TRANSFORMATIONAL CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP: ADDING A NEW PIECE
OF FABRIC TO THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP QUILT
Kelley-Jean Strong-Rhoads
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 1995
M.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2002
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2011
TRANSFORMATIONAL CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP: ADDING A NEW PIECE
OF FABRIC TO THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP QUILT
A Dissertation
by
Kelley-Jean Strong-Rhoads
Approved by Dissertation Committee:
_________________________________
Robert Pritchard, Ph.D., Chair
_________________________________
JoLynn Britt, Ph.D.
_________________________________
Caroline Turner, Ph.D.
SPRING 2011
ii
TRANSFORMATIONAL CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP: ADDING A NEW PIECE
OF FABRIC TO THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP QUILT
Student: Kelley-Jean Strong-Rhoads
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the
library and credit is to be awarded for the dissertation.
___________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Carlos Nevarez, Ph.D.
iii
_________________
Date
DEDICATION
To my beautiful and gifted daughter, Kate-Lynn Dixie Rhoads, may you
achieve everything you set your mind to.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge those who have helped me in this quest for my
Educational Doctorate. First, I would like to thank my doctoral committee. I
appreciate the time and effort they spent reading my research and collaborating with
me throughout this research. Thank you to Dr. JoLynn Britt for her help in designing
and understanding what I really longed to study. I appreciated her for listening to what
it was that I really wanted to research which was the essence of classroom leadership.
From her feedback, I was introduced to and learned a great deal about the research
methods of phenomenology. Thank you to Dr. Caroline Turner for her suggestions on
how to strengthen my methodological strategies and her continuous interest in my
study. Lastly, with heartfelt gratitude I want to thank my chair, Dr. Bob Pritchard.
Throughout the entire doctoral program he was a sounding board of reason and focus
as I made my way through this educational journey. His dedication to me and the
doctoral program at California State University Sacramento should not go without
notice. He was always available for consultation and always asked probing questions
that helped guide this study towards the focus on classroom leadership. Dr. Pritchard’s
leadership on my committee also helped me as I maneuvered through the different
phases of writing and presentation. Clearly, without him and the support of a
collaborative dissertation committee, this would have been a much more challenging
process.
v
Ultimately, those who have achieved higher education degrees have gone
through some kind of sacrifice. I could not have succeeded on this mission alone. It is
with sincere love and thankfulness that I acknowledge the dedication of my husband,
Dave Rhoads. His humble nature and commitment to his family is truly unique. I want
him to know how much I recognize the work he did to make this doctorate dream
come true. He took excellent care of our beautiful children, Kate-Lynn Dixie, and
Trevor Jayden, by making sure we had wonderful meals, clean clothes, a clean house
and that our farm did not fall apart, while I was conducting all my coursework and
research. I believe he did more than the average partner. Although I will hold the
official doctor tag, he is the honorary doctor in our household.
vi
CURRICULUM VITAE
Education
Doctorate in Educational Leadership, CSUS, 2011
Emphases: Transformational leadership, education law, education finance,
data-driven assessment and decision-making, ethics, educational policy
and practice, professional development
Administrative Credential, School Leadership Licensure Assessment, 2008
Multiple Subject Credential, CSU Sacramento (CSUS), 1996
Supplementals: English, Science, Social Studies
Master of Arts in Special Education, CSUS, 2002
Emphases: Instructional leadership, culturally responsive and full inclusion
pedagogy
Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies, CSUS, 1995
Professional Experience
Rio Linda Preparatory School Vice-Principal, 2010 to Present
Orchard Elementary School, 2009-2010
Student Learning Instructional Coach
Leadership Team Member
Initiated and led the Professional Development Committee
Representative to the District English Learner Advisory Committee
Facilitator of K-8 Vision Committee
Categorical Department, 2004-2009
English Learner Support Teacher
Adult English as a Second Language Teacher
Supported all schools in Rio Linda Neighborhood Network
vii
Westside Elementary School, 2004-2005
Teacher in Charge and Assistant to the Principal
4th Grade Teacher
Westside Charter Junior High School, 1999-2004
Teacher in Charge and Assistant to Principal
7th/8th Grade Social Studies Teacher
8th Grade Language Arts/Algebra/Social Studies Core Teacher
Cooperating Teacher for CSU, Sacramento
Leadership Team Member
Student Activities Director
School Site Council Chair
Charter Rewrite Committee Member
Staff Inservice Facilitator: Multiple Intelligences and Attention Deficit
Disorder
Aero Haven Elementary School, 1996-1999
6th Grade Bilingual Teacher/English Transition Classroom
Cooperating Teacher for CSU, Sacramento
School Site Council Member
Marsville Science Teacher
Summer school Teacher, 1998, 2002, 2007
Middle School Language Arts/Math Support Teacher
German Language Enrichment Teacher English Learner Academy
Elementary Language Arts Enrichment Teacher
Leadership/Administrative Experience
Rio Linda Preparatory Vice-Principal, 2010 to Present
Summer school Administrator, 2001, 2003, 2005
Head Teacher/Principal: Special Education and Regular Education
Program
Head Teacher/Principal: English Language Learners and Special Education
Head Teacher/Principal: English Language Learners and Regular
Education
viii
Leadership and School Site Committee Member 1996-2010
Aero Haven Elementary
Westside Charter Junior High
Westside Elementary School
Orchard Elementary School
Rio Linda Preparatory Academy
Teacher in Charge and Assistant to the Principal
Westside Charter Junior High
Westside Elementary School
California Teachers Association, 1995-2004
Liaison to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
State Council Representative
Organizing Team Member, Rio Linda Education Association
Political Action Chair for the Rio Linda Education Association
Sacramento Sheriff North Area Mentor Program, 2000- 2003
Developed instructional activities for at risk youth
Provided training and support for tutors on effective teaching strategies
Publications
In Progress: on qualitative methodology and classroom leadership
Field of Study
K-12
ix
Abstract
of
TRANSFORMATIONAL CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP: ADDING A NEW PIECE
OF FABRIC TO THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP QUILT
by
Kelley-Jean Strong-Rhoads
Educational leadership is at the forefront of school improvement and reform.
Too often, only formal leadership is studied with regard to improving teaching and
learning. This study is unique because the author has used an organizational theory
lens in order to uncover the complexities of the classroom. Furthermore, the author
sought to understand the characteristics of classroom leadership and how the teachers
in this study became the transformational teacher leaders they were. The author used
the following definition based on the work of Yukl (1999) to define transformational
leadership: Transformational leaders are leaders who provide intellectual stimulation,
develop follower skills, build collective efficacy, and allow individual consideration.
This study is different from instructional leadership in several ways. First,
instructional leadership focuses mainly around “strong, directive leadership with
regard to curriculum and instruction from the perspective of the school principal”
(Hallinger, 2003, p. 329). In addition, instructional leadership is a type of formal
leadership whereby the principal of a site is looked at as the center of expertise on
x
curriculum and instruction. This study differs from instructional leadership studies
because it looked at the informal leadership practices and characteristics of classroom
teachers within their classroom micro-organization and studied teachers beyond
curriculum and instruction. Furthermore, the focus of instructional leadership is to
increase student academic outcomes (Hallinger, 2003). While academic improvement
is a component of classroom leadership, it is not the only focus. Finally, this study
differs from other educational leadership studies because it is one of very few studies
that has analyzed the classroom using an organizational theory lens.
This study utilized the qualitative method of inquiry, specifically the
phenomenological approach. The purpose of this study was to uncover teachers’
perceptions about classroom leadership. The sample consisted of six teachers who
exhibited the transformational leadership characteristics as described above. The
teachers were all from the same suburban northern California school district but from
different school sites. There were three research sites: one K-6 grade school, one K-7
grade school and one 5-8 grade middle school. The data for this study were gathered
through face-to-face interviews, classroom observations and the researcher’s journal.
Through the process of open and closed coding, four major themes emerged.
These transformational classroom leaders are reflective, collaborative and flexible
lifelong learners. Important to note is that this study suggests these characteristics
could be taught and learned by all teachers at any school site, and a classroom
leadership framework and process for learning the given characteristics is provided.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication.................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... v
Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. xiv
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
Nature of Study................................................................................................. 3
Key Terms ........................................................................................................ 4
Organizational Theory as a Frame ................................................................... 5
Research and Theory on Educational Leadership ............................................ 7
Research Assumptions.................................................................................... 11
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 12
Significance of Study ..................................................................................... 12
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 14
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................... 15
Conceptual Framework for Studying Teacher Leadership. ............................ 15
Educational Leadership .................................................................................. 28
Phenomenological Methods ........................................................................... 45
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 47
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 48
Justification for Phenomenology .................................................................... 49
Participants ..................................................................................................... 50
Setting ........................................................................................................... 53
Procedures for Data Collection ...................................................................... 58
xii
Role of the Researcher.................................................................................... 60
Validity and Reliability .................................................................................. 61
Data Analysis.................................................................................................. 61
4. FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 63
Research Question #1: How Have the Teacher Leaders in this Study
Developed Effective Leadership Practices Within Their Classrooms? .......... 66
Teacher Beliefs ............................................................................................... 67
Learning is a Process ...................................................................................... 77
Building Student Autonomy Through Classroom Management .................... 94
Research Question #2: What Experiences Have the Participants in This
Study Had Regarding Effective Leadership Training in the Classroom? .... 104
Effective Teacher In-Service ........................................................................ 112
Research Question #3: What are the Essential Elements of Effective
Classroom Leadership Training ................................................................... 116
Researcher’s Thoughts ................................................................................. 131
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 135
5. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 136
Summary of Findings ................................................................................... 136
Discussion and Conclusions ......................................................................... 142
Significance of the Study.............................................................................. 150
Strengths and Limitations ............................................................................. 151
Recommendations ........................................................................................ 153
I am the Decisive Element ............................................................................ 159
6. APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 160
Interview Protocol ........................................................................................ 161
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 163
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Ruben’s Leadership Competencies ........................................................................ 6
2. Participant Demographics .................................................................................... 52
3. Demographics for Research Site “O” Based on 2009-2010 California
State Data.............................................................................................................. 54
4. Demographics for Research Site “M” Based on 2009-2010 California
State Data.............................................................................................................. 55
5. Demographics for Research Site “RL” Based on 2009-2010 California
State Data.............................................................................................................. 57
6. Theme: Teacher Beliefs ........................................................................................ 67
7. Theme: Learning is a Process ............................................................................... 78
8. Theme: Building Student Autonomy.................................................................... 94
9. Theme: Teacher Pre-Service and In-Service Training Beliefs ........................... 105
10. Theme: Characteristics of Classroom Leaders .................................................. 117
11. Theme: Can Characteristics be Taught? ............................................................ 122
12. Theme: How to Develop Classroom Leadership............................................... 125
13. Major Findings and the Literature ..................................................................... 142
14. Connections Between Transformational Leaders and Transformational
Classroom Teachers .......................................................................................... 148
15. Sample Classroom Leadership Academy: Participatory Action
Research Methodology ..................................................................................... 154
xiv
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Educational leadership is at the forefront of school wide improvement
literature. Leadership can be viewed as both formal and informal and much of the
literature on school leadership focuses on formal positions of power (Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000; Spillane, Halverson & Diamond, 2001). Informal leadership roles are
also important to include in the educational research, and teaching is a form of
informal leadership. Teachers can be leaders within their own classroom miniorganizations (Peterson & Cooke, 1983). The notion of transformational teacher
leadership from within the classroom centers around the importance of relationships
that leaders, classroom teachers, build with their followers and the effect leadership
has on learning. A major voice is missing from the educational research on school
leadership: the teacher’s voice.
Transformational leadership can be explained using many different definitions.
For the purpose of this paper, the author has chosen to use the definition as presented
by Yukl (1999) which states that a transformational leader inspires followers to
commit to shared objectives, provides intellectual stimulation, and develops follower
skills and collective efficacy while at the same time allowing for individual
consideration. Classroom teachers can be transformational leaders. Bartlett (1990) and
Senge (1990) note that learning is change, thus transformational. In order for
classroom teachers to create a learning environment that increases the social
identification of students, changes followers thinking and develops learning through
2
collective efficacy, certain characteristics of the teacher as a leader must be present.
This research study seeks to uncover transformational leadership characteristics of
teachers within the classroom setting.
This study examines organizational leadership theory as it relates to classroom
organizations and teachers as leaders of those organizations. Using organizational
theory helps to set aside the difference between effective teachers (those who
disseminate information well) and transformational teacher leaders (teachers who
exhibit teacher leadership characteristics in order to enact change). Research has
shown that once the doors of the classroom close, it is the teacher that influence
students’ learning (Katyal & Evers, 2004). Furthermore, Senge (1990), who studies
mainly organizational culture and change, notes that progress and leadership in any
organization does not have to come from the top (like a principal or superintendent).
Instead, leadership can exsist at all levels of an organization, and progress with regard
to effective leadership can derive from the middle of the organization (or classroom).
Research on teacher leadership as it pertains to the classroom as an
organization is extremely sparse, almost non-existent. Research abounds on school
leadership, but mostly focuses on formal positions of leadership, namely the effects of
principals and head teachers on school climate (Crowther, Kaagan, Ferguson, & Hann,
2002; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000 Pounder, 2006; Treslan, 2006). According to Snell
and Swanson (2000), teacher voice is missing from the educational leadership
literature. The above authors further note that very little research explores the
complexities of teacher leaders and the experiences, skills and expertise these teachers
3
develop over time. In a world of increasing complexities, school improvement must
include the voice of teachers who are leaders from within their classrooms. Too few
studies have looked at teachers as leaders from within their classroom. This study aims
at helping to close the gap on educational leadership research by uncovering the voices
of six teacher leaders who show transformational teacher characteristics as described
above. The author builds upon the reformulation of educational leadership by using an
organizational theory framework whereby new leadership fabric (transformational
classroom leadership) is added to the educational leadership quilt.
Nature of Study
This study was designed to collect data on the perceptions and practices of
transformational teachers within three mid-sized, K-8, northern California schools.
Qualitative research methods were used in order to capture the voices of six K-8
teachers. A phenomenological approach was used because phenomenology aims at
seeking knowledge through “concentrated studies of experience and the reflective
practices of oneself” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 25). This approach was chosen because the
author wished to illuminate teacher voices and experiences as they pertain to teacher
leadership within the classroom organization. Phenomenological research is aimed at
determining what experiences mean for the persons who have had the experiences and
provides a detailed description of the participant’s story (Moustakas, 1994). The
research questions guiding this study were:
1. How have the teacher leaders in this study developed effective leadership
practices within their classrooms?
4
2. What experiences have the participants in this study had regarding
effective leadership training in the classroom?
3. What are the essential elements of effective classroom leadership and
teacher leadership training?
These research questions guided the semi-structured interviews and classroom
observations. Six teachers from within three schools were chosen based on the
researchers’ observations, and informal discussions with teachers who exhibit the
transformational leadership characteristics. Further discussion of the methodology,
including the phenomenological approach and selection of participants, is explained in
Chapter 3.
Key Terms
A Learning Organization
Senge (1990) explains that a learning organization is about a leader’s process
of developing shared results and desires by encouraging new patterns through
collective aspirations of the group (p. 3).
Characteristics
A characteristic is defined for this study as a distinguishing trait or personal
attribute exhibited by the leader in any given situation. For example, transformational
leadership characteristics of a teacher leader include distributing leadership and
building collective efficacy within the classroom.
5
Educational Leader
Traditionally, educational leaders have been thought of as those persons who
hold formal positions of power such as principals, superintendents, or other school
administrators. This research includes classroom teachers as educational leaders.
Learning
A process whereby people acquire and develop intellectual tools and strategies
needed to acquire knowledge that allows them to think productively (National
Research Council, 2000).
Phenomenology
Research approach used to capture participants’ experiences in order to obtain
a comprehensive description that portrays the essence of some experience. This
approach views experience and behavior as an inseparable relationship (Moustakas,
1994).
Transformational Teacher Leader
For the purposes of this research study, a transformational teacher leader is
defined as a classroom teacher who is driven by the desire to inspire individuals
towards educational excellence. They develop follower skills and collective efficacy
of the students in their classroom while accounting for individual differences.
Organizational Theory as a Frame
According to Bess and Dee (2008), organizational theory is an eclectic field
pulling thoughts mainly from the social sciences, psychology, sociology, and
economics. According to the authors above, theory helps leaders to identify patterns,
6
engage in reflection, think systematically, analyze problems and take actions within an
organization effectively. Theory helps leaders develop multiple ways to solve
organizational complexities by allowing one to use multiple lenses to view a problem.
Classrooms are indeed complex entities and can be looked at as micro-organizations
within the school system. Organizational theory can help understand the dynamics of
the classroom (Cheng, 1994).
Leadership theory is a subset of organizational theory and can be used in
conjunction with organizational theory to understand the dynamics of classroom
leadership. Ruben (2006) posits that effective leaders have certain characteristics that
allows them to manage and move organizations forward. The five competencies of a
transformational leader are presented in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Ruben’s Leadership Competencies
Competencies
Personally Competent
Analyze Effectively
Communicate Effectively
Positionally Competent
Organizationally Competent
How leaders exhibit these competencies
Ethical, creative, enthusiastic, persistent,
confident
Reflective, use multiple assessments, use
theoretical frames
Good listeners, understand cultural variations
Experienced, experts in their field
Understand systems theory, set communal
goals and visions, coach and facilitate
learning
Organizational leadership theory, which combines the concepts of
organizational theory and leadership theory above, has not been widely used as a lens
for understanding classroom dynamics. It may prove through this study as a
7
meaningful way to understand the intricacies of teaching and learning. Using a
leadership frame allows for new inquiry into classroom leadership, one that has not
been widely studied before (Johnson & Owens, 2005). These competencies as well as
other leadership theorists and researchers will be examined in Chapter 2 of this study.
