymakers more aware of their personal stories and re-examine the
delivery of services and the degree to which this issue should be a main concern in
society.
Recommendations for Future Researchers
This study should be explored as the beginning of achieving intercultural
effectiveness for professionals working with pregnant Filipina women and their families.
In order to provide culturally sensitive services, it is essential to gain an understanding of
Filipino American perceptions of adolescent pregnancy. Since there has been little to no
67
research done on this population, the researcher was unable to provide all the information
needed in working with Filipino adolescents; she gathered as much information as she
could, hoping that it can be a stepping stone to conduct further research in this area of
study in order to develop a wider knowledge-base of how the Filipino culture and family
values impact the perceptions of adolescent pregnancy.
This author suggests that future researchers can expand the research on this
project by also interviewing the parents of the Filipina women who participated in the
study. By doing this, it would allow the researcher to view a variety of perspectives on
the topic of adolescent pregnancy. It would provide additional information on what
parents’ expectations were of their children prior to becoming pregnant and how they feel
that their children becoming mothers has impacted their future. Researchers would also
be able to ask parents specifically about what kind of sex education they provided to their
children. In the cases where the parents did not provide their children with information
about sex education, this research would be a great opportunity to learn why this was so.
Parents would also be able to state whether or not they think this would have prevented
their children from becoming pregnant during adolescence.
Additionally, the researcher should also interview school administrators to ask
specifically what they are currently teaching students about sex education, STDs, and
contraception. The administration will have additional information about what other
challenges adolescents have today and how they can better inform adolescents with
information needed to protect themselves from becoming parents at a young age.
68
With the collaboration of professionals, parents, schools, and communities
addressing the social problem of adolescent pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy within the
Filipino community will hopefully decrease. The development of services and programs
around pregnancy, sex education, and prevention that incorporates culture and values
would be very valuable to adolescents because it will make certain that young Filipinos
have a better chance of becoming successful adults and postpone pregnancy until they are
ready and prepared to be parents.
Summary
Adolescents in the Filipino American community face many challenges as well as
joys when becoming pregnant at a young age. According to the literature and content
analysis of the interviews, there are many factors that influence these complexities.
These factors include the experiences and expectations of first generation Filipino
American parents for second generation Filipino American adolescents. In addition, the
Filipino culture and family values are also factors that influence the experiences of
pregnant adolescents. To gain a greater understanding, additional research is needed to
capture the experiences of the pregnant adolescents as well as the experiences of their
families.
This researcher concludes that a culturally sensitive practice is important in
providing effective services. Not only is it important for its effectiveness, but also for its
ability for professionals to provide service that is respectful of the culture’s wants and
needs. There isn’t a guideline that tells professionals how to work with a specific
69
population, but there is general distinctiveness that each population has that can help
professionals when working with a variety of cultures.
This researcher is better prepared to work in the social work profession because
this project has showed her the importance in looking further into misconceptions that
they may have about specific cultures. By doing this, it allows professionals to go
beyond the general knowledge about working with these populations and provide even
more effective services.
70
APPENDICES
71
APPENDIX A
PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
Consent to Participate as a Research Subject
I hereby agree to participate in a research study entitled, “Perceptions of adolescent
pregnancy in the Filipino Community.” This research is being conducted by Cheryl Lynn
V. Jugueta, a graduate student in Social Work at California State University, Sacramento.
The research will take place at my choice of location and will require one and a half
hours of my time. If I need more than one and a half hours for the interview, then this
can be arranged between the researcher and myself at that time. I do understand that the
interview will be audio taped by the researcher and I also understand that I am free to
decline being audio taped before the interview starts, or to decide at a later time to stop
the audio tape recording of my interview without consequence.
I further understand that at any time, if I feel uncomfortable or upset about my
participation due to the nature of the interview questions, I can decline my participation
right away without consequence. If after the interview, I experience any psychological
discomfort, I may call the County of San Joaquin Mental Health Services at (209) 4688750, located at 1212 North California Street, Stockton, CA. 95202 or St Joseph's
Behavioral Health at (209) 461-2000, located at 2510 North California St, Stockton, CA.
95204.
The interview may help me gain additional insight into the factors that impact the lives of
pregnant adolescents, may benefit me by having the opportunity to talk about my
personal experiences, but most importantly I may be able to help others who are faced
with this similar situation. The information that I provide may also help the researcher
and many professionals be better equipped to provide services that appropriately meet the
needs of the Filipino pregnant adolescents and their families.
In conclusion, the researcher will maintain my rights to privacy and confidentiality by
assuring that I will remain anonymous. I understand that no personally identifying
information will be reported in the thesis and that alias will be used to discuss any
findings. Furthermore, I understand that the audio tape recording of my interview and all
related study data will be destroyed once my experiences, perceptions of myself, and
views have been transcribed, no later than June, 2010. Until then, these tapes will be
stored in a locked cabinet as will any all data related to my participation in this study.
I understand that I will also receive a $5 gift card to either Starbuck’s or Jamba Juice as a
token of appreciation for participating in this study. I will receive this incentive whether
or not I complete my participation in the research study.
72
If I have any questions about this research, I may contact Cheryl Lynn V. Jugueta at
(209) 981-6824 or by email at cj364@saclink.csus.edu. Or, if I need further information
I may contact the thesis advisor: Chrystal Barranti, Ph.D., MSW, C/O California State
University, Sacramento at (916) 278-4161 or at cbarranti@csus.edu.
I understand that my participation in this research is entirely voluntary. I can withdraw
my participation in this study at any time without any consequences. I can also change
my mind and stop participating in the research at any later time without any
consequences, or the researcher may decide to end my participation in the study at any
time. My signature indicates that I have read this page and agreed to participate in the
research.
_______________________________
____________________
Signature of Participant
Date
_______________________________
Signature of Investigator
____________________
Date
73
APPENDIX B
GUIDED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Demographic Information
1. What is your age?
2. How many children do you have now and what are their ages?
3. Are you a part of a religious or spiritual community?
4. Can you tell me about your family?
5. When did your family immigrate to the United States?
6. Women become pregnant for a variety of reasons. Why do you think Filipino
adolescents get pregnant?
7. In general, what do you think makes pregnancy a positive experience for an
adolescent?
8.
What conditions or circumstances can make the experience of pregnancy difficult
or unhappy?
9. In traditional Filipino society, about what age would have been considered ideal
for women to start having children?
a) And for you, at what age would you consider ideal for women to start
having children?
10. How is adolescent pregnancy viewed in the Filipino community?
a) And in your own family? Is it acceptable?
74
11. Do you think adolescent pregnancy is a problem in your community?
_____Yes _____No ____ Don’t Know
(Please explain your answer: In other words, why do you think adolescent
pregnancy is or is not a problem?)
12. Based on your knowledge of Filipino youth in your community:
a) About what age do you think Filipino youth become sexually active?
13. For many young Filipina women, pregnancy and motherhood can provide
challenges as well as joy.
a) What are some of the problems adolescent girls face if they become
pregnant? (Probe for physical, emotional, mental, environmental, cultural,
family and social challenges)
b) What problems are particularly associated with Filipino adolescent
pregnancy?
c) Can you describe some of the positive aspects of adolescent parenting?
14. What family and community supports do young Filipina mothers need?
15. When you were an adolescent did you know of any pregnant Filipina adolescents?
_____Yes _____No ____ Don’t Know
If yes:
a) How would you describe what a typical day was like for them?
b) How would you describe any challenges that most concerned them?
c) How did their becoming pregnant affect their views of themselves?
75
d) Can you tell me how their experiences played a part in your own choices
with your pregnancy?
16. When you were growing up what kind of sex education did you receive?
a) Did you receive information about sex from school and/or from your
parents/guardians/family?