Research and Theory on Educational Leadership
Teacher Leadership Within the Classroom
The author conducted an extensive review of the literature by searching the
educational and psychological data bases of Wilson, EBSCO, ERIC and ProQuest.
Key words of “teacher leadership”, “classroom leadership”, “instructional leadership”,
“transformational teachers”, “organizational theory and classrooms” and
“organizational theory and education” were used in the search process. Throughout the
review of the literature very few research studies could be found that directly studied
teacher leadership within the context of the classroom. A research project by Cheng
(1994) studied three elementary schools using cross-sectional surveys. The sample of
21, 622 sixth grade students was part of a larger research project called the “Education
Quality in Hong Kong Primary Schools: Indicators and Organizational Determinants.”
Katyal and Evers (2004) studied teacher leadership within three secondary schools in
Hong Kong. Their sample used interview data from 14 teachers, 12 parents and three
groups of students. Both research studies showed that teachers can be transformational
change agents, thus transforming their students beliefs about learning and their goals
for learning.
8
Leadership Theory and Organizations
To consider the relationship between teacher and students from an
organizational perspective it may be helpful to reconceptualize the research on
classroom processes. A classroom including a group of students and their class
teacher is in itself a small social organization, in which the class teacher is
often assumed to be the leader and students the followers. (Maehr, 1990 as
cited in Cheng, 1994, p. 54)
The classroom studies by Katyal and Evers (2004) and Cheng (1994)
researched the classroom as a social system and built upon the conceptual framework
of Yukl (1999). Although Yukl is a cited author over and over in educational
leadership research and theoretical papers, it is important to note that his philosophies
derive from research done in the business world. A positional paper of Shulman and
Leuchauer (1991) supports the goal of research that looks at classrooms as
organizations and teachers as leaders of those organizations.
Transformational Leadership and Teachers
“The real leader is a servant of the people” (Monroe, 1997, p. 134).
Further contributions by researchers and theorists alike connect the study of
transformational leadership, which is those actions of leaders interacting with
followers to inspire the attainment of personal and group goals, to teachers leading
their students within their classroom organizations (Treslan, 2006; Cheng, 1994; Cobb
& McClain, 2006; Katyal & Evers, 2004; Pounder, 2006). Furthermore, the crosssectional survey research of Cheng showed that teacher leadership style had an impact
9
on student learning and that findings from this research supported the notion that
organizations can indeed be classrooms and studies that research leaders who have
transformational characteristics (shared decision making, inspired follower
commitments, etc.) could be generalized to the classroom.
Student Learning
In the current era of high stakes testing and accountability, teacher leadership
within the classroom cannot be more timely. The ethnographic research by Beachum
and Dentith (2004) studied 25 teachers and found that teachers who develop their
followers by understanding their students’ reasoning have a positive impact on high
stakes testing and overall student achievement. Cobb and McClain (2006) note in their
discussion that it has sometimes been assumed throughout the educational community
that high stakes accountability systems have limited teachers’ ability to become
instructional leaders, but those teachers who see themselves as leaders develop
strategies to engage all students in the learning process. Furthermore, Treslan (2006)
supports this idea and notes that transformational teachers are “curriculum
constructivists” who raise students’ awareness of the need for learning by tapping in to
the beliefs and values of their followers.
Teacher leaders do not dictate through power what students are to learn.
Consistent with critical pedagogy, transformational teachers co-construct knowledge
within their classrooms. They do not assume the position of holder of knowledge,
rather they engage in meaningful activities with their students to develop new ways of
understanding and alternative ways of thinking. In a short paper by Bowman (2004),
10
he notes that teacher leaders masterfully create experiences in their classrooms that
allow students to gain knowledge by exploring and sharing. He further theorizes and is
supported by Treslan (2006) that educators who are transformational guide the
learning process by developing relationships with their students whereby observing
and analyzing important factors that either inhibit or promote student learning. It is the
classroom leader who then understands the data from analyzing the factors that inhibit
or promote student learning that immediately provides feedback to students in order to
create an environment whereby all group members learn (Senge, 1990).
Formal Educational Leadership
One of the hallmark research projects on educational leadership was conducted
by Leithwood and Jantzi (2000). This research found that principal leadership was
really the most important aspect of leadership as it pertains to individual student
achievement. The authors above studied 6,490 students and 1,818 teachers. Their large
quantitative study used survey data in order to determine the effects of school
leadership on student achievement, and they found that the effects of principal
leadership were weak but still significant whereas the effects of teacher leadership
where not at all significant. Important to note is that the researchers had the principals
of the schools administer the surveys to the fifth through eighth grade students. This
may have had some bearing on the fact that principal leadership and attributes affected
student achievement more than teachers did.
11
Teacher Leadership Amongst Colleagues
Cobb and McClain (2006) believe that teacher leadership can best be viewed
as a collective and distributed activity and builds on the research done by Leithwood
and Jantzi (2000) above by noting that principals set the tone for teacher leadership at
their schools. Their study looked at middle school math teachers and used a method of
analytical observation to determine the collective networks of leadership and the
impact on student achievement. The study not only studied the administrators
distributed leadership practices on teacher instruction, but looked at networks amongst
colleagues and how these relationships helped to strengthen the participants teaching
practice. These theorists argue that the way in which principals distribute their
leadership tasks in a school significantly impacts whether or not teachers have the
opportunity to become teacher leaders and shared decision makers.
Research Assumptions
This study focused on the perceptions and practices of transformational
teachers within their classrooms. Specifically, the study examined the processes of
leadership and the experiences of transformational teachers. The research of this study
is predicated upon the following assumptions:
1. The phenomena of teacher leadership within the classroom can be found in
many school settings, not just the ones in this study.
2. Participants will exhibit, to some extent, all of the five given teacher
leadership characteristics as described above.
12
3. Participants will participate in both the interview and classroom
observation.
4. The participants in the study will answer the interview questions with
honesty and forthrightness.
Limitations
Although this study is focused on a purposeful sample and limited to three K-8
suburban schools in Northern California, a wide range of information regarding the
setting, background and experiences of the participants in this study was collected.
This information allows a determination to be made regarding whether or not the
results of this study may be generalizable to other settings. The limitations of a
phenomenology, like most qualitative research, are primarily related to the
generalizability of the findings. However, because of the detailed descriptions that are
provided, and the assumption that classroom teacher leadership can be found in other
schools, this study provides insights for others interested in the significance of teacher
leadership within the classroom.
Significance of Study
Clearly, the limited amount of research on classrooms as organizations and
teachers as leaders within those contexts gives rise to the need for further research that
analyzes the impact of teacher leadership (Snell & Swanson, 2000). Classroom
leadership is different than instructional leadership, which has been widely studied, in
that instructional leadership focuses on principals who are considered experts in
curriculum and instruction and impart good teaching practices to their staff in order to
13
improve student academic outcomes. Classroom leadership is about more than just
increased student outcomes. Understanding how teachers lead their students is about
analyzing how these leaders motivate and inspire their followers (students) by building
collective efficacy and seeking individualized consideration while achieving common
goals set by the group.
This study aimed at contributing to the limited research on teacher leadership
by qualitatively studying teachers in their contextual settings in order to observe their
leadership qualities. The small body of research available on teacher leadership within
the classroom as an organization suggests that there is a great need for changing the
paradigm and broadening the educational communities’ definition of teacher
leadership to include leading from within the classroom (Beachum & Dentith, 2004;
Cheng, 1994; Katyal & Evers, 2004; Peterson & Cooke, 1983; Pounder, 2006; Silva,
Gimbert, & Nolan, 2000; Treslan, 2006;). Additionally, Snell and Swanson (2000)
state that “very little research traces the complex journeys that teachers undertake,
over the course of their careers, to become instructional leaders…”(p. 3). This study
was predicated on investigating the journey of six teachers and how that journey
helped them develop into classroom leaders. Snell and Swanson further note that
missing from teacher leadership research is a portrait of what this phenomenon is and
what it looks like both in theory and “on the ground” (p. 3). Kanter (1981) states that
more layers of all educational institutions, such as classrooms, should be involved in
goal setting and planning by using organizational theory. Kanter goes on to note that
14
organizations need to seek leadership in new and unexpected places at all levels of an
organization.
Conclusion
This study aims at developing the concept of teachers as transformational
classroom leaders while uncovering the experiences that led to the development of
transformational leadership characteristics amongst five teachers who lead from within
their classroom. Chapter 2 is a literature review on the research surrounding
transformational teachers. The review of the literature provides an organizational
framework for understanding classrooms as micro-organizations as well as analyzes
the teacher leadership literature cited here. Chapter 3 explains the phenomenological
methods used in conducting this qualitative study. This chapter includes an
explanation of how participants were selected, provides meaningful demographics,
and explains how data were collected and analyzed for interpretation. Chapter 4
provides an account of the research tools used for the data collection from interviews
and observations as well as an overall analysis of the data collected. Chapter 5
examines the themes that emerged from the data with a conclusion that gives an
interpretation of the findings as well as recommendations for action by policy makers
and implications for further study.
15
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The examination of leadership within the four walls of the classroom is sparse
(Cheng, 1994; Crowther et al., 2002; Katyal & Evers, 2004; Katzenmeyer & Moller,
1996). The author conducted a literature search using major Social Science indexes
like EBSCO, Wilson Web, and ERIC. The following is a list of key phrases and words
used to search the above indexes: teacher leadership, teacher leadership in the
classroom, classroom leadership, transformational teacher leadership in the class,
instructional leadership, educational leadership, and transformational teacher
leadership. Two major themes were explored throughout this study. First, teachers’
perceptions of their role in classroom leadership were explored. Secondly, their beliefs
about how their life experiences shaped their leadership practices were examined. This
chapter provides the framework for this study by providing information on
organizational leadership theory, classrooms as micro-organizations and
transformational teacher leaders. In conclusion, a review of the phenomenological
research method used in this study is explained and discussed.
Conceptual Framework for Studying Teacher Leadership
Why Organizational Theory?
In a study by Johnson and Owens (2005), they found that organizational theory
has not been widely used as a means of inquiry with regard to educational research
and that teaching and learning occur within an organizational context. They strongly
suggest that the “time has come to aggressively link the study of learning
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environments with literature such as organizational theory” (p. 41). Their study’s
purpose was to identify whether or not educational research as a field had reached
developmental maturity. They sought to explore underdeveloped relationships
between education and organizational literature concluding that a new lens is needed
in order to spark innovation and change within the education arena. They note that the
educational world has used “indigenous frames” in order to understand their field
which has provided practitioners and researchers alike with a very narrow view of how
to improve schools specifically teaching and learning.
According to several authors (Bess & Dee, 2008; Bogler, 2001; Johnson &
Owens, 2005; Scott, 2003), theory helps leaders to identify patterns, engage in
reflection, think systematically, analyze problems and take actions within an
organization effectively. Theory helps leaders develop multiple ways to solve
organizational complexities by allowing one to use multiple lenses to view a problem.
Classrooms are indeed complex entities and can be looked at as micro-organizations
within the school system. Organizational theory can help understand the dynamics of
the classroom (Cheng, 1994).
What is an Organization?
Scott (2003) presents a framework for understanding the basic elements of an
organization. He notes that organizations are made up of social structures whereby
participants create common goals and use technology to communicate. Social structure
as defined by Scott (2003) relates to the set of roles and responsibilities participants
abide by as well as the norms that guide their common behavioral expectations.
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Participants are the individuals who make contributions to the organization and
contribute in some way to the group. As participants engage in the social structure,
their main task is to achieve goals that will deliver them to some sort of “desired end.”
Furthermore, the organization is defined as a group of people who use technology to
communicate with one another. Technology is not only used in this definition to mean
computers and electronic media, but any “medium through which some type of energy
or work is applied in order to transform inputs into outputs” (Scott, p. 22).
Scott (2003) further explains that there are multiple types of organizations and
that these collectives can be rational, natural or open. A rational system according to
Scott is one that is oriented towards the pursuit of specific goals and is organized in a
highly formalized way. A natural system is one that enables participants to work as a
collective pursuing multiple interests at the same time. He emphasizes that natural
systems focus on relationships within the group and that these relationships are the
basis for developing behavioral expectations for the group versus highly formalized
rules or regulations such as the rational system. Lastly, the open system is one
whereby organizations are entities of a larger system (Crossan, Lane & White, 1999;
Scott, 2003; Senge, 1990). Participants and activities of the organization are linked to
a wider “material resource and institutional environment” (Scott, p. 29).
Bess and Dee (2008) and Senge (1990) further explain open organizations
through their definition of systems theory. These authors note that organizations can
be thought of as systems. Systems theory is the belief that an organization is a set of
components interrelated, interactive and interdependent upon one another. Social
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systems theory provides a framework for understanding the intricacies of an
organization by studying the relationships of its components (Senge, 1990). This
theory can also be used to understand how the environment outside of the organization
has an important impact on what happens inside the organization. Senge (1990) further
notes that systems theory is a conceptual framework that holds all other frames
together by allowing leaders to analyze the patterns of a whole organization by
studying the interactions of all the parts as they relate to the whole. He goes on to
argue that the leader who understands systems theory knows that this discipline is the
heart of any learning organization because people see themselves as connected to each
other instead of as separate entities and build upon the strengths of each other as they
push the vision of the institution forward as a whole entity.
As a subset of systems theory, social systems theory can be used to understand
human behavior within an organization. Bess and Dee (2008) note that according to
social system theorists, there are two ways to look at human behavior, the nomethic
side and the idiographic side. The nomethic side is the idea that the organization has
roles and expectations for its members. The idiographic side of understanding human
behavior is concerned with understanding personality, learned beliefs and individual
needs of the member. It is the combination of the two sides that bring a holistic view
of member behavior within the organization.
Bess and Dee (2008) further explain that organizations can be looked at
through the social constructivist lense, which this study does, meaning that
organizations are thought of as social organizations. Organizational theory with a
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social constructivist view believes that each member of the unit has a frame of
reference that consists of her/his own set of values, concepts or ideas. These individual
frames, often referred to as sense making, affect how people in the organization learn
and interpret as they depend on one’s experiences for understanding and meaning
making. Johnson and Owens (2005) also believe that organizations can be viewed
through the social constructivist frame and specifically believe that schools and
classrooms are human service organizations. They view classrooms as human
centered. This means that classrooms are often ambiguous, complex and every
changing because humans are “variable and unstable” (p. 49). This view is consistent
with the social constructivist belief that organizational members will construct and
interpret reality in a variety of ways; therefore, it is imperative that the leader
understand how each member of the organization is creating her/his own knowledge
and interpretation of information. Social constructivists see the influence sense making
has on organizational environments and understand that individuals will read symbols
and signals both overt and subtle in order to generate context and meaning which
eventually will lead to some sort of action. This paradigm of organizational theory
believes that sense making is both cognitive and social and when leaders are able to
re-envision problems they can help others conceive of alternative ways of thinking
(Bess & Dee, 2008). Following this section on organizational theory, the notion of reenvisioning problems will be explored as a frame for effective leadership.
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An Organizational Learning Frame
A sub-theory of organizational theory as described above is organizational
learning theory. This is particularly helpful in understanding the connection between
organizations and classrooms. According to theorists Crossan et al. (1999),
organizational learning is about intuition, interpreting, integrating and
institutionalizing (p. 522). They posit that cognition, or learning, and action are linked
and that it is not possible to have cognition without members of a group or
organization actively involved in the vision and goals of the institution. This is further
supported by Senge (1990) whose book The Fifth Discipline explains that
organizational learning is about leaders who expand workers’ capacity to create shared
results and desires, encourage new and expansive patterns to arise, and nurture the
collective aspirations of the group by inspiring people to continuously learn together.
Intuition, according to Senge (1990) as well as Crossan et al. (1999) directly
above, is about developing complex maps in the brain whereby experiences transform
into patterns and mental images used by the subconscious to bring meaning to new
situations. It is often this “sense” that defines expertise. It is the expert, according to
Crossan et al. (1999), that has had thousands of experiences patterned in the brain that
allow them to develop intuition. Senge (1990) calls intuition personal mastery. He
states it is the individuals’ commitment to lifelong learning and improvement that
allows them to reach a certain level of proficiency because they are constantly
clarifying and deepening theiFr vision and focus which allows them to see reality
objectively. According to Crossan et al. (1999), experts are people who no longer have
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to take deliberate time to plan and deliberate over new tasks; their job has become
second nature. The expert often has a difficult time explaining why or how they do
something. They often have not developed a language for describing their reflective
processes and experiences that have built strong connections in their brains allowing
them to see multiple possibilities when faced with a new challenge or situation.
Interpreting builds upon the intuitive process above according to Crossan et al.
(1999), but those members of an organization who become interpretive have started to
develop language to describe their intuition. Interpreting is developed through
dialogue and collective action towards a task (p. 528). Dialogue is very different than
discussion (Senge, 1990). Senge (1990) states that the word discussion is derived from
the same roots as percussion and concussion which leaves the idea that ideas are
“heaved back and forth”, whereas diologue comes from the Greeks meaning free
flowing (p. 10). Senge believes it is through the Greek version of dialogue that
information flows from one to another whereby members of a group suspend personal
assumptions and enter into a genuine group think. Crossan et al. (1999) note that this
is where intuitive learning becomes conscious and recognizable through the
development of cognitive mapping. Members understand that individuals interpret
their environments differently depending on their formed cognitive maps and groups
work together in order to create and refine a common language for understanding the
goals and visions of the organization.
Integrating thinking builds upon the intuitive and integrating process and what
once was individualized “feelings” becomes coherent collective action through shared
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understandings of thoughts and previous beliefs (Crossan et al., 1999, p. 528).
Organizations work to make “mutual adjustments” to individualized thinking by
collectively engaging in the cognitive process of reflection and seeking to find deep
interconnected meaning about systems and processes throughout the organization (p.
529). The above authors share that at the point where coordinated action is a result of
the integrated thinking process and the action happens over and over, the thoughts and
actions of the group will become institutionalized.
According to Crossan et al. (1999) institutionalizing something is the process
of ensuring routinized action occurs (p. 529). In this fourth step of moving an
organization to become a learning organization, tasks are well defined, actions are
specific and organizational mechanisms are put into place to ensure certain actions
take place (p. 529). It is only through time, reflection, constant practice and dialogue
that actions will become like “clock work”.
The classroom indeed has elements of an organization as described above.
Most classrooms have a social structure with rules and classroom procedures that
bring order to the group. Classrooms are naturally made of participants who may or
may not share the same goals as the teacher and or larger school as an institution
which makes classrooms both rational and natural systems. Technology at multiple
levels is used to communicate with members of the classrooms in order to accomplish
tasks. Classrooms are also undoubtedly open systems because they are dependent and
influenced by the larger environment of which they are a part.
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The conceptual framework for this study rests on the agreement that
classrooms are organizations. Senge et al. (2000) feel that classrooms are indeed
synonymous with the workplace environment where direct change can occur and the
classroom organization can be thought of as an organization whereby the teacher leads
the students (p. 102). If one accepts this condition that effective leadership is needed
in order to be a productive organization, then the following discussion of effective
leadership as it applies to the classroom organization will be applicable.
Effective Leadership Frame
Bass (1985) wrote about the difference between transactional and
transformational leadership. In his book, Leadership and Performance Beyond
Expectations, he defined transformational leadership as a leader’s ability to build a
common mission and vision through personal consideration of their followers. Senge
(1990) notes it is the effective leader who understands that creating a shared vision is
inspiring to an organization and that it is more than just creating a vision statement but
that it is the practice of unraveling shared “pictures of the future” that foster a genuine
commitment by the members of the group (p. 8). The transformational leader also
provides “intellectual stimulation” in order to motivate their followers into new and
innovative ways for solving challenges. Transactional leadership, on the other hand, is
defined by Bass (1985) as a relationship between leader and follower that is
hierarchical whereby the two are involved in a rule bound, punitive situation whereby
the leader provides compensation for the follower’s ability to accomplish a very
specific task.
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In addition to Bass (1985), Ruben (2006) presents a definition of
transformational leaders that is similar. As noted in Chapter 1, he states that
transformational leaders are personally competent, they analyze effectively, can
communicate effectively, are positionally competent and understand organizational
dynamics. He explains that effective leaders who are personally competent exhibit
ethics, persistence, self-confidence and respectful behavior. Leaders who have
analytical competencies are reflective problem solvers and analyze data through
multiple means of assessment. Kanter (1981) supports the importance of leaders using
multiple means of assessments in order to solve problems and find answers to
questions. She notes that “simple answers do not fit complex environments” (p. 220).
Another key component according to Ruben (2006) for transformational leaders to
exhibit is the ability to communicate effectively by developing good listening and
observational skills. These skills in turn allow leaders to understand cultural variations
in communication amongst their organizational members.
In addition to Ruben (2006), Bess and Dee (2008) as noted above, provide a
description of effective leadership that includes the leaders’ ability to communicate
well. They believe that communication is the basic unit of any organization.
Communication is seen as a process whereby language plays a unique role in helping
shape the knowledge base of members within the group. Bess and Dee (2008) mention
that it is important as a leader to understand how organizational members gather,
screen, select and retain information about their environment in order to be an
effective organization. Kanter (1981) adds another component of communication and
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effective leadership. She notes that effective leadership is about giving “followers
greater voice” and participation throughout the organization especially participation in
key decisions (p. 220). The work of Crossan et al. (1999) above notes that leaders who
are forward thinking understand that groups must have shared experiences and engage
in ongoing dialogue that enables them to create a shared language. It is through the
communication process that individuals share their insights and views which allow the
leader to gain an understanding of how the individuals’ thoughts and ideas may help
or impede the direction of the organization.
Along with effectively communicating, Ruben (2006) poses that strong leaders
who enact change and transform their organizations and followers have education,
experience and expertise, which allow them to develop an understanding of their
follower’s beliefs and values. Leaders who are transformational understand how the
organizational networks operate. They have a grounded view of social systems theory
and understand that everyone within the confines of that group has a role to play that
impact the organization (Bess & Dee, 2008; Ruben, 2006; Senge, 1990). Along with
the above authors Kanter (1981), believes that effective leaders build relationships and
share their power by democratizing the organization whereby allowing followers at all
levels to exercise leadership.
Effective leadership is about being able to maneuver gracefully through the
complexities of organizational dynamics. Bolman and Deal (2008) explain that one’s
own paradigm and beliefs determine what they see, do and accomplish and that
leaders with narrow oversimplified perspectives cloud their ability to manage (p. 41).
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They go on to note that leaders who have multiple theoretical frames from which to
pull from and base decisions develop an intuitive capacity for solving challenging
problems and build a world of possibility and excitement for their followers (p. 41).
The mentioned authors propose four perspectives on organizational thought, structural,
human resource, political and symbolic. They argue that leaders who can orchestrate
between these four frames pull resources from each theory in order to effectively
manage. “The frames are a palette that offer an array of options for decision making”
(p. 21).
The structural approach is a frame bound by rules, roles, goals and policies.
The leader operating from this frame spends time developing systems that are
effective and clear in order to create a sense of efficiency throughout the organization.
Teachers operating from this frame would spend time focusing on rules and classroom
policies that bring order to their classroom environments which would be optimal for
learning to occur.
The human resource frame is rooted in relationships and the leaders’ ability to
understand the participants in the organization. The leader develops the ability to
understand peoples’ strengths, weaknesses, emotions, desires and fears. The teacher
leader within the classroom using this frame would be able to understand the ever
changing moods, reasoning and desires of their students throughout the school day.
Expanding on the notion that organizations are human resource entities, the
political frame as posited by Bolman and Deal (2008) regards organizations as
competitive and that participants struggle with one another for scarce resources and
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compete over interests and power. Kanter (1981) argues that the effective leader
understands the innate desire of humans to accumulate power. She notes that people
within an organization need power and that power is really an effective component in
participating in the system. The teacher leader who understands this frame knows that
students will compete for power with multiple participants within the group and will
have competing interests between themselves and the group as a whole at times.
Powerlessness will breed ineffective organizational behaviors that can become
destructive to the goals and vision of the organization and teachers who feel powerful
as leaders operate more flexibility, give more freedom and emphasize more
development for their students (Kanter, 1981).
Lastly, the symbolic frame focuses on issues of meaning and builds group
membership through rituals, stories, and culture. Teachers who implore the symbolic
frame spend time developing rituals such as class meetings, morning greetings, and
classroom routines.
The frames as presented by Bolman and Deal (2008) can be used to understand
how a classroom leader, teacher, might navigate effectively throughout their mini
organization. Bolman and Deal’s notion that leadership and managing is not stagnate
is supported by Kezar (2009). She notes that leadership is no longer understood to be a
“universal truth or individual possession” rather it is recognized as highly complex
shaped by interpersonal interactions, culture and social norms in particular
organizational contexts (p. 6). Effective leaders are ones who can act almost
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chameleon like and pull theories and experiences together in order to navigate the
complexities and challenges of leadership.
In a recent study on authentic leadership, Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner,
Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) studied their devloping theory of authentic leadership
using a sample of business employees from the United States, Kenya and China.
Authentic leadership is defined as leaders who actively lead on true values, beliefs and
strengths while helping others do the same (p. 91). Furthermore, they believe that
authentic leaders “advance the human enterprise and achieve positive and enduring
outcomes” (p. 91). Their quantitative study surveyed adults in the workforce in order
to analyze the employees perceptions of their supervisors leadership traits as it related
to the workers’ committement to the organization. Their study revealed that
supervisors who exhibited authentic leadership characteristics and advanced their
employees values, beliefs and strengths developed optimal levels of self esteem within
their employees as well as increased the overall friendliness and performance of the
organization. While this study obviously studied the relationships of adults with their
superviosrs within a workforce context, it can be applied to the classroom as well.
Classroom leaders who engage in authentic leadership roles could positively affect
their classrooms to become more productive, friendly environments.
Educational Leadership
Teacher Leadership Defined
Teacher leadership is not narrowly defined in the research. There are multiple
definitions for describing teacher leadership. In fact, few research studies recognize
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that teachers are the main instruments to learning (Crowther, 2002). There is
incredible support from the academic community in developing teacher leadership
(Bolkan & Goodboy, 2009; Crowther et al., 2002;Katyal & Evers, 2004; Katzenmeyer
& Moller, 1996; Pounder, 2006; Treslan, 2006). Crowther, Kaagan, Ferguson and
Hann (2002) worked off the theories of Katzenmeyer and Moller (1996) and
conducted an in depth qualitative study over a five year time period studying teachers
as leaders. Over the five year period the researchers collected interviews, observations
and focus groups at over 180 school sites. Crowther et al. (2002) state that a new
paradigm is needed for teacher leadership in order to achieve whole school success.
They develop the notion that teacher leadership is not just about effective teaching, it
is a way of acting which uses the distinctive power of teaching to shape meaning for
children, youth and adults by contributing to the long term enhanced quality of
community life. This definition supports the teacher leadership theories of
Katzenmeyer and Moller (1996) that state teacher leaders are facillitators of student
learning and that uncovering teacher leaders and by empowering them to feel
confident in their abilities to lead they will in turn assume responsibility for learning
of all students. While this study by Katzenmeyer and Moller helps to build support for
teacher leadership, it’s main findings and focus was on teacher leadership within the
school and climates that support teacher leadership and did not go in to detailed
analysis about the teacher as a classroom leader which this study aims at conducting.
Heifetz and Linsky (2002) note that leadership can be exercised by all in an
organization and not just reserved for people who hold formal positions of power.
30
They encourage members of organizations at all levels to believe that every day they
can influence and make a difference in the lives of people around them (p. 2). They
explain that every day leaders raise important questions within an organization and
work under the operation of a value system based on morals as they work to solve
conflicts. These authors view leadership as a process rather than a position thus they
encourage people to participate in leadership because in the complex world of today,
in order to enact positive change, participants should “take up the challenges of
leadership without being asked from a superior or wait until they personally hold a
formal position of power” (p. 2). Finally they note that no one person can accomplish
anything of significance alone.
Scheurich and Skrla (2003) in their book, Leadership for Equity and
Excellence, explain that teachers have a role as leaders within their classrooms by
providing effective instruction and promoting and inclusive classroom culture. They
further note that in order for teachers to “lead,” they need to be attuned daily to who is
learning what and who is not and then find ways to increase the learning of all
students in their classroom. They note that teachers who are classroom leaders are
“persistent and relentless” when it comes to educating every learner in their class (p.
47). In addition to imploring effective classroom strategies, they believe that
classroom teachers who are leaders are willing to restructure their instructional day to
fit the needs of their individual students and do not abide by the status quo
organization of the teaching day throughout a particular school.
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This research study aims at developing a framework for understanding the
classroom teacher as a transformational leader. In order for classroom teachers to
create a learning environment that increases the social identification of students,
changes their thinking and develops learning through collective efficacy, certain
characteristics of the teacher as a leader must be present. The author hopes to uncover
those necessary characteristics through this phenomenological study.
Classrooms as Micro-Organizations
As noted earlier in Chapter 1:
To consider the relationship between teacher and students from an
organizational perspective it may be helpful to reconceptualize the research on
classroom processes. A classroom including a group of students and their class
teacher is in itself a small social organization, in which the class teacher is
often assumed to be the leader and students the followers. (Maehr, 1990 as
cited in Cheng, 1994, p. 54)
Researchers and theorists alike connect the study of transformational
leadership, which is those actions of leaders interacting with followers to inspire the
attainment of personal and group goals, to teachers leading their students within their
classroom organizations (Cheng, 1994; Cobb & McClain, 2006; Kanter, 1981; Katyal
& Evers, 2004; Pounder, 2006; Treslan, 2006). Furthermore, leadership theorists
Avolio et al. (2004) note that effective leaders restore confidence, hope, optimism and
resiliency, which teachers often do. These traits of restoring confidence, building
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hope, maintaining optimism and supporting resiliency would be seen in a
transformational teacher leader.
Burkhardt, Petri, and Roody (1995) developed an organizational tool for
schools to use in order to determine their effectiveness as it relates to student
achievement. These researchers developed a framework which they call the “Kite.”
The Kite model is a diagnostic reflective tool that focuses on evaluating the processes
and relationships within the school that impact the education of students. It forces the
investigators to look at the functions and processes of the school system wide. Fiftythree educational processes are assessed and ranked on a five point Likert scale. Some
of the components evaluated are (a) how the school views students, (b) the focus and
structure of curriculum, (c) organization of learning, (d) groupings and tracking of
students, etc. While this is a brief snapshot of the evaluative tool, most of the 53
components ask questions that are directly linked to the teacher and classroom.
Burkhardt et al. (1995) note that educational researchers must re-examine the
traditional roles, structures and processes of schools and one way in which to do that is
by using organizational theory. On page 273 they share that schools are organizations
with educational subsystems that function both independently and interdependently.
This supports the notion of classrooms as micro-organizations or systems within a
school.
The cross-sectional survey research of Cheng (1994) showed that teacher
leadership style had an impact on student learning and organizations can be indeed
classrooms. He noted that organizational theory that arose from the adult management
33
world could be used with regard to classrooms and that leaders who exhibit
transformational leadership characteristics (shared decision making, inspired follower
commitments etc.) could be used to study the classroom teacher. This is further
supported by authors Senge et al. (2000) who believe that teachers are the designers of
their “learning organization” (p. 102). Cheng’s (1994) study looked at three
elementary schools using cross-sectional surveys. The sample of 21, 622 sixth grade
students was part of a larger research project called the “Education Quality in Hong
Kong Primary Schools: Indicators and Organizational Determinants.” His analysis of
data showed that the teachers’ “leadership and use of power was intertwined in a
process of leading a class of students” (p. 69). While this study is important for
developing the notion of classroom leadership, this large quantitative study did not
capture the voices of teachers directly as this study intends to do.
Katyal and Evers (2004) studied classroom leadership within three secondary
schools in Hong Kong. Their sample used interview data from 14 teachers, 12 parents
and three groups of students. The three schools were all individually different in terms
of demographics this brought validity to their findings that teacher leadership is not
just a phenomenon in certain schools, but that it can be found in multiple contexts.
One limitation of this particular study is that the research was done in Hong Kong and
the schools were demographically different from the research site in this study.
Nonetheless, both this study as well as Cheng’s (1994) research showed that
organizational theory can be used to study classrooms and that teachers can be
transformational change agents, thus transforming their students beliefs about learning
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and their goals for learning. The reality is that teachers go in to their classroom, close
the doors and interact with their students (Katyal & Evers, 2004). It is the teacher’s
leadership attributes that contribute to whether the student(s) learn or not (Cheng,
1994; Katyal & Evers, 2004).
The above studies were supported by the research conducted by Bolkan and
Goodboy (2009). This study looked at transformational leadership characteristics
(individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, etc.) and found that these
characteristics are moderately to strongly associated with student learning and student
participation. Although this research was conducted in a university setting, the concept
of teachers as transformational leaders in their classrooms can be supported by the
findings of the study. Bolkan and Goodboy analyzed data from 165 undergraduate
students in a mid-sized Eastern university. The particpants were given multiple
questionairres about their percpetions of teacher leadership exhibited by
communication professors. The students were currently enrolled in the communication
classes and were given the questionairres at the end of the semester so that particpants
were familiar with the instructors classroom behaviors. One limitation of this study
was that the research was conducted at a university and only studies students’
perceptions of teacher leadership were collected. What is missing from this research is
a connection to the teachers themselves and how they percieve their leadership
abilities within the classroom setting.
All the studies mentioned above emphasized that it is not enough to merely
study the impact of teacher leaders within the context of formal positions or to study
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teachers leading amongst their colleagues, but rather teacher leadership is complex
and new ways of defining teacher leadership is surely warranted due to the fact that
the research on classroom leadership is extremely sparse. Cohen, Lotan, and Leechor
(1989) support the use of organizational theory to understand the use of authority and
work arrangments within a classrom and note that it can be a valuable tool for
understanding learning. Because the majority of school leadership research focuses
mainly on formal school positions of power and leadership (Cobb & McClain, 2006;
Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000; Peterson & Cooke, 1983; Spillane et al., 2001) it seems
there has been a tight limit on our thinking as an educational community on the type of
teacher leadership that is warranted for research (Cheng, 1994).
Teacher Leadership within the Classroom
Throughout the review of the literature very few research studies could be
found that directly studied teacher leadership within the context of the classroom. As
noted above, the research project by Cheng (1994) and Katyal and Evers (2004)
studied teacher leadership within elementary and secondary schools in Hong Kong.
Through interview and observational data, both research studies showed that teachers
can be transformational change agents, thus transforming their students beliefs about
learning and their goals for learning. The studies above as well as the literature by
Brown (2005) propose that teachers who are transformational in their classrooms build
upon the skills of their followers (students) by inspiring them towards common visions
and goals through the use of effective communication skills. This is directly connected
to organizational leadership theory as explained above that notes that effective leaders
36
are able to communicate well to their followers by understanding the intricacies of the
communication process (Bess & Dee, 2008; Ruben, 2006). Brown postulates that the
significance of “congruent communication” is that it leads to effective classroom
management (p. 12).