17. How did you find out about your first pregnancy?
a) What age were you at this time?
b) What were your initial reactions?
c) How did you inform your family about your pregnancy?
d) How far along were you before you told them?
e) What were their initial reactions?
18. Did you go to anyone (friends, family member, outside agencies) for advice about
ways to inform your family about your pregnancy and why?
19. Religion is an important part of life that many Filipino American families
embrace.
a) How did your religion play a role in how you handled your pregnancy?
b) Or in how your family responded to you?
20. How would you describe some of the traditional Filipino values, cultural
practices, and traditions?
a) Are there particular traditional expectations placed on adolescents?
76
21. On a scale of 1 – 10 with 10 being extremely traditional and 1 being not at all
traditional, how would you rate your family in terms of how traditionally Filipino
they were when you were an adolescent?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not at all traditional
8
9
10
Extremely traditional
a) Can you tell me about that?
22. On a scale of 1 – 10 with 10 being extremely traditional and 1 being not at all
traditional, how would you rate yourself in terms of how traditionally Filipino you
were when you were an adolescent?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not at all traditional
8
9
10
Extremely traditional
a) Can you tell me about that?
23. Overall, when you were an adolescent how would describe your relationships
with your mother, father, and other family members?
24. Thinking back to when you were an adolescent what could have made it easier for
you to talk with your mother or other family members about adolescent
pregnancy?
25. If you were to advise a parent or other adult family member on how to best
communicate with their adolescent daughter about sexuality, birth control, and
pregnancy what would you say?
77
26. If you were to advise a Filipina adolescent on how to best talk with their parents
or family members about sexuality, birth control, and pregnancy what would you
say?
27. Do you have any comments or questions, or is there anything you would like to
add?
78
REFERENCES
Agbayani-Siewert, P. & Enrile, A. V. (2003). Filipino American children and
adolescents. In J.T. Gibbs, L.N. Huang, & Associates (Eds.), Children of color:
Psychological interventions with culturally diverse youth (chap. 5). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Almirol, E. B. (1982). Rights and obligations in Filipino American families. Journal of
Comparative Family Studies, 13(3), 291-306.
Anderson, J. (2003). Strengths perspective. In Diversity perspectives for social work
practice (pp. 11-20). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Andres, T. D. (1994). Understanding Filipino values. Vasra, Quezon City, Philippines:
New Day Publishers.
Bernstein, N. (2001). How to keep your teenager out of trouble and what to do if you
can’t. New York, NY: Workman Publishing Company.
Biggs, M., Ralph, L., Minnis, A., Arons, A., Marchi, K., et al. (2010). Factors associated
with delayed childbearing: From the voices of expectant Latina adults and teens
in California. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32(1), 77-103.
Borkowski, J., Farris, J., Whitman, T., Carothers, S., Weed, K., & Keogh, D. (Eds.).
(2007). Risk and resilience: Adolescent mothers and their children grow up.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brindis, C. & Davis, L. (1998). Designing effective family life education programs.
Washington DC: Advocates for Youth. Retrieved April 08, 2010, from
http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/communitiesresponding5.pdf
79
Campbell, J. & Gilmore, L. (2007). Intergenerational continuities and discontinuities in
parenting styles. Australian Journal of Psychology, 59(3), 140-150.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). (2006). The 2005 world fact book: Philippines.
Retrieved November 01, 2009 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld- factbook/geos/rp.html
Christiansen, L. & Jenks, R. J. (2002). A comparision of three Catholic marital groups
on sexual and gender issues. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 38(1), 157168.
Clement, S. (2003). Children at health risk. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science.
Constantine, N., Slater, J. , & Carroll, J. (2007). Motivational aspects of community
support for school-based comprehensive sexuality education. Sex Education,
7(4), 421-439.