Congruent communication as explained by Brown (2005) is about the teacher
being reflective about the way in which they are engaging with their students. Several
components of congruent communication that are key to the effective management of
classrooms are a teacher’s ability to (a) actively listen, (b) match non-verbal body
language and facial expressions to the verbal messages of their students, and (c)
respond with empathy to students’ frustration and anxiety. Brown goes on to note that
effective communication by teachers is built on respect and trust and that teachers who
connect to their students’ world by taking interest in their lives build respect and trust
throughout their classroom.
Leaders who seek to transform organizations seek multiple ways to solve
complex problems (Bolman & Deal, 2008), Brown (2005) also notes that teachers who
engage in “congruent communication” seek solutions to problems within their
classrooms by mutual respect and engaging students within the problem solving
process. As stated earlier, effective leaders who transform their followers thinking
towards a common purpose are reflective communicators and skilled at understanding
the complexities of effective communication which, according to Brown (2005), will
create a classroom where the expressive needs of students are being met therefore
enriching the opportunities for academic growth for all.
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Transformational Teacher Leadership Affects Student Achievement and
Learning
“What a teacher feels and thinks about the children in front of her makes all the
difference in how much those children will learn” (Monroe, 1997, p. 111).
The 2004 study conducted by Beachum and Dentith studied the effects of high
stakes testing and accountability and teacher leadership. Although the study of twenty
five teachers focused on formal leadership positions and how principals who distribute
their leadership empower teachers to create innovative interventions to enhance
student learning for diverse students, it was still meaningful in their findings that
teachers who took on new roles of leadership by participating in the decision making
of the school positively affected student achievement.
Treslan’s (2006) notion of “curriculum constructivists” is supported by the
work of Schon (1983). Schon’s theory of reflexivity explains the three stages of
reflective practitioners. He defines reflection as, the practitioner’s ability to analyze
within a context a phenomenon that he perceives as incongruent with his intuitive
understanding. The first stage, reflection for action, is the planning stage whereby the
teacher analyzes the student’s needs and which strategies will be the most beneficial
for delivering information. In the second stage of reflection, reflection in action, the
teacher adjusts their teaching depending upon the responses gained from the collective
body. It is the idea that learning is fluid and that how students respond to a particular
lesson engages the teacher/leader to make changes to the plan. The third stage,
reflection on action, is an analysis of what happened in the lesson. It is the part of the
38
reflective process that is done after the action has occurred. This phase allows teachers
to cycle back to the first phase of reflection, reflection for action, and plan for the next
lesson. Reflection, as Schon (1983) presents also allows for the “criticizing,
restructuring and testing of intuitive understanding of experienced phenomena” (p.
241). Reflection is key to transformational leadership within the classroom because
when teachers reflect, they constantly are searching for the best methodologies in
which to present material to their diverse populations and use a repertoire of teaching
strategies to engage learners. “They draw on a repertoire of cumulatively developed
knowledge, which they transform in the context of some unique situation” (Schon,
1983, p. 265). While Schon did not directly study teachers, his theories of reflective
processes are indeed valuable to the development of teacher leadership and consistent
with organizational theory and development.
A study conducted by Cohen, Lotan and Leechor (1989) in California looked
at classrooms as “collectives with variable properties” (p. 75). This study analyzed the
differentiation of instruction, delegation of authority by the teacher and
interdependence of student work arrangements. Achievment scores were analyzed
through a pre-post test scenario whereby the scores were looked at as a whole rather
than by individual student achievement. A standardized test of basic skills was used.
Scores were analyzed with respect to the “aggregated productivity of the collective
and then related to classroom learning” (p. 75). The longitudinal study took place from
1982-1983 and included 28 classrooms in 15 schools. Data was collected through
acheivement test scores and observations of teacher/student behaviors. The study
39
found that when teachers differentiated their instructional technology (used
manipulatives, assigning different tasks to different students and other techniques),
they were more likely to share their power within the classroom and encourage
leadership skills amongst their students. Because completing differentiated tasks
include working in groups and problem solving with peers, teachers who were
successful at sharing their power developed the capacity and intellect of their students.
The study also found that when tasks were more differentiated, students were more
engaged throughout the oranization of the classroom. In addition, the more the
teachers held on to their authority and taught through direct instruction the lower the
“rate of lateral communication” amongst their students (p. 78). This resulted in the
lack of communication development amongst followers because communication was
didactic, meaning from teacher to student. The study did not disregard the need for
direct instruction, it merely found that when students’ perceptions of a task was
predictable, direct instruction was a viable teaching model but that when students’
perceptions of a task were uncertain, the need for working with peers increased.
The belief that when tasks are uncertain group work with peers can help bring
clarity to the task is also supported by the above organizational learning research of
Crosslan et al. (1999). They noted that the uncertainity of a task can be linked to the
quality of information presented to a group and that social acitivity that creates a
shared meaning and understanding leads to organizational learning (p. 528). Lastly,
Cohen et al. (1989) found that those teachers who shared their power and taught
students to perform in groups increased their students’ ability to problem solve which
40
led to higher achievment scores on the standardized post tests. The researchers found
that as lateral communication increased amongst students, so did their ability to solve
problems and build their coneptual knowledge. One downfall of this research was that
the study used only teachers who had gone through the University of Stanford’s
training program the Program for Complex Instruction, which was a year long training
program providing tools and strategies to the teachers within the study on classroom
management. As well, every classroom in the study had two adults in their classrooms
which the study even notes is most beneficial in teaching students to learn through
cooperative groups. Nonetheless, the importance of this study is beneficial in
analyzing the leadership values of the classroom teacher and the organizational
development of the students within the classroom.
Finally, in a study by Silva et al. (2000) the researchers studied three teachers
through a case study and found that teachers can become leaders only in schools that
have climates that value learning for all learners, including teachers as leaders. In their
research they found that teachers felt that in schools where administrators welcomed
their professional input into instructional design, there was indeed a positive
correlation between students’ academic success and teacher leadership. This work
focused mainly on the availability of opportunities of teachers to participate in the
development of systemic instructional practices as set forth by their site
administrators. Although it did not focus solely on the classroom, findings were made
and themes discovered from the interviews that gave rise to the belief that students
41
who were in classrooms were teachers had the opportunities to lead within the school
context benefitted academically.
Formal Leadership
Although this current study does not focus on principals or formal positions of
teacher leadership, it is worthy to quickly note some landmark studies that relate to the
notion of classroom leadership and teachers as leaders. The large quantitative research
project of Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) studied 6,490 students and 1,818 teachers and
measured the effects of both principal and teacher leadership on student achievement.
The results of this study found that principal leadership was more significant than
teacher leadership. One limiting factor of this research was the definition used of
teacher leadership. Teacher leadership was defined as teacher who took on
administrative tasks at the school site, not how they lead their students which this
study aims at doing. Another limiting factor of the above research is that the authors
could not statistically link students’ answers to classrooms because in some cases
students had more than one teacher. This may have contributed to their limited
findings of teacher influence on student achievement. As well the survey given to the
teachers named “Organizational and School Leadership Survey” had 228 questions.
This type of survey could possibly create fatigue by the participants. Although the
researchers accounted for the lengthy survey by asking teachers to take the survey
within a two day period, it still was a large survey. Katyal and Evers (2004) negate
Leithwood and Jantzi’s (2000) findings that the most important predictor of student
success is the leadership style of the principal and note that this large quantitative
42
study did not statistically account for hidden elements that lie in the teacher
contributions on student achievement and thus suggest qualitative studies as the best
method for determining what actually is happening within the context of the
classroom. This work expanded upon the leadership theory of Spillane et al. (2001).
These theorists argue that the way in which principals distribute their leadership tasks
in a school significantly impacts whether or not teachers have the opportunity to
become teacher leaders and shared decision makers. In their short paper, Spillane et al
.theorize that student achievement is correlated to increased participation of teachers
in the decision making at school sites.
Heifetz and Linsky (2002) in their book, Leadership on the Line, note that as
organizations, such as schools, become more democratized in their leadership
structure and practices, the hierarchical structure will become more flat allowing
others in the organization a route to participate in decision making and leading. Kezar
(2009) found that principals who structure ongoing professional development that
encourages teachers to reflect, learn to environmentally scan, and collaborate amongst
peers, build leaders and distributed leadership throughout the school. Researchers
alike have noted that the distributed leadership practices of a principal trickle down
into the classroom management of teachers (Bogler, 2002; Kezar, 2009; Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000).
Bogler (2001, 2002) studied 745 teachers in Northern Israel by imploring an
organizational leadership theory lense. The teachers were diverse in terms of gender,
religion and ethnicity and taught K-12. He administered a quantitative questionnaire
43
that aimed at understanding teachers’ perceptions about their principals’ leadership
style and their satisfaction with their job. The questionnaire was based on a five point
likert scale and the researcher categorized the participants into highly satisfied and
least satisfied based on their scores. While several variables were studied, two
variables were significant in terms of why some teachers were highly satisfied. Highly
satisfied teachers according to this study believed they worked in an autonomous
environment and their principals exhibited the transformational leadership qualities
discussed in this paper. Bogler (2001, 2002) also found that teachers’ job satisfaction
was tied to their ability to participate in the school decision making process. When
teachers were encouraged to participate in both school wide decision making such as
hiring practices and budget matters as well as classroom decision making such as
curriculum and instruction, schools and classrooms were deemed highly successful as
compared to those schools who did not engage their teachers.
Teacher Leadership amongst Colleagues
The research of Cobb and McClain (2006) built upon the research done by
Leithwood and Jantzi (2000). Their study found that principals affect whether or not
teachers assume formal leadership roles at their schools. Their observational analysis
of middle school math teachers looked at the collective networks of leadership and the
impact on student achievement. The study analyzed the effects of individual school
administrators distributed leadership practices on teacher instruction, as well as how
teacher leaders built networks amongst colleagues. The relationships were then
analyzed to determine how these relationships helped to strengthen the participants
44
teaching practice. This work expanded upon the leadership theory of Spillane et al.
(2001). In their short paper, Spillane et al. theorize that student achievement is
correlated to increased participation of teachers in the decision making at school sites
and principals who distribute their leadership increase the possibility of teachers to
become school leaders. Cobb and McClain’s (2006) research builds upon this premise
and found that schools who had teachers involved in the decision making processes at
the school (budget, curriculum, staffing etc.) showed a strong correlation between
teachers’ leadership involvement and increased test scores of their students on high
stakes assessments. In addition, Snell and Swanson (2000) studied 10 middle school
teachers through qualitative methods of interviews, observations and portfolios over a
two year period and found that teacher leaders where exemplars in their own
classrooms, effective peer coaches and change agents who not only led at their school
sites as Cobb and McClain above found, but were engaged at the district, state and
national levels in educational reform (p. 4).
Another teacher leadership theorist, Bowman (2004), stated that teachers who
engaged in meaningful collegial activities with their colleagues that circled around
student learning were able to strengthen their identity as teachers. Furthermore,
teachers who develop their identity through collective action bring awareness to
themselves as professionals and meaning to their work as effective teachers. In
addition, he also shared that modeling integrity was part of the development of one’s
professional identity and that teachers who model integrity have positive results with
their students. Building upon the collaboration model, Scheurich and Skrla (2003)
45
found that teachers who were in highly successful schools engaged in continuous
discussion with colleagues about curriculum standards, student work, and critical
reflection.
By using a narrow view of teacher leadership, one that frames teacher leaders
as those who only lead and engage in leadership roles with their adult colleagues an
entire avenue for educational improvement is left unchartered. Teacher leadership
should include how teachers lead their students and develop them as learners. As
noted earlier, Johnson and Owens (2005) argue that teacher leadership must include
classroom leadership through an organizational lense in order to adress the
fundemental challenge of teaching and learning. Specifically they note that in order for
classroom leaders to motivate and keep order in their organization, a new frame must
be used and developed.
Phenomenological Methods
The phenomenological approach was chosen for this study because of the
author’s desire to understand human awareness and perceptions teachers have of their
lived experiences that contribute to their development of classroom leadership. Bogler
(2001) stated that “teachers’ perceptions of their occupation are highly significant…”
and teachers who were highly satisfied with their job invested more in their teaching
and classroom (p. 679). Creswell (2007) notes that a phenomenology focuses on
several individuals as a way of uncovering their lived experiences of a concept or
phenomenon. He further explains that the purpose of the phenomenology is to reduce
the individuals’ experiences towards a universal essence of the phenomenon.
46
Phenomenological methods of research are based in the study of philosophy.
This method of investigation has been used in investigating problems in ethics, values,
psychology and religion (Stone, 1979) as well as intellectual history. Unfortunately,
phenomenology is not generally used in studying education as was revealed by an
extensive search of the Social Studies research indexes described in the introduction of
this chapter. However, according to Stone, phenomenology is a promising method to
study education because of the parallels between ethics, values, intellect, and
education. This study aims at not only contributing to the expansion of educational
leadership to include teacher leadership from within the classroom, but it also hopes to
broaden the research methods used in the field of education to include phenomenology
as a means of uncovering human awareness and consciousness of important
educational issues.
According to Stone (1979), phenomenology is a movement towards
recognizing human awareness. Reflection as described under the heading student
learning above cannot happen without individual awareness. The ultimate goal of this
research is to provide a framework aimed at improving teaching and learning by using
a leadership lense to empower classroom teachers. Phenomenological methods such as
interviews and reflective journals will be used in this study in order to uncover the
phenomena of classroom leadership.
The two main methods of data collection for this study will be open ended
interviews and reflective journaling by the researcher. The data from both the
interviews and journals will be analyzed using the phenomenological coding approach
47
whereby the essence of the phenomenon is broken down into (a) epoche (personal
bracketing), (b) significant statements, (c) meaningful groupings, and (d) textural and
structural descriptions (Creswell, 2007; Moustakas, 1994). The analyses will uncover
major patterns of thought with regard to teacher leadership within the classroom.
This study aims at mirroring the goal of all phenomenological research which
is to “identify and interpret the qualities of human consciousness” (Stone, 1979, p. 16)
that give the teachers being studied their unique identity.
Conclusion
This chapter discussed the organizational leadership framework for this study,
current literature around teacher leadership, and the phenomenological method of
qualitative inquiry. No studies were found that deeply analyzed teachers’ perceptions
of transformational leadership within the classroom. This study aimed at contributing
to the research base for defining classroom leadership.
48
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
The seminal research regarding teacher leadership (Cobb & McClain, 2006;
Crowther et al., 2002; Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996; Spillane et al., 2001) focused on
teacher leadership both inside and outside of the classroom. This study aimed at
narrowing the focus of classroom leadership and looked at how teachers lead their
students within their classroom micro-organization. The data collection and analysis
for this study were guided by the following research questions:
1. How have the teacher leaders in this study developed effective leadership
practices within their classrooms?
2. What experiences have the participants in this study had regarding
effective leadership training in the classroom?
3. What are the essential elements of effective classroom leadership and
teacher leadership training?
These questions were explored through a phenomenology. This qualitative inquiry
method is most effective because the author wished to uncover the beliefs and
experiences of six teacher leaders and how they lead their classrooms (Moustakas,
1994; Stone, 1979). This chapter presents the methodology, participants, setting,
procedures for data collection, role of the researcher, validity and reliability, and data
analysis discussions.
49
Justification for Phenomenology
The phenomenological approach was chosen because it was the desire of the
researcher to understand, describe and analyze the phenomenon of teacher leadership
within the classroom. As noted in Chapter 2 of this proposal, very few
phenomenological studies have been conducted in education and none, as so far as the
author can find, have focused on teacher leadership. As noted by Creswell (2007),
phenomenologies are best suited when the researcher is trying to understand several
individuals’ experiences within a phenomenon. This method allowed the author to
gain a deeper understanding about the features of classroom leadership. The sample of
participants in this study was small and purposeful therefore the qualitative approach
was the most appropriate. The aim of this study was to uncover the experiences and
beliefs of six teacher leaders so that their perceptions of teacher leadership could be
identified and interpreted.
Philosophical Perspectives of Phenomenology
Creswell (2007) also notes that it is important for researchers conducting a
phenomenology to give some attention to the philosophical roots of the method in
order to fully understand the essence of phenomenological research. Phenomenology
was born out of the writings of several German philosophers. Edmund Husserl (18591939) was one well known philosopher who contributed to the creating of
phenomenology. Husserl was known for calling any research project underway a
phenomenology (Creswell, 2007). Other writers from the health and social sciences
contributed to the development of phenomenology as well. One modern writer,
50
Moustakas (1994), builds upon past philosophers and believes that phenomenology is
really about the study of lived experiences and that these experiences are conscious,
and that the development of the descriptions of these experiences is the important
piece to research not just the explanations or analyses of data (Moustakas, 1994).
Participants
The participants for this study were six former teaching colleagues of the
researcher and were from three northern California, K-8 schools. The teachers were
purposefully selected by the researcher based on observed transformational leadership
characteristics. The participants exhibited to some extent the leadership characteristics
of communication, reflection, and organization as explained in Chapter 2. The
participants connected with their students and they had a way of interacting and
building students’ capacity for learning and solving problems which is what was
intriguing to the researcher. The teachers always talked about how important it was to
build autonomous students who were responsible for their own learning. Several of the
teachers would routinely invite their students to teach in front of their class, therefore
exhibiting shared leadership and “power.” These six teachers were also open about
their teaching and classroom environments and would often share their ideas at staff
meetings, professional developments, and casual conversations. From observations
and conversations, the researcher believed that the noted teachers would honestly
provide in-depth answers to the questions which would allow the researcher to gain
the essence of classroom leadership because in the past, without being part of a
research study, these teachers often would discuss teaching and learning with others.
51
Creswell (2007) notes that it is extremely important in phenomenology that criterion
sampling, as done in this study, is conducted in order to ensure that all participants
being studied have experienced the phenomenon. Although the number of participants
was small, the researcher hoped to gain an in depth understanding of the phenomenon
of classroom leadership.
Participation in this research study was voluntary and each participant signed a
written consent form prior to any involvement in the project. The researcher emailed a
request to participate to each of the six participants in early November, 2010. All six
participants responded to the researcher by sending their written consent. At that time,
the researcher contacted the participants in order to set up the interviews and
observations. Prior to all the interviews, the researcher again reviewed the consent
form in order to make sure the participants were fully aware of their involvement in
the study and how the data collection, analysis, and storage would be conducted.
The participants in the study were similar, yet also somewhat diverse. Table 2
below is a compilation of the participant demographics for this study.
52
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Number
Gender
Where they
What degrees
What
How long
Ethnic
received
they hold
background
teaching
they have
their
credentials
been
Bachelor’s
they hold
teaching
23 years
Age
Degree
#1
Female
California
Bachelor’s of
Multiple
State
Arts in Liberal
subject
University,
Studies with an
Long Beach
emphasis in
Hispanic/
57
Caucasian
Speech and
Language
#2
Female
California
Bachelor’s of
Multiple
State
Arts in Liberal
subject
University,
Studies
27 years
Caucasian
46
23 years
Caucasian
49
30 years
American/Me
60
Sacramento
#3
Female
California
Bachelor’s of
Multiple
State
Arts in Liberal
subject
University,
Studies
Sacramento
#4
#5
Female
Female
California
Bachelor’s of
Multiple
State
Arts in early
subject
University,
childhood
Sacramento
education
Northeastern
Bachelor of
Multiple
Illinois
Arts in
subject
University
secondary
xican
26 years
Caucasian
61
8 years
Mexican/
34
education and a
Master’s degree
from California
State University
Sacramento in
Curriculum and
Instruction
#6
Male
University of
Bachelor of
Single
California,
Science in
Subject in
African/
Davis
Geology with
GeoScience
American
an emphasis in
Chemistry
53
Some of the similarities amongst the participants shown in Table 2 are their ages.
Most of them were middle aged or maturely aged. Only one participant was younger
than forty. As well, most of the participants were female and have taught for over
twenty years. In terms of their schooling, two of the participants studied at research
institutions and four of them at teacher education institutions. Half of the participants
were of Latin descent and half were Caucasian. Because the researcher was a K-8
teacher herself, and the participants were purposefully selected, it is no surprise that
the majority of participants held multiple subject credentials.
Setting
The demographics for each site are presented below. Data was gathered from
DataQuest which is the California Department of Education’s clearinghouse for
statewide school data. Not all available data was used, just the data that was
numerically significant. Information was chosen that the researcher felt best gave an
overall picture of the school site in which the participants worked. The Academic
Performance Index (API) and the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) were used to
report how the schools functioned in terms of state (API) and federal (AYP)
accountability. API is a state requirement that mandates public schools to show,
through standardized testing results, that their students are growing academically and
approaching their designated growth target as set forth by the State of California. The
Annual Yearly Progress requirement of No Child Left Behind is a federal mandate that
focuses on the number of students who score proficient in Language Arts and Math on
54
the California Standardized Tests. The goal of AYP is to have all students proficient
by the year 2014.
Setting number one was a K-8 school in northern California. In the 2010-2011
school year the school expanded its K-6 program to include seventh grade with eighth
grade anticipated for the following year. The school was part of a larger urban district
that serves nearly 30,000 students. However, this school was nestled in a sub-rural
community within the district. The community surrounding the school is a mix of
single family homes and homes with acreage and small farms. The school has been
recognized several times as a California Distinguished School. Sixty-nine percent of
the school’s student population participates in the free and reduced lunch program.
The demographics for the site are listed in Table 3 below.
Table 3
Demographics for Research Site “O” Based on 2009-2010 California State Data
Ethnicity
Asian
Number of
students in 2010
subgroup for API
54
Did they meet the
API goal for state
testing?
No
Hispanic
African American
121
30
No
No
White
Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged
English Learners
School Wide Total
Population:
254
377
Yes
Yes
Did they meet AYP, Federal
Mandate (Language Arts/
Math)
Not tracked because not a
significant subgroup.
Yes/Yes
Not tracked because not a
significant subgroup.
Yes/Yes
Yes/Yes
130
427
Yes
Yes/Yes
55
Ethnic makeup of teachers
Filipino =1
Hispanic=1
White=19
Length teaching in
Length teaching in the
education
district
12.7 years
11.1
Hold master’s or doctorate degrees
4
(source: http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/)
Setting number two was a K-8 school in the same district. Like site number
one, the school was in the middle of expanding its K-6 program to include seventh and
eighth grade. 89% of the student population were on the free and reduced lunch
program. The demographics for this site are listed in Table 3.
Table 4
Demographics for Research Site “M” Based on 2009-2010 California State Data
Ethnicity
Asian
Hispanic
African American
White
Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged
English Learners
School Wide Total
Population:
Number of
students in 2010
subgroup for API
8
Did they meet the
API goal for state
testing?
No
58
56
67
206
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Did they meet AYP, Federal
Mandate (Language Arts/
Math)
Not tracked because not a
significant subgroup.
Yes/Yes
Yes/Yes
Yes/Yes
Yes/Yes
56
391
Yes
Yes/Yes
56
Ethnic makeup of teachers
Pacific Islander =2
Hispanic=2
White=16
Length teaching in
Length teaching in the
education
district
11.9 years
9.8
Hold a graduate degree
5
(source: http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/)
Setting number three was a newly configured middle school fifth through
eighth grade in the same district as setting one and two. For over 30 years the school
was a traditional junior high school housing seventh and eighth graders. In an effort to
eradicate the program improvement status of the school, the school district tried to
reconfigure the school and create a sense of newness by adding the fifth and sixth
grades to the campus. Despite these changes, the school still remains in its fifth year of
program improvement because it has failed to meet AYP for two consecutive years.
The data available and reported in this study is only for seventh and eighth grade and
is based on the former junior high.
57
Table 5
Demographics for Research Site “RL” Based on 2009-2010 California State Data
Ethnicity
Number of
Did they meet the
Did they meet AYP, Federal
students counted in
API goal for state
Mandate (Language Arts/
2010 subgroup for
testing?
Math)
No
Not counted because
API
Asian
4
subgroup is not significant
Hispanic
188
Yes
Yes/Yes
African American
2
No
Not counted because
subgroup is not significant
White
171
Yes
Yes/Yes
Socioeconomically
123
Yes
Yes/Yes
English Learners
103
Yes
Yes
School Wide Total
530
Disadvantaged
Population:
Ethnic makeup of teachers
Hispanic=3
White=21
Asian=1
African American=1
Length teaching in
Length teaching in the
education
district
12.9
10.7
(source: http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/)
Hold a graduate degree
5
58
While this qualitative study may not be widely generalizable, it should have
high utility. By providing the reader of this study these demographics, the researcher
hopes to provide information that would allow one to use the findings in order to
improve their own educational setting.
Procedures for Data Collection
Creswell (2007) and Moustakas (1994) propose specific procedures for
conducting phenomenological research which were followed in this study. The major
steps in this process were as follows:
1. The phenomenon to be studied was identified by the researcher.
2. Data was collected by individuals who have experienced the phenomenon.
Interviews were conducted because they are the most common form of data
collection for this particular method. The researcher devised a way in the
data collection process to “bracket out” her own values, beliefs and
experiences so as to not influence the research. This was done in the form
of the researcher using a journal for reflection.
3. The participants were asked three broad questions followed by open ended
questions as the participants give their responses to the guiding research
questions (See Appendix A).
The data for this study was collected through the use of interviews,
observations and the researcher’s personal journal entries. Prior to participating in the
study, the researcher secured authorization from both the school site and the district
office assuring their consent for this study. After both the district and school gave
59
permission, the researcher sent out an email invitation to the proposed participants
asking for their participation in the study. After the consent agreement was signed by
the participants and delivered back to the researcher via mail, the researcher then set
up a time that was convenient for the participants in order to conduct the one on one
interviews and classroom observations.
The researcher conducted the interviews in the teachers’ classrooms after
school. The interviews ranged from one hour and fifteen minutes to one hour and
fortyfive minutes. The questions for the interview are located at the end of this
chapter. The participants were assigned a random, two digit number to insure
confidentiality of their responses. All interviews were audio recorded and then
transcribed for data analysis. The interview audio files were destroyed following the
transcription, and the transcribed notes were kept in a locked storage cabinet and then
destroyed after the study was completed.
Following the interviews, the researcher and participants set up times for the
researcher to observe at least once in the participants’ classrooms. The participants
were able to choose what they would like to have the researcher observe. All
participants were observed once except for the last participant who requested the
researcher observe him in the classroom twice because he wanted her to see a
particular lesson. The observations were not longer than one and a half hours each.
In order to “bracket out”, i.e., suspend, the researcher’s personal biases, the
author kept a journal of personal thoughts, ideas and reactions throughout the study
(Creswell, 2007; Moustakas, 1994). The researcher made entries before, during and
60
after the interviews and observations. This process aided in the development of the
findings section whereby the author used the data from the participants as well as the
data from the personal journal to write a rich description of the experiences classroom
leaders build upon to become transformational leaders in their classrooms. By
recording personal biases and thoughts, the author was able to keep the data of the
particpants and the researcher seperated. By referring back to the journal notes, the
author was able to write a clear section on “bracketing” in Chapter 4 which is a step in
the phenomenological data analysis process (Moustakas, 1994).
Role of the Researcher
The role of the researcher in this study was that of investigator. According to
Moustakas (1994), it was imperative that the researcher do the best she can in order to
caputre the essence of what is being studied from the participants’ perspective. In
order to accomplish this, Moustakas and Creswell (2007) both note that the researcher
should write about her own experiences and thoughts with the studied phenomenon.
Because the researcher was a former colleague of the participants, neutrality can be a
challenge. However, the goal of this research was to uncover the participants’ beliefs
about teacher leadership and neutrality will be important. By the author using a
researcher journal to record personal feelings, thoughts and biases, the data of this
study were better protected than if the researcher did not use this “bracketing”
technique.
61
Validity and Reliability
The methods used in this study to ensure both validity and reliability of the
research were reflexivity, audio-recorded interviews and code/re-code data analysis.
Validity was sought by using reflexivity. Reflexivity is the process whereby
researchers are aware that they are not separate from the research, and they examine
their own experiences, knowledge and beliefs as they affect the shaping of the
research (Creswell, 2007; Moustakas,1994). The journal helped develop “epoche”,
what Husserl (as cited in Creswell, 2007) describes as one’s ability to bracket or
suspend one’s own orientation for the time being in order to be aware of and
responsive to all that the participant shares (Stone, 1979).
Reliability was ensured several ways. First, the interviews were recorded as
opposed to the researcher manually recording responses which allowed the author to
go back several times and review the audio files and transcripts to check for accuracy.
The researcher used code, re-code strategies whereby coding the exact same data twice
to compare if the results were similar. Themes that emerged from both codings were
examined by the doctoral committee for accuracy. These strategies helped to ensure
that the data for this study was both valid and reliable.
Data Analysis
The data analysis for this research study was consistent with the analysis
procedures as noted in Creswell (2007) and Moustakas (1994). Customary for
phenomonelogical research, the data was analyzed through the discovery of language
and themes that emerged from the interviews and researcher’s journal. The data was
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then organized into major themes that arose from the coding. These four major
categories of data were analyzed during coding (a) epoch (personal bracketing), (b)
significant statements, (c) meaningful units, (d) textural and structural descriptions
(Creswell, 2007; Moustakas, 1994). After grouping the data, the researcher aimed at
uncovering the participants views on teacher leadership and discovered which
experiences helped them develop their classroom leadership. The data was then used
to write a description of what the participants had experienced with regard to
classroom leadership as shared in the following chapters. In addition, a description of
how different settings and contexts influenced the development of classroom
leadership is explained. Finally, a section on the researcher’s experience with the
phenomenon is also included.
The process of analyzing this data led to the summary of findings discussed in
Chapter 4 of this study. Implications and outcomes of this study as it relates to
expanding the lense of educational leadership to incorporate teachers as leaders within
their classrom is also discussed in Chapter 4. In conclusion, Chapter 5 of this study
offers a dicsussion about how the findings of this research could be used in both
educational policy settings and further research studies.
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Chapter 4
FINDINGS
This study was based upon the qualitative method of inquiry using a
phenomenological approach. This approach was chosen by the researcher because it
was her desire to gain an insider perspective from six teacher leaders on how they
developed their teacher leadership processes within their classroom. Thus, the purpose
of this study was to uncover teachers’ perceptions regarding teacher leadership within
the classroom and to reveal themes related to teachers’ experiences with classroom
leadership that has not been widely researched.
The data for this chapter were gathered through interviews and observations
with six participants. The interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed
immediately upon completing all six interviews. Within the data vignettes below the
“I” represents the interviewer and the “R” the respondent. In addition to interviews
and observations, the author kept a personal journal recording her thoughts and beliefs
throughout the research project. The author’s observations and personal journal were
kept in a notebook using pen and paper to record the data.
All data was analyzed using the methodical method discussed below. In the
spirit of phenomenological research, the participants’ data was analyzed first and then
the researcher’s journal. Participants were analyzed one by one starting with the first
person interviewed and ending with the last person interviewed. For the purposes of
this research study, themes and sub-themes are used. As the researcher analyzed the
data, thoughts and beliefs emerged from the data, these are referred to as sub-themes.
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As the data analysis process continued, the author realized that these individual subthemes could be grouped together into larger categories therefore called themes. Both
open and closed coding was used. During the open coding process, the researcher
read, and re-read data to find emerging themes that came from the participant’s
perspective. During the closed coding process, those themes that emerged were
categorized and then grouped according to which research question they addressed
best. In addition, three other people, with expertise in the field, analyzed the
researchers coding process for reliability. Each participant was analyzed using the
following steps below:
1st- Interview transcripts were open coded whereby emerging themes were
highlighted.
2nd-Observational field notes were open coded.
3rd- Interview and observation themes were noted and major themes were
recorded on a data grid.
4th- Major themes were closed coded and grouped according to the three
research questions of the project.
5th- After major themes from each participant were close coded, then
participants’ data as a group were analyzed for overall themes.
6th- After themes for the participants as a whole were analyzed, the researcher
followed the same process as steps one through five and analyzed her
personal journal.
65
7th-Major themes from the participants were placed onto 3X5 index cards and
categorized into overall categories.
8th- The categories were analyzed and placed according to which research
question they addressed.
The statements and themes found throughout the open coding process became
the basis for discussing the three research questions of this study:
1. How have the teacher leaders in this study developed effective leadership
practices within their classrooms?
2. What experiences have the participants in this study had regarding effective
leadership training in the classroom?
3. What are the essential elements of effective classroom leadership training
programs?
Each of these research questions and the themes related to the questions are discussed
in this chapter as they relate to classroom leadership. Relationships across the data sets
as well as data that was not necessarily re-occurring, yet seen as meaningful by the
author, is presented as well.
After analyzing the data through the process of coding and recoding, the
researcher found that the teachers in her study had an over arching belief. They all
shared the belief that all people can learn and that learning happened through a process
of change. This process of change is what the author believes is transformational and
what sets these teachers apart from others. They all believed that change and learning
both for themselves and their students happened over time through constant reflection.
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Throughout the data analysis process, the themes of reflection and learning through a
process appear in multiple ways which will become evident from the discussion
below.
Throughout the data analysis process, several themes became apparent and are
listed in the tables within this chapter as they relate to each research question. The
tables give the reader a brief snapshot of the themes and the sub-themes that emerged.
Within the table the reader will see the overall theme, sub-themes and whether or not
each participants’ data supported the given theme or not. The remainder of this chapter
is organized into the following sections: participant data relating to research questions,
researcher’s thoughts and reflections, and chapter summary.
Research Question #1: How Have the Teacher Leaders in this Study Developed
Effective Leadership Practices Within Their Classrooms?
This first research question was the basis for the other two questions and really
sought to uncover the teachers’ perspectives of what their beliefs about teaching their
students were and how they developed those beliefs. Within this question, several
categories emerged: teacher beliefs, learning as a process, and classroom management.
Table 6 below is for the first theme and displays the sub-themes associated with
teacher beliefs. Each theme will be explained in the discussion that follows the table.
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Table 6
Theme: Teacher Beliefs
Sub-Themes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
Collaboration
X
X
X
X
X
X
Personal
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Influences
Reflection
Make a
Difference
Connect to the
X
X
X
Real World
Teacher Beliefs
Throughout the data analysis it became clear that the teachers in this study
developed themselves as leaders through five main ways. Collaboration, personal
influences, reflection, making a difference and connecting to the real world were all
themes that emerged in almost every participants’ data.
Collaboration
All of the participants were comfortable connecting with their colleagues. They
did not feel the need to know everything and valued the input of other people as noted
in the text below.
-
You have to find ways to get the kids engaged. You have to… you know, if
you’re going to spend time on something, then you need to spend time talking
with teachers, you need to spend time figuring out ways and build that tool
chest up as big as you can get it…
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They all believed that collective thinking was better than working completely alone.
This is not to say that they never worked or thought alone; indeed they did, but they
also spent time collaborating with others to learn new skills and were not afraid to
admit they did not know everything. Three participants, all from the same school site,
noted that it was their colleagues who helped them develop as teachers over time and
it was from the informal conversations and the fact that their colleagues at the site
were good sounding boards for new ideas that helped them create engaging and
meaningful lessons for their students.