Corcoran, J., O’Dell Miller, P., & Bultman, L. (1997). Effectivness of prevention
programs for adolescent pregnancy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and
the Family, 59, 551-567.
Cultural differences influence teen pregnancy prevention efforts. (2002). Retrieved
April15, 2010 from http://www.letsgetreal.org/english/nr_Voices_2002.htm
Custer, M. (1993). Adoption as an option for unmarried pregnant teens. Adolescence,
28(112), 890-901.
Docksai, R. (2010). The truth about teenaged parents. Futurist, 44(2), 14.
Emge, D. (2006). I'm pregnant!: Fear and conception in four decades of young adult
literature. Young Adult Library Services, 4(2), 22-27.
80
Espiritu, Y. L. (2001). “We don’t sleep around like white girls do”: Family, culture, and
gender in Filipina American lives. Signs, 26, 415-437.
Fournier, M. (2009). Adolescent hierarchy formation and the social competition theory
of depression. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 28(9), 1144-1172.
Gassanov, M., Nicholson, L., & Koch-Turner, A. (2008). Expectations to marry among
American youth: The effects of unwed fertility, economic activity, and
cohabitation. Youth & Society, 40(2), 265-288.
Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Germain, C. B. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view.
New York: Columbia University Press.
Gochenour, T. (1990). Considering Filipinos. Maine: Intercultural Press, Inc.
Greene, R. R. (1999). Human behavior theory and social work practice. New York:
Aldine De Gruyter.
Gripaldo, R. (2005). Filipino cultural traits: Philippine philosophical studies.
Washington: Council for Research in Values & Philosophy.
Guttmacher Institute. (2006). Facts in brief: Contraceptive use. Washington DC.
Guzmán, B. L., Schlehofer-Sutton, M. M., Villanueva, C. M., Dello Stritto, M. E., Casad,
B. J., & Feria, A. (2003). Let's talk about sex: How comfortable discussions
about sex impact teen sexual behavior. Journal of Health and Communication, 8,
583-598.
Hard decisions to make. (2005). Economist, 377(8448), 34-35.
Heaven, P., Ciarrochi, J., & Leeson, P. (2010). Parental styles and religious values
81
among teenagers: A 3-year prospective analysis. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
171(1), 93-99.
Hillman, J., Negriff, S., & Dorn, L. (2010). Perceived competence and contraceptive use
during adolescence. Contraception, 81(3), 249-253.
Immell, M. H. (Ed.). (2001). Teen pregnancy. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc.
Jocano, F. L. (1999). Working with Filipinos: A cross-cultural encounter. Diliman,
Quezon City, Philippines: PUNLAND Research House, Inc.
Kirby, D. (2002). Effective approaches to reducing adolescent unprotected sex,
pregnancy, and childbearing. Journal of Sex Research, 39(1), 51-57.
Kirby, D. (1997). No easy answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen
pregnancy. Washington DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teenage Pregnancy.
Kirby, D. & Coyle, K. (1997). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk-taking
behavior. Washington DC: Children and Youth Services Review, 19(5/6), 415436.
Kirby, D., Coyle, K., & Gould, J. (2001). Manifestations of poverty and birth rates
among young teenagers in California zip code areas. Family Planning
Perspectives, 33(2), 63-70.
Kirkman, M., Rowe, H., Hardiman, A., Mallett, S., & Rosenthal, D. (2009). Reasons
women give for abortion: A review of the literature. Archives of Women's
Mental Health, 12(6), 365-378.
Lipovsek, V., Karim, A., Gutierrez, E., Magnani, R., & del Carmen Castro Gomez, M.
(2002). Correlates of adolescent pregnancy in La Paz, Bolivia: Findings from a
82
quantitative-qualitative study. Adolescence, 37(146), 335-352.
Luckman, J. & Muñoz, C. (2005). Transcultural communication in nursing. New York:
Thomson Learning, Inc.