Personal Influences
Participants were asked to describe their journey that led them to the teaching
field by explaining their most important influences and experiences that helped to
shape them into the teachers they currently were. All six participants noted that either
their family or other personal connections had helped mold them.
Several of the participants noted that becoming a parent themselves helped
them to understand and relate to other parents better and that they had developed
empathy for parents because of their own experiences of parenthood. One of the
participants had a son who had special needs and she explained:
-
Having a special needs child you walk through… you walk in people’s shoes
that you sometimes wouldn’t have had you not had one… Hoping that there’s
going to be something typical in there and it may not be but you’re hoping that
it is. And always looking for a way to make learning happen for that
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child…and how can you make life meaningful for those kids that aren’t
typical, and there’s more that aren’t typical than are anymore.
Others who attributed parenting as part of their development shared that it was a desire
to learn new strategies for learning in order to help their own children succeed.
Three of the participants felt that it was their upbringing as children that helped
make them independent thinkers and lifelong learners. All three noted that their
parents had instilled the value that they would succeed and go on to college. Thus,
from an early age they were college bound even though they did not know necessarily
that they would end up in teaching. One participant felt that his football coaches and
father were very influential in developing his belief of determination and dedication
because both his football coaches and father never gave up on him as he was
becoming an athlete. This participant said that he uses the skill of determination with
his students when he talks about learning. He said that he has conversations with
students about developing themselves as learners and that learning anything can be
viewed as lifelong self development.
One participant felt that she owes a great deal of who she is as a human being
and therefore a teacher to two psychotherapists.
-
…they (the psychotherapists) discussed about empowering human beings,
different episodes in people’s lives, which I related to my own…but just in
terms of how people develop, how human beings develop, how children
develop… Of course that tied into my field of child development, but Leo
Buscaglia and Carl Rogers. With Carl Rogers and Leo Buscaglia, they were
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my power… they were the powerhouses. And they were the ones that gave me
my energy and are a major part of my fabric of who I am today.
This participant believed that her desire to empower her students in part was
influenced by the above two authors and their writings on human development.
Three participants attributed components of their own teaching style to past
teachers they had as students. One participant shared that she had remembered lots of
good teachers, teachers who cared about their students and valued their students, and
she had some not so good teachers and she learned what not to do as a result of being
around poor teaching. Another participant gave tribute to his high school science
teacher.
-
One of the things that I borrowed from Mr. B was, you know, letting your
students have science.
This participant explained that Mr. B was very interactive and did not believe in long
lectures. Rather he would present a mini lesson on the day’s topic and then have the
students start working right away. He would walk around and monitor students’
progress on the labs and re-teach as appropriate. This format of teaching is what the
researcher saw when she observed him teaching in the classroom. It was during the
interview that the participant explained he actually had not come up with that method
but that he had learned that from his high school science teacher, Mr. B.
All of the participants in this study mentioned their families and personal
connections as forces that influenced their teaching career. As noted earlier, some of
them felt that becoming a parent and developing empathy for parents was extremely
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important while others found the family values they grew up with helped to develop
them. No matter who the participants noted influenced them, what is consistent is that
the participants realized that they were not completely born the way they were and that
they had been influenced through experiences and reflection into who they were today.
These beliefs of experiential learning and continuous development are consistent
themes throughout the data.
Reflection
The teachers in this study were reflective and comfortable with change.
Several of the teachers shared that they were not the same teacher they were when
they first started teaching and that it was due to their reflective nature that they
changed over time.
-
… acknowledging what I needed to be looking for in other teachers…
acknowledging that helped me to fine tune [my teaching].
-
But I also was a person that was comfortable going out and seeking advice. It
didn’t bother me to say, “I don’t know how to do this.” Because even when I
taught 6th grade, I used to say, “Oh, I was smart enough…” I would go to my
principal, who I know taught 6th grade and ask, “Hey, how did you do this?
How did you handle this situation? Can you offer me some suggestions?” I was
willing to admit that I didn’t know everything and that helped.
I:
So how have you grown different? So how have you grown different
from 23 years ago?
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R:
By educating myself and continuing my own personal growth and
learning and wanting to learn more. How to be more effective by taking
courses, by going to workshops. Building on my strengths, sometimes
admitting I have weaknesses and what I can do to help myself.
-
And so I think I’m just mainly a lifelong learner. I just haven’t given up on
that. There’s always something else that you can try or do. And then
sometimes reflective thinking, going back and thinking, “Oh, gosh, I should
have done this differently,” or “I could have tried this strategy. It might have
been more effective.”
-
You’re going to have those bad days where your lessons bomb and try to learn
from it.
-
I can have the same strategy for them for two weeks and then, you know,
something happened with their boyfriend and now I’ve got to find a new way
to get them going.
As these examples show, these teachers are not concerned with being viewed as
perfect and admit that they are not. In addition, they do not feel pressure to create and
deliver lessons that are always flawless. They are constantly trying to revise and try
new things, take risks and find strategies that help students learn.
Making a Difference
-
Making an impact. It’s all about making an impact… and I don’t give up,
because I know if I make a difference in one child’s life, I’ve done my job.
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All of the teachers in this study share the voice of the participant above. One of
their main goals in life was to make an impact on the lives of their students. They all
felt that students were the future of our world and that by helping their students
develop lifelong learning skills, they could help to ensure that their students would
continue learning beyond their own classrooms.
The teachers also knew that they could not fix everything in their students’
lives or their past histories with regard to success or failure but that what really
mattered was what they, as teachers, could impact that year. All the participants
focused on the present and how to make the most of each teaching day. This is
expressed best through the participant below.
-
For me it’s to see that child that came in at the beginning of the year and
they’re leaving at the end of the year, you know, you see that huge growth I
think it comes back to I know that I can’t undo what’s been done to these, you
know, the kids, when they come to me with whatever social background,
economic background, all that, I can’t undo those factors in their lives, but I
can try to make a difference for the time that I have them. And they’re our
future, and I think that’s important.
The teachers also believed that they themselves had the ability to motivate and
change their students’ ways of developing. This teacher expresses the notion of
motivation, empowerment and change when she says:
-
I can break them or make them. And knowing that I can empower them
starting as young as I can …. And knowing how to motivate, [and]
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communicate with anyone from very young to very old and how you can
empower another human being, from a baby to a senior.
It is this belief that that they have the power to change others and that what happens in
their classrooms directly affects students that many attributed to their continuous
commitment to teaching. Even when pressures and demands of their profession
increased, their belief that they still were making a difference helped them continue
providing quality learning experiences.
-
My own positive attitude has to come out. I mean, I have bad days, kids have
bad days, you know.[When]I have great days, so do they.
-
You can make… you can either make a person’s day… you can make it or
break it. So that’s all up to you, depending on who you are … and your
awareness of human beings.
-
‘Cause as teachers we can add value to students and we can bring up their
status in the class. And we are the only ones that can do that, so other kids are
going, “I remember him. Wow. Last year he didn’t do a thing, but this year,
whoa, Mrs. Mauer, he’s…” ‘Cause they share those things with you.
“Unreliable last year, but this year, that kid’s on it.” I say, “That’s right.”
Connecting to the Real World
Building on the concept from above that teachers can have a positive impact on
their students in their classrooms, the participants also felt that students really needed
to learn how to learn and that although they would learn a great deal in their
classrooms during the current year, the reality was that the students would move on
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and would need to develop certain skills in order to continue to succeed in their
educational journey.
-
And what’s important is, you know, that kids learn to be responsible, that they
learn to be independent. They also need to value their education, that it, you
know, can make a difference for their life.
-
And even when they go out into the real world, I mean, they… there are certain
skills that they’ll need. And they have to learn to be flexible, they have to
know they have to be held accountable.
-
… preparing kids for the future, because now anymore companies like Sysco, a
team hires you, not a boss, a team… you better learn how to be able to work on
a team and work with other people, ‘cause that’s the number one reason why
people get fired is because they can’t work with other people. They don’t get
fired because they’re late to work, which you would assume.
-
I believe that it’s… at kindergarten it’s especially needed, but at all levels,
project based learning, if you go out into the workforce, it’s very few times
that, “Okay, this is the only subject area that you’re going to touch.” If we
want to teach our children so that they’re successful in life, they have to know
how things connect to each other.
This data shows that the participants really felt that responsibility was crucial to the
success of their students throughout life.
Throughout the data analysis process, responsibility and autonomy were very
important to the participants as summed up by the statements below.
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-
And so for me it’s … it’s about teaching students, you know, hey, I can help
you learn this skill to be able to teach yourself to learn on your own, ‘cause
that’s really the goal.
-
My feeling is I want to empower children to have control over themselves.
Throughout the six classroom observations, systems were set up to help students build
responsibility for their learning and to be independent. In all of the classrooms
students had access to supplies like paper, pencils, scissors, lab materials and other
learning tools without needing authorization from the teacher to use them. They were
expected to get what they needed for the learning task themselves and then get to
work.
-
You’re in charge of yourself…Listen to all the things you’re going to need
today. You’re going to need a yellow crayon, you’re going to need a pencil,
and your composition books. How many things are you going to need? I’ll
meet you in line.
-
We start out, you know, the children are very dependent on me as a teacher
where one of my primary goals is to help them see what they have, what they
can work with, and help to monitor what they’re learning and the responsibility
that they’re learning. Setting up self-checking goals for them so it’s not always
that they’re coming to me asking what to do next. So teaching them to be
resourceful, showing them, you know, we have picture directions, different
types of things to help them.
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The following section on learning builds on the concept that students should be
autonomous, independent, and responsible participants in the classroom. Some of the
themes discussed above such as autonomy and responsibility will be repeated within
the discussion below about learning.
Learning is a Process
All the participants in the study believed that learning does not happen
immediately. The teachers in this study shared the belief that learning is
developmental and builds upon previously learned skills. It is dependent on reflection
and revisiting of concepts as well as the teacher’s ability to build and deliver lessons
that are engaging. Furthermore, the participants had a general feeling that although
they expected all students to learn what they were teaching, the mode by which the
students absorbed the lessons may be different depending on the individual student.
Therefore, each teacher presented multiple ways of learning a concept in order to
engage students and assure learning had occurred. Learning was believed to be a
dynamic process and the goal of the participants in this study was to build autonomous
students who would develop tools to eventually be consumers of knowledge on their
own who in turn would problem solve and think independently. The themes that
emerged under learning are presented below in Table 7.
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Table 7
Theme: Learning is a Process
Sub-Themes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
Reflection
X
X
X
X
X
X
High
X
X
X
X
X
Experiences
X
X
Multiple Paths
X
X
X
X
X
X
Revisited
X
X
X
X
X
X
Scaffolded
X
X
X
X
X
X
Teacher
X
Expectations
X
X
X
Planning
Modeled
X
X
X
X
X
X
According to the participants of this study, learning is not a stagnate process. As noted
in Table 7 the teachers believed that in order for students to learn a given concept, the
themes above must be present.
Learning is Built on a Person’s Willingness to Reflect
Not only did the participants feel learning was a process, but it was dependent
on a person’s willingness to reflect and make changes to their thinking.
-
One of the things that I do or we do are four centers a week, but by the end of
the week they’re giving me all the directions of what they need to do at that
center. So they’re not just learning from what they’re doing at the work,
they’re learning from reviewing what we’re doing for that center, it’s helping
them.
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-
… it’s working with other people to create an end result using a rubric so you
can gauge your effort, so you and your group knows exactly what’s expected
and then they’re filling out frequent feedback. “What did you do today to make
everything work out for your group?” “What are you going to do tomorrow to
make sure your group has as much success as they’ve had today?” or “What
are you going to do tomorrow to make sure the same thing doesn’t happen?” - “Well, I’m going to stop talking and listen…” or whatever. Or “I’m going to
her to share her ideas.”
All the teachers in this study used language with students that engaged them in
reflection. Throughout the researcher’s observations she noticed teachers pausing at
various parts in their lessons to ask students to reflect about how the information being
presented was connected to past topics. In addition, the process of learning and
reflecting did not stop with academics. Five out of the six teachers were observed
teaching students how to solve conflicts using reflective language like, “Look at my
face, what do you see?” or “Does sitting underneath the table help you reach your goal
of becoming a better student?”
High Expectations Affect Learning
-
You know, you gotta build a relationship with them, ‘cause a lot of times they
come to you with many years of failure. And so they see themselves as failure.
They’re not facile learners, either, so they don’t learn easily. They already
know they’re different. And some of these kids don’t even have low IQ, they
just have a processing disorders that we’ve not been able to diagnose …
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-
So it was building a relationship, letting them know that I would not embarrass
them, I would not single them out. I would signal them if I was going to ask
them something and that they would be very well positioned to answer it. I
would [put] my hand on the corner of their desk… ‘cause I move around a lot
anyway. And then that would say, “Hey, I’m calling on you.” I always did a lot
of choral response and turn to your partner, so it was safe, so they turned to
their partners share and share out. They have an answer from their partner.
Sometimes I say, “Well, what did your partner say?” and that allows even an
English learner [to participate]…
-
…and RSP (resource specialist students) students, you know, when they’re not
in a half hour of RSP, they’re with me. … they’re with me the rest of the day.
And so I’m responsible for them, so they too are going to learn.
-
Empowering these students that they can make it and they will do it. There’s
no “I can’ts.” They will [learn and succeed] and [I have] high expectations.
The participants all believed that it was their expectations that all students can
learn that influenced their students’ desire to in turn learn. Two particular participants
noted that they understood that students came with preconceived notions of
themselves, like that expressed in the first excerpt above, but that teachers have the
power to change how students view themselves and teachers can empower students to
learn. What is also notable is that learning to the participants in this study did not
mean that all students would learn the same thing at the same time, but that each
student would be given directions that were scaffolded in order that they could learn at
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their own rate. As noted in the excerpt above regarding RSP students, although they
were considered special education, they were expected to participate and learn even
outside of their special education setting. The teachers in this study made no excuses
for students and expected all students to grow throughout the year.
Learning is Built on Experiences and Facilitation
The author observed all six participants at least once throughout this study and
in every classroom observed, students were actively engaged in their learning. During
some observations, the teacher was doing a direct instruction lesson, in some
observations, students were involved in group work, but no matter what the delivery
model of instruction students were actively participating. In the observations where
the teacher was giving a direct instruction lesson, they would often pause and ask the
students to respond by showing a particular signal like “Show me thumbs up if you
agree” or “Please write your response to question number two on your whiteboard and
show me when you are finished.”
Another way students were involved during direct instruction was the teacher
would periodically have the students underline what they thought was important in a
reading passage and then walk around to monitor what they underlined while giving
specific feedback to individual students. When students were engaged in group work,
they were generally trying to accomplish a task together and had to decide on the best
ways to accomplish the given assignment. In one science classroom, the students were
measuring the density of objects and each person had a role in completing the given
task sheet. Some students found the objects to measure, some recorded the data, while
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others wrote written responses to the questions. Students in these classrooms learned
by doing as noted by the participant below.
-
I believe the best way to learn is just to do it…that’s why you’re figuring it out.
The teachers in this study also saw themselves as facilitators of the learning
process.
-
(What does learning mean?) For me it most means showing people what they
can do.
-
Do it with them, do it with them…
-
I think we’re more of a coach to help facilitate where their strengths are and
where they need to learn and help them and to guide them.
In order to help facilitate the learning, the teachers in this study took the time
to uncover what was important to their students. According to the interview data, they
would spend time finding out what the students wanted to learn and then would try
and connect what the students wanted with what was mandated to teach.
Learning Happens Best When Multiple Paths are Presented
Both through researcher observations and data collected through participant
interviews it became clear that the teachers in this study used multiple ways of
presenting their learning objective with students. The following statement reflects this
belief.
-
I come up with as many strategies and different ways to teach that, you know,
besides just the way the textbooks say that we should teach it, you know, and
one way is through singing songs, skip counting games, drawing pictures.
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Anything I can think of that helps them. So I’m constantly searching out new
ways and strategies.
In one classroom, students were playing the game BINGO to learn their letter
sounds. The teacher would announce the letter card and then as a group the students
would say the sound of the particular letter. In addition to just saying the letter, the
teacher would refer the group to the word wall behind her where there were lots of
words under each letter of the alphabet. The teacher would connect the card that was
pulled for the BINGO game to a particular word that had the same beginning sound as
the pulled word’s letter. Students were then asked to find other words on the word
wall that had the same beginning sound as the pulled word and then the small group
together would sound out the word and those who had the beginning letter on their
BINGO card would place a marker on their game card.
In two of the classrooms observed, students were working at early literacy
centers in small groups. Both classrooms had multiple activities throughout the room
to teach the concept for that week. One classroom was working on learning the letter
R. Throughout the small group literacy centers, students were creating letter R books,
writing using R words, and then games, like BINGO that had words with the letter R
sound. In the other classroom where the researcher observed literacy groups, the
students were working in several literacy stations that used multiple modalities for
teaching early literacy.
One such classroom had a journal writing area where students learned to write
by following a modeled prompt. What was unique was that there were several writing
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prompts to choose from and each had the prompt modeled in pictures. The prompts
were typed and placed in an acrylic frame in the center of the table for all to see. In
addition, the teacher wrote a sample of each prompt on a sentence strip so that the
students could have the sentence strip with the modeled writing above their papers as
they wrote. In order to strengthen students’ ability to read fluently, there was a
listening station set up where the students would sit and listen to that week’s
anthology from their core reader. According to the teacher, this provided another
opportunity for the students to hear the story for both fluency and comprehension.
Another station was designed to practice phonemic awareness and the sounds letters
make. The station had several games to practice alphabet sounds using manipulatives.
Students could choose which games they wanted to play until their time at that station
was finished.
The lessons modeled during all of the observations were not necessarily
exquisite. What was impressive was the thought put in to every lesson observed
throughout the study whereby teachers deliberately planned ways to involve students
in their learning through multiple paths. In one observation, the teacher used different
spaces in the classroom to mark transitions. Prior to a vocabulary review, the students
had been given some direct instruction as they were sitting in their seats. Then the
teacher had them get out of their seats and sit on the carpet at the front of the room for
the next lessons directions. During the initial vocabulary review, she had students sit
facing the white board where she had the class as a whole chorally read the vocabulary
words, then she led the class in clapping out the sounds of the words, and finally she
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had students come up to the white board and pair the vocabulary word definitions with
visual cue cards. After the vocabulary lesson at the front of the room, students
returned to their desks where they were given instructions for partner reading and then
dismissed with their partners to find a quiet spot to read wherever they wanted in the
classroom.
In another classroom, the teacher was doing a direct instruction lesson on how
to re-evaluate their grade on a current school district assessment. The teacher used
multiple teaching techniques even within the monotonous activity of test analysis.
During the observation the teacher would use whiteboards whereby the students would
record their answers to her questions, they would hold their thumbs up or down to vote
on the best answer, as well as group shout outs throughout the lesson.
Many of the teachers in the study used color, art and visuals as a method of
drawing attention to particular pieces of information. These vignettes of data show that
the participants believe that the more varied the mode of delivery, the better the
students will be able to achieve the learning objective.
-
We make sure that every heading [in our journal] we color. Visual, visually.
Sometimes I’ll separate it, go, “Oh, well, let’s do the antonyms blue,” … or
“Let’s do the blends red so you can see that the blend is two or three letters at
the beginning or end of a word.”
-
And I changed that this year. I used to have… just a basic drawing [for
directions as the stations], but I found for my EL students it’s like I think the
photograph is more powerful for them
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-
I’m thinking, “Homonyms, I’m going to do homonyms today. Could they
create it in clay?” You know, they’ve had clay, they’ve had play dough, but
they don’t have enough experience with [clay]. But there might be a child that
will like that instead of just doing it on a card. Because academic choice would
be theirs [and they would have] all these mediums they’ve learned, [and could
be asked] how do you want to represent [what you’ve learned].
-
This particular group this year, we’re using cootie catchers (origami foldables)
for multiplication as a fun enrichment activity when they’re done with their
work. But it’s so exciting to see them get… for me it’s exciting to see them
happy and to see them doing that’s engaging and that they’re learning at the
same time.
Learning has to be Revisited
The participants in this study all shared the belief that learning does not happen
in isolation and that in order to learn something, the concept must be revisited. The
participants’ thoughts on this are best reflected in the data below.
-
Learning is a journey, the multiage setting gives children the opportunity to
begin developing during the years we are with them.
-
They only got to do a little bit of white board [work] but they like the white
boards and they like to write on them. We got to do a little bit more of that the
next day.
-
… we don’t, I think, as teachers give enough to … just practice, they [students]
don’t do the same thing enough to be able to own it. And so a lot of what I do
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is the same thing every day. .. It’s like “Okay, we’ve figured out decimals, now
let’s go to fractions,” but they really haven’t gotten deep. It’s the breadth
versus the [depth]… If I only do 2 or 3 things all year, we’re gonna get real
deep with it.
Two teachers shared with the researcher how they broke up concepts over a
period of time in order to revisit the learning and build upon prior lessons. One
particular teacher takes an entire week to read one story from the Houghton Mifflin
anthology. On Monday, the teacher introduces the story by walking the students
through the pictures in the book and pre teaches the necessary vocabulary for gaining
maximum comprehension. On Tuesday, the students hear the story on audio CD. On
Wednesday, the teacher reads the story and revisits the vocabulary. On Thursday, the
students read the story and on Friday they review and take the test on the anthology.
By the time the students have taken the test on Friday they have been exposed to the
story at least four times throughout the week. Another teacher was teaching a science
lesson on density and mass and during the beginning of the researcher’s observation
the teacher connected the lesson to the previous day.
-
“Remember we calculated density yesterday, now do the same thing in the
table today… what you’re going to add is finding the mass of the two objects,
everything else is identical from the last couple of days”
The teachers in this study felt that it was important and imperative that colleagues,
parents, other staff, and students realize that learning takes time and has to be
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revisited, and that concepts cannot be taught in isolation but should be connected to
prior knowledge.
Learning Should be Scaffolded and Individualistic
As noted earlier, the teachers in this study all shared the belief that high
expectations for learning were a must for students to do the best they can. However, it
was not nearly enough to have high expectations. Several of the teachers commented
on ways they scaffolded the learning expectation so that everyone in the class could be
successful.
-
You need to have high expectations for them. If you start out too low, then
they’re going to have those same low expectations, start out high and scaffold
down to where they need to be to make it accessible for them.
-
I’d call them up individually and ask them, “Okay, show me your work,” and
I’m like, “Okay, you really understand this,” and then I would ask them to do
something that was a little more… a little deeper.
-
We can’t assume… I tell them [students] all the time and I apologize if I’m
insulting their intelligence, but the centimeter side of the ruler is the one with
the … short spots, and so they look and then they’ll go, “I didn’t know that.”
And then I’ve got kids, you know, put it up against a piece of wood and they’re
like, “But it doesn’t go all the way to the 2,” and I say, “Perfect. How many
small black marks does it go over to the edge of the wood,” and they’ll count
them and they’re like, “Eight.” And I’m like, “Okay, so you’ve got 1 and
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you’ve got 8 of those little guys. How many little guys [black lines on the
ruler] are there?...”
-
Yesterday in the computer lab all the students got to the point where they
found the mass and they found the volume. Most of the students got to the
point where they found the density and then the kids that were really
[understanding]…I had them differentiate by density and, you know, I had
them list from least dense to most dense, because that is the skill that they will
be asked…
As the data shows, it was not only the teacher’s realization that tasks need to
be broken down but also their belief that every student is different that contributed to
their philosophy on learning.
-
One of the things that I see in my classroom especially this year is that we have
some children that have special needs and the children are able to see that and
accept each other for, you know, what their needs are and what the needs of
their classmates are.
-
Every class is different every year.
-
You do what you need to do, we’re all at different speeds.
-
Each group of children that come in are different and what they need is
different. Just like with your children, you have more than one child they’re
going to learn in a different way. And you have some that, you know, learning
is hard for them and finding what that key for them is [my goal].
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In one of the classroom observations there was a student who was having difficulty
figuring out how to actually calculate density. The teacher had her put her finger on
the worksheet where the mass column was and said “which number is on top, ok,
mass, so put that number on top of the division sign...” Not everyone in the class
needed this example but the teacher used a kinesthetic approach to teaching how to
divide mass by volume in order to get density. In this same classroom, the teacher
used a lot of math in order to teach the science concept. He spends time on developing
his students’ math skills and scaffolds the worksheets. When he gives out a worksheet
that has multi-step problems on it, he scaffolds the problems. He will ask the students
to do one step at a time throughout the worksheet and then teaches the second step and
has them go back to each problem and do the second step and so on.
One of the participants felt very strongly about academic choice and believed it
had a powerful impact on an individual child’s ability to learn. She discussed several
times in her interview that this year she was really trying to present multiple ideas to
kids for completing a learning task. She also was giving them multiple options in order
to show they had mastered a concept. The notion that learners have choice supports
the above belief that learners should be given power to become autonomous.
Throughout the journey of life people are constantly faced with choices on how to
accomplish tasks. Academic choice fosters autonomy, reflection and lifelong learning
skills which all six participants believed to be so important.
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Teacher Planning Affects Learning
All of the participants in the study agreed that planning and being ready for a
lesson was crucial to students’ ability to learn in the classroom. They all felt that scope
and sequence and thinking about exactly what they would teach gave them a map for
what needed to be accomplished. Once they were planned, they could focus on ways
to get their students to those points throughout the year. In general the participants felt
that being planned gave them more time to focus on their teaching and developing
engaging lessons. All the participants seemed to do some form of backwards mapping
whereby they looked at district and state assessments and planned what they would
teach based upon what was most assessed.
-
The planning is important, and then if you don’t know how to do something or
how to actually teach it, you know, you have time to maybe get some help or
prepare and get some background.
-
And if you are organized, if you can keep, you know, keep on a schedule, keep
your pacing, have a plan… know your weekly lesson plans, your units of
instruction, that helps.
What differed amongst participants was their method of planning. One
participant planned with another teaching partner on a daily basis. Several participants
lesson planned on their own and then consulted and shared ideas with colleagues as
they felt necessary. One participant did not keep traditional lesson plans or a lesson
plan book, but would lesson plan daily in his head as he was working out in the gym at
5:30 AM prior to being at work. He would also use daily quizzes that he gave at the
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beginning of each 55 minute class period to guide his instruction for that day. Based
on what students missed on the quiz, he would adjust his lesson plans to re-teach or
extend the given objective.
Learning Should be Modeled
In each of the researcher’s observations, the teacher participants were
witnessed modeling the learning objective they were delivering to their students.
Teachers were not passive about their teaching. They modeled exactly what they
wanted their students to accomplish.
One teacher was teaching a lesson on homophones and students were drawing
pictures in their notebooks depicting homophone pairs. As the teacher was modeling
the activity she said, “I’m not really good at this, but I’m going to do my personal
best. Sometimes teachers need help too.” She was not only modeling the assignment,
but modeling lifelong learning and that teachers also continuously grow and become
better through practice and that not being good at something is okay. as long as one
tries their personal best.
In another classroom, the teacher was teaching small groups a lesson on
phonics where the students were trying to sound out words and create simple words.
The teacher would say, “Does my voice match your letters?” and then the students
would chorally read segments then blend the letters together. The teacher would model
with her own set of letters the whole time and would touch and say the letters along
with the students.
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Another participant had just started introducing reading contracts which were
independent work packets that gave students assignments to complete once they were
finished reading their leveled reading book during literacy centers. The teacher wanted
to really teach the procedures for the reading contract and so she modeled how to
complete an entire reading contract by teaching the steps of the contract every day for
a week. After modeling each step with the story, Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible,
No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst the students made their own Alexander
stories based on their own personal bad day and followed the activities as laid out in
the reading contract.
Finally, in another classroom the researcher observed, the teacher had taken the
students to the computer lab and was teaching them how to input their data on density
into a table. He used the opportunity to teach more than just science. Students learned
word processing concepts and general computer skills as well as how to calculate
density. Prior to the density lesson starting, the teacher showed the class step by step
how to create a table in Microsoft Word and led a discussion on how many rows and
columns they would need to display their data. After he introduced the table and
modeled it, he walked around the lab to check that all of the students had created the
table correctly. After they created the table, he showed them how to create a file on the
computer in order to save their work and then proceeded to teach the density lesson on
configuring their data collected during the week from their science labs.
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Building Student Autonomy Through Classroom Management
In every classroom visited students were encouraged to take responsibility for
their actions. The teachers focused on building relationships with students which they
saw as the backbone of their management systems. Through observations and
interviews, the data revealed that these teachers connected behavior management to
learning and that teaching students the desired behavior was tied to their beliefs about
learning. The general feeling was that facilitated experiences, high expectations,
modeling, and guided reflection help shape the students’ positive behaviors. As well,
the participants in this study never over reacted to correcting behavior rather they saw
discipline as an opportunity to learn. The re-occurring themes for autonomy are
presented in Table 8 below.
Table 8
Theme: Building Student Autonomy
Sub-Themes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
Experiences
X
X
High
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Expectations
Modeled and
Guided
Reflection
Classroom
Environment
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Facilitated Experiences
As noted in Chapter 2, in any successful classroom rules and procedures are set
up in order to ensure efficiency and an optimum organizational environment for
learning. Three of the teachers in the study engaged the students in building classroom
rules. The students came up with the rules in the classroom as a collective group.
-
… the rules would come from them, but first it starts with my management
plan. We get together and we talk about why we come to school… to have fun,
to get friends, to, you know, learn about math, to get smarter and you just
brainstorm, why do we come to school? Then we go from there, well, these are
all the reasons why we come to school, so now, you know what school’s about,
what do you want to get better at this year? And that comes to that hope and
dream if you want or it can just be a goal, and it’s goal setting. And from that
their hope and dream comes of, “I want to be a better reader,” “I want to learn
how to do sign language,” “I want to do…” whatever it is… And then from
there, if we all want to learn, we all have our hopes and dreams of learning,
what do we have to do to make sure that happens? So they draw a picture, we
discuss, “Well, if I want to be a better reader I need to have books, I need to
have time to read the books. I need to know about letters and sounds. If I want
to be a better writer I need to have times to practice writing,” and you know, so
what do we have to have? We have to have tools. And there’s a lot of us, so
how are we going to get to our tools where I’m not always being in charge of
you? Because who’s in charge of you, you know, you’re in charge of you, not
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me.” So to empower them to be in charge of everything they get. And then
from that, “Well, if we want to be able to do all these things, we have to have
some kind of rules for us to follow so that we all know what we have to do so
that learning can happen.” And from that you start to generate lists of like…
Don’t hit each other. Well, if you’re not hitting each other, what are you
doing? Keeping your hands to yourself. Being able to get from one place to
another safely, you know, but for them it’s Walk or Don’t Run. So if we’re not
running, what are we doing? We’re walking…
Some of the teachers would have public agreements that were posted that were
signed by each class member and the teachers would refer to their class agreements
when students were not behaving appropriately. The general feeling amongst the three
participants who collectively created rules for the classroom was that it was important
as a teacher to understand where the students were coming from and they wanted to
know what was important to the students. Interesting to note is that the three teachers
who created collective agreements taught at the same school and generally followed
the same method of creating classroom rules as explained in the data excerpt above.
The other three participants did not create collective rules. They explained their
expectations for student behavior to their classes and did not really spend a lot of time
on it. One common thread though regardless if the teachers made collective rules or
not was that the teachers all revisited procedures and expectations routinely and taught
expectations for learning in context. When a student broke a rule, the teachers
addressed the issue immediately.
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High Expectations
The teachers in this study had high expectations not only for learning, but for
behaving. They shared those high expectations with their students, taught procedures
for learning and revisited classroom rules often.
-
Other than I set very high expectations for myself, and so I assume that
everybody else is going to have those high expectations, and that they will go
on and get a good education.
-
Everybody can learn and everybody will grow up to be a responsible citizen.
-
My expectation is this. No one may interfere with the learning that takes place
in this classroom. So if you’re doing something that is stopping me or someone
else from teaching or learning, guess what? You either gotta fix it or you gotta
get out. And I tell the kids all the time.
-
I refuse to even believe half the stuff… If I believed half the stuff that
happened when kids came to me, I would have just fallen into the same pattern
of, yeah, last year lazy and did nothing, and so this year you’re lazy. No, uhuh. … last year you had maybe some issues, but this year, those issues will be
gone.
-
I just have to teach the procedures, you know. The first 3 weeks I have a list of
procedures that I teach and I go through those procedures and then I teach
those procedures, that you’re not allowed out of your seat unless you’re on fire
or going to throw up.
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-
So for the first 3 weeks we did do language arts, but I took longer on the story,
this is how I want you to do our journals, this is how you respond in them. I
show them how to do a quick draw, how to come in right away and write the
questions down that they were going to be responding to in their journals so
that they knew right up… they were front loaded. So if you acknowledge it. I
found whatever I acknowledged and paid attention to, it paid off huge. It paid
off huge.
-
Let’s review the rules for reading to someone-we’ve been off for 4 days.
-
The other pieces of learning, playground behavior, bus, cafeteria behavior,
walking from one point to another, not like robots, like people, but practicing it
like it was a skill, like it was a math skill. Like I would explicitly teach that
like I would explicitly teach how to add and subtract. And giving children the
time and acknowledgment that it’s not going to happen in two weeks.
-
So we practice procedures like they were being taught for the very first time.
The teachers’ high expectations were transparent when they talked with their students
and they made no excuses for students’ behaviors in the past with other teachers. They
all expected every student to learn and be engaged within their classrooms regardless
of past behavior problems or reputations.
The participants in this study were active teachers. They moved around a lot
throughout the classroom. Even during direct instruction, they would scan the room,
move in and out of space in order to be connected to their students. One respondent
summed up the reason why moving around was important through the excerpt below.
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I: Is there a purpose to moving around a lot?
R: Moving around… because my class, they were taught that when they… when
I’m talking they’re looking at me, so I said, “If I’m hanging from the ceiling,
you look at me. If I’m over by the door, you look at me,” wherever, so they
kept them moving around so I wasn’t always talking just to the people in
front… I feel very, very strongly about it, if I assign something, I’m
monitoring, I’m monitoring how they’re doing at it so they’re not practicing
wrong things. You know, I’m up walking around.
The participants felt that by moving around not only did they become aware of
negative behaviors they needed to address immediately, but it was a time to monitor
student learning as well.
Modeling and Guided Reflection
Some teachers teach rules in isolation. These teacher leaders all taught
classroom management within the context of student interactions. They modeled
correct behavior and taught students how to reflect. One of the teachers did not believe
in ever really teaching rules. He said that he had one expectation: “that no one would
disrupt the learning of others.” When students were misbehaving, he would refer them
back to that one rule and that was it. He also said that by making his class interactive
he kept students busy learning and they did not have the time or the desire to
misbehave. Others within the study focused on developing students’ ability to reflect
and learn the language for problem solving.
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-
(Student comes to talk to teacher because he told another student, “You’re the
slowest one” and the girl he said that to was upset.)
T: How do you think that made her feel?
S: Shrugs shoulders
T: I think that might’ve hurt her feelings
T: Another way to say that is “youre really taking your time…do you understand
why she was upset?