Manderson, L., Kelaher, M., Woelz-Stirling, N., Kaplan, J., & Greene, K. (2002). Sex,
contraception and contradiction among young Filipinas in Australia. Culture,
Health & Sexuality, 4(4), 381-391.
Manlove, J., Romano Papillo, A., & Ikramhullah, E. (2004). Not yet: Programs to delay
first sex among teens. (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy).
Retrieved April 08, 2010, from
http://www.teenpregnancy.org/works/pdf/NotYet.pdf
Modrcin-Talbott, M., Pullen, L., Zandstra, K., Ehrenberger, H., & Muenchen, B. (1998).
A study of self-esteem among well adolescents: Seeking a new direction. Issues
in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 21(4), 229-241.
Moore, N., & Davidson Sr., J. (2002). A profile of adoption placers: Perceptions of
pregnant teens during the decision-making process. Adoption Quarterly, 6(2),
29-41.
National Association of Social Workers. (1999). NASW Standards for Cultural
Competence in Social Work Practice. Retrieved February 01, 2010, from
http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWCulturalStandards.pdf
Norman, J. (1999). Peer sexuality education. Social Policy, 30(1), 30-31.
Pacheco, J., & Plutzer, E. (2008). The impact of economic and social hardship on young
citizens. Conference Papers - Midwestern Political Science Association, 1-30.
83
Payne, M. (2005). Modern social work theory. Chicago, Illinois: Lyceum Books, Inc.
Pong, S., Johnston, J., & Chen, V. (2010). Authoritarian parenting and Asian adolescent
school performance: Insights from the US and Taiwan. International Journal of
Behavioral Development, 34(1), 62-72.
Quillen, I. (2009). Comprehensive sex education backed by evidence, medical panel
concludes. Education Week, 29(12), 5.
Raine, T., Gard, J., Boyer, C., Haider, S., Brown, B., et al. (2010). Contraceptive
decision-making in sexual relationships: Young men's experiences, attitudes and
values. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 12(4), 373-386.
Realini, J. (2004). Teenage pregnancy prevention: What can we do? American Family
Physician, 70(8), 1457-1458. Retrieved April 15, 2010, from Academic Search
Premier database.
Richards, C. (2009). The agenda for women's health care. Social Policy, 39(1), 32-33.
Roces, A. & Roces, G. (2000). Culture shock: A guide to customs and etiquette.
Oregon: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company.
Rodriguez, M., Donovick, M., & Crowley, S. (2009). Parenting styles in a cultural
context: Observations of “protective parenting” in first-generation Latinos.
Family Process, 48(2), 195-210.
Rosenthal, M., Ross, J., Bilodeau, R., Richter, R., Palley, J., et al. (2009). Economic
evaluation of a comprehensive teenage pregnancy prevention program: Pilot
program. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37(6), S280-S287.
Santos, R. A. (1997). Filipino American children. In G. Johnson-Powell & J.
84
Yamamoto (Eds.), Transcultural child development: Psychological assessment
and treatment (chapter. 7). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sullivan, M. (1993). Culture and class as determinants of out-of-wedlock childbearing
and poverty during late adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3(3),
295-316.
Teen birth rate rises again. (2009). Contemporary Sexuality, 43(5), 8.
Teen pregnancy, birth, and abortion. (2002), SEICUS report. Retrieved April 10, 2010
from http://www.seicus.org/pubs/fact/fact0010.html
Unmarried moms. (2010). CQ Researcher, 20(12), 274-277. BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033
U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). The Asian population: 2000. Retrieved October 10, 2009,
from http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-16.pdf
Viadero, D. (2010). Study finds teen pregnancies on the rise. Education Week, 29(20),
4.
Wolf, D.L. (1997). Family secrets: Transnational struggles among children of Filipino
immigrants. Sociological Perspectives, 40(3), 457-482.
Young, T., Martin, S., Young, M., & Ting, L. (2001). Internal poverty and teen
pregnancy. Adolescence. 36(142), 289-305.