S: Yes
-
I try to teach them to verbalize. If they say, “Oh, so and so’s doing this,” I say,
“You know what? Do you like it?” “No.” “Then you need to go up to…” it’s
like going to the source and telling your emotion. Go to the source and let them
know. Then you have to give them the vocabulary [to solve their own
problems].
-
And these students will know when I am angry and they know when I am
happy. They need to know emotion. I’m not going to say, “Oh, students, I am
upset right now.” I’ll say, “Hey, you know what? Look at my face. Listen to
my voice, what do you notice?”
-
(There was conflict in one of the groups while they were partner
reading…students can’t agree which book to read and who will be first.)
T: How can you solve this problem?
S: Decide to use paper rock scissors to decide
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T: Sometimes in life you can’t always have your choice, thank you for being
cooperative
Teaching the students in context and modeling the language for solving their
own problems helps them to learn how to solve problems in the real world on their
own. The time these teachers took to teach in context is consistent with their general
feeling about learning that learning does not happen in isolation and that experiences
and reflection are a part of patterning the brain to learn and change.
Classroom Environment
The environments in the classrooms observed were all welcoming. When
people entered the classroom, the teachers acknowledged them with a friendly head
nod or smile. There was a sense of community within the classrooms as well. It is
difficult to describe the aura that the classrooms had. When the teachers were asked
how they created their classroom environments, they all focused on the collective
group and how important it was for each student to feel valued, safe and a member of
the class.
-
… it starts out at one level and it changes and is ever changing as they’re
growing. So at the beginning it’s really building that sense of community, them
getting to know each other and feel comfortable around each other, the
problem solving. And then working towards them to have the respect enough
for each other to work in a way that they can all learn.
-
What I want is a low affective filter so that all kids can learn, and that comes
about from being safe. They know if somebody says or does something to
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them on the playground or anywhere else, that you will be right on it. It will
not happen again and that kid will apologize, and that you’ll call home or do
whatever you need to do. Because they want to feel safe, and when they feel
safe, they stop with the “I’m going to put my hood up.” They stop with the
looks like… they stop with the pained expressions. They’re actually attentive,
they’re happy to come to school. They want to come to a place where
they’re… you know, where they’ll say, “I want to come to school on Saturday,
will you be here?”… So you want kids to feel safe. When they come here, they
feel safe.
-
Looking at my environment, you see the environment. Is it a nurturing
environment? Is it a comfort environment? … will they feel comfort? Yes,
because you know what? I always ask myself, “Will my sons be comfortable in
this environment? Will my sons learn from this environment?
-
Responsibility is with us all day every day everywhere we go, everything we
do, and not hallmarking, you know, this month I’m going to be looking for
responsibility. But we know this is a lifelong learning skill that we need to be
teaching every day all day, not responsibility is our focus of the month.
As depicted in the data above, these teachers all had beliefs about creating a safe
environment for their students and communicated those beliefs through their actions.
If a student was misbehaving and being rude or disrespectful to another classmate, it
was handled immediately. Undesirable behavior that affected the learning
environment was not over looked. All teachers expected students to behave well. The
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last participant above believed that teaching behavior was about lifelong learning and
skills needed for the real world, and she focused a lot in her interview on student
autonomy and that traits, like responsibility, need to be taught every day in context not
just once a month.
Five out of the six classrooms were visually stimulating. The colored bulletin
boards on the classroom walls were pleasing to look at and were neatly organized by
theme or content area. In one particular classroom the teacher had set up visual cue
cards explaining the steps to the independent station. The directions for the daily task
were given step by step through the use of photographs. The photographs showed a
person doing each step of the assignment so that students who could not read, could
still complete the given task. Another participant mentioned that whatever is important
to a teacher will be posted in their classroom. In each classroom various forms of
student work from spelling tests, art work, and personal goals were posted. This shows
that students were valued and their learning accomplishments and personal beliefs
were valued as well according to the participant’s comments above.
Another commonality amongst the classrooms was the availability of supplies.
The teacher was not the sole person handing out supplies or the only person who had
access to supplies. Learning tools like books, paper, pencils, crayons, lab supplies,
worksheets and scissors were easily accessible and students were encouraged to get
what they needed for themselves rather than relying on the teacher to pass everything
out. In addition, if students needed paper or pencils, they did not have to ask anyone.
They could get what they needed and they were expected to do so. This follows
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numerous examples above how the participants in this study created systems in their
classrooms that facilitated autonomy and the belief that students themselves had a
responsibility for preparing and learning.
In summary, the following excerpt from one participant sums up how the
participating teachers felt about their students and why they created the environments
they did.
-
I think so many teachers feel like they’ve gotta have control, and you don’t,
and the best way to get a managed [class]… [is]not control them, but get them
managed, is to flat out tell the students, and I do, “Okay, you have every ounce
of power in this classroom.”
-
… when things start to break down a little bit I tell them, “Guys, you have all
the power.
-
Your parents can’t control you, your teachers can’t control you, you control
you…”
-
I think when they hear that they’re like, “Whoa, yeah, he’s right.” I said, “So
now figure out what you’re going to use that power to do. It’s yours, what are
you going to do with it?”
Research Question #2: What Experiences Have the Participants in This Study
Had Regarding Effective Leadership Training in the Classroom?
The second research question focused on the participants’ experiences with
training programs that taught effective leadership. The participants all felt that the
most effective training programs were ones that were developed by building teachers’
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experiences, incorporating reflection time, and mentoring. The categories and themes
presented here are very similar to the beliefs the teachers shared above with regard to
learning and tie in both to their experiences of how they developed as a teacher and
how they understand the learning process. The first theme, beliefs about teacher preservice training, are displayed in Table 9 below.
Table 9
Theme: Teacher Pre-Service and In-Service Training Beliefs
Sub-Themes
Provide
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
X
X
X
X
X
Experiences
Reflection Time
Mentoring
X
X
X
X
X
Involve
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Teachers
Collaborate
Affected by
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Administration
The table above displays the common themes associated with pre-service and inservice instruction for teachers. What follows is a sharing of the data with regard to
each theme.
Experiences
All participants had strong feelings about what would be beneficial for
creating pre-service teacher training programs. They felt that in a world of scripted
curriculum and high stakes accountability, too many new teachers were leaving the
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universities without the ability to problem solve and think on their feet because they
were learning merely to read out of a scripted textbook manuals. They also believe
that high stakes testing makes it difficult for new teachers to develop the craft of
teaching because so often they are forced to follow pacing guides that dictate exactly
what to teach and when. Despite this belief, all teachers interviewed and observed had
developed ways to still become teacher leaders and transform their students. The
participants felt that many factors contributed to their continuous development.
One participant shared that it would be nice if student teachers could be paired
up with a cooperating teacher that shared their same teaching style so that their
philosophies would match. Other participants focused on the need to have student
teachers in classrooms as much as possible prior to being fully credentialed. They felt
that the more the student teachers saw, the more tools for teaching they would be able
to develop. Several of the participants noted that it would be beneficial for the preservice teachers to observe as many different types of teachers as possible in order to
see common threads of what was valuable to know. One participant felt that it was
important for student teachers to get to the classrooms as quickly as possible within
their training program and they should view different times of the day, different days
of the week and different times of the school year. She believed that the morning was
very different from what happened after school in a teacher’s life and that many
student teachers miss the after hour jobs teachers do that are so crucial to a successful
classroom. Things like making copies for the next day, or connecting with school
staff, calling parents and preparing for meetings were things that student teachers miss
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if they only see the regular school day. In addition, this teacher felt that Mondays were
very different from Fridays and the beginning of the school year when procedures
were being set can be very different from the end of the school year when teachers and
students start getting anxious about summer. Furthermore, another teacher commented
that on top of multiple observations student teachers should be accompanied by a
veteran teacher or mentor who could explain what was happening while they were
observing a particular teacher.
-
…when they observe they must have somebody sitting there with them that’s
pointing out what’s going on. That is so critical, because otherwise, yeah, they
see lots going on but they miss the real subtle things that are keeping that class
under control. “Notice the way she just ignored that, but then she did this,”
because some things you just give the look and you ignore it and you don’t
make a big issue out of it because you decide as a teacher what are the battles
you’re going to fight. And so that’s where you need somebody sitting there
pointing out, “Notice how that was scaffolded.” “Notice how she just didn’t
write it up on the board but she made a poster of it because they’re going to…
it’s an anchor chart, they’re going to be coming back to it.”
Reflect
Being reflective comes up throughout this study and was a major component of
the data for developing pre-service experiences for new teachers. The participants
generally felt that a new teacher would need to focus on what they wanted to learn
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little by little and needed to understand that becoming a masterful teacher would take
time.
-
Understand that good teaching is developmental, pick what you will focus on
yearly. And it’s hard, because you can’t be an expert in everything, especially
when you teach elementary school, because you’re teaching so many different
subjects. So pick one, I would say that’d be another advice is if you really want
to strengthen your background and your skills in language arts, then work on
that first.
They all believed, just as they did in developing themselves, that there should be no
shame in failure and that learning from one’s mistakes is how improvement happens.
-
Sometimes you don’t make the right choices and you have to learn from
them…. you know, you can learn just as much from your mistakes as you can
from, you know, knowing the right answer. Because that’s how you learn, you
learn from your mistakes, and you gotta think about it.
-
You’ll fall many times in the real world. We talked about handling failure.
As noted above, mistakes were not seen as moments to ignore or run from, but rather a
time to improve and think. Furthermore, the majority of teachers in the study talked
about how often they had failed delivering a lesson or had made mistakes in the past
but that it was their ability to reflect and grow that helped them become masterful.
The participants generally felt that classroom behavior was the number one
thing to get a handle of if one was going to be a successful teacher. They noted that as
well as reflecting as a teacher, creating an environment that embraced learning the
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correct behaviors on a constant basis was the best for developing good classroom
management.
-
It’s all about teaching procedures. It’s all about teaching procedures and
acknowledging the behavior you want to see….and then revisiting those
procedures constantly.
-
Why is so and so acting that way? Because they don’t feel safe. So they…
there’s huge drama. So the way to stop that is to make sure the kids know
exactly what is expected of them at any one time… When can they talk, when
can’t they talk? Give them plenty of times to talk, but make the conversation
structured. “Turn to your partner, tell your partner the last time you blah, blah,
blah.” “Turn to your partner and tell your partner what you just thought of ...”
“Turn to your partner and make a prediction.” That’s the conversation. They’re
talking but they’re not allowed to talk smack about other kids, and they will
because that is their nature, that’s kids’ nature.
-
If this kid’s a problem, why? Are you connecting… being able to connect and
communicate with the parents and trying… trying your darndest to say, “Why
is it that I can’t stand this student? What is it in me that I can’t…” Could be a
smell, could be a look. You don’t know. But just to being reflective all the time
within your heart, within your personal self.
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Find a Mentor
Mentoring and modeling were key components to developing as a teacher. One
participant felt it was the district’s and site administration’s responsibility to provide
new teachers with a mentor. She noted though that if a mentor was not assigned to a
new teacher, the teacher should find someone to connect to on the staff. Again, the
participants of this study did not believe that acknowledging one’s weak areas was a
sign of failure, but rather a point for growth.
-
To ask for help. To ask for help, to work collaboratively with their colleagues.
I think so many times, especially when you start a new job, you’re afraid that if
you need help that’s a sign of weakness or that you’re not prepared, but no
one’s going to be completely prepared, and I think that would be one of the
strongest points of advice. I know coming to the school that I’m at now that
being able to go and talk to someone, “This is not working for me, what have
you tried?” and that person having that respect for you and not going to
criticize you because you’re asking for help, that we’re all going to need help
at some point or another. And our kids are changing. I mean, everything
changes and if we don’t work together we’re not going to be able to help them
[our students].
-
And it’s up to, you know, the staff and the principal that they should still have
a mentor teacher, because, you know, they’re going to have difficulties and
hard times and you don’t always know about things. And having somebody
you can go to to ask questions or feeling comfortable. Because you are isolated
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as a teacher and as a new employee or a new teacher, you would… you might
feel uncomfortable, you feel like, “Gosh, they’re going to think I don’t know
what I’m doing?” or “I should have learned this already
Several of the teachers also felt that not only would a mentor teacher provide
one with a safe place to ask questions and try out ideas, but that a mentor teacher
could help new teachers plan and gain some understanding of what they needed to
teach.
-
Connect with an experienced teacher. There’s going to be things you… she’s
going to give you a good scoping sequence. Scope and sequence is really
important to see where you’re starting and where you’re going, where you’re
headed.
One participant noted that a veteran teacher could help newer teachers not only to
develop a scope and sequence, but could share ideas on how to enrich lessons that may
not be covered well by the textbooks or given curriculum. The participants in the study
all engaged in some sort of backwards mapping where they learned how to maneuver
amongst the strict pacing guides of their districts by looking to see what was assessed.
After they figured out what was absolutely necessary to teach, they were able to find
some lead way in the pacing guide to teach concepts they felt necessary.
Along with finding a mentor who could provide scope and sequence, one
participant thought it was very important to gain an understanding from other veterans
of what the particular teaching assignment was going to be like for the new teacher.
She noted that if one was going into fifth grade, they should gain an understanding of
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what the curriculum would be like. This teacher also felt that it was necessary to gain
an understanding of what developmental milestones both academically and
behaviorally should be expected for each grade level. By understanding the milestones
the new teacher could decide where they may need some extra training whether it be
in content or discipline.
Effective Teacher In-Service
When participants were asked, “What has been your experience with effective
teacher in-service programs?” they had a great deal to share about the components of
good professional development. The majority of teachers in this study had been
teaching for over 23 years and had attended many in-services. Three major themes
arose from the data:
1. Have the teachers involved.
2. Build in collaboration time.
3. The administrator sets the tone for the in-service.
Beyond the three themes that emerged was the belief again that all people could learn
and that there was always more to understand and know in order to become a
developed teacher. One participant said it best when she said,
-
I never really was upset when we had the 150 professional development hours
that we had to give, because you should be going, because there’s always more
to learn.
The general feeling from the participants was that if they could walk away from the inservice with one thing they could use the next day, then it was worth their time to
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attend. One particular participant pointed out that when she attends in-services, she
goes in to the training trying to find at least one thing she can use or modify to add to
her repertoire of teaching tools. It was the general feeling as well that it was the
teacher’s responsibility to learn and that while there are components of a good
professional development, whether or not someone learns something from the
presentation is ultimately determined by the individual attending the training.
Involve the Teachers
Teachers expressed that on any given staff, there is a great deal of expertise
and experience and that when teachers are involved in the in-services, there will be
more involvement in the training. One participant connected this to the way he taught
in the classroom.
-
And so I think it’s just like in the classroom, when you get the students
involved and engaged, they do some really good stuff. Well, I think if
professional development was a little more teacher centered and a lot less,
“Let’s go spend some money and bring in somebody to talk to us and just
drone on and on to us,” then you’d get more involvement, you’d get more
engagement, you’d get more out of it.
This statement reflects the overall belief by the participants that the more involved any
student is, child or adult, the more learning will occur.
Several of the participants shared how they had been involved in creating staff
development plans for their sites and this was also meaningful because they could
bring in the teacher’s perspective of what was necessary for them to learn as a site. In
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addition, the more that people on staff could present and share their ideas of what was
working in their own classrooms, the better the training. Along with this, one teacher
noted that when the staff in-service was differentiated and planned according to grade
level, the participants got more out of the training because it was tailored more to the
individual needs of a particular grade level.
Collaboration
Almost every participant pointed out that in most trainings they have gone to
there is not enough time to collaborate and reflect with peers about what was
presented. Being able to collaborate and share ideas was a major component of those
in-services that were most effective.
-
That was the time (collaboration time at site) where you were going to be
building your… you know, your tool chest, and you were going to be working
on strategies and you were going to be designing curriculum so that it became
more of a professional learning environment.
As pointed out above, if the true goal of the staff development is to create a
professional learning environment, then teachers are going to need time to debrief and
share what they learned. One of the teachers in the study had spent several years as a
staff developer for the district and she noted that she always tried to build in time
during her trainings for teachers to synthesize together as a group what they had
learned. Then she would hand out organizing and planning sheets to the participants
who would then record what they were going to try in their classrooms the next day.
She also believed that the best type of collaboration was one that was on going and
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provided follow up consultation with an expert who could actually visit the teacher’s
several times and provide ongoing feedback.
Administration
Participants generally believed that although teachers could collaborate on
their own and they could seek out colleagues who would share ideas and engage in
meaningful discussions about teaching and learning, principals and district
administrators really set the tone for creating learning environments at the school sites.
The following statements reflect this belief.
R: I think an administrator makes or breaks a school
I: So you think that the aura of the administrator trickles in the classroom
indirectly?
R: Oh, most definitely. It even comes from the district. You know, with the
district it says, you know, that the principals go to these meetings and they
come back and the want, you know, their staff to be doing these things.
Sometimes it’s great and sometimes it’s not, but you can tell. If there’s a high
value placed on, you know, a certain program, then it’s going to trickle on
down. And it takes time to build that. You can’t initiate a program right away
and expect it to just be perfect.
-
I think and very strongly believe that the principal sets the tone and if the
principal sets the right tone to promote collaboration the right way that… You
can have a group of teachers that are excellent teachers but if you don’t have
the right leadership you’re not always going to get the collaboration that really
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needs to be done to help. I’ve seen it at some of the schools from different
districts, that if you don’t have that support from the administration it’s really
hard.
-
If the principal is negative, then you’re going to see teachers being much more
withdrawn, unwilling to try new things, unwilling to take a risk, unwilling to
say, “Hey, we’re doing this, why don’t you come in.”
One of the components of collaboration shared from these participants was the essence
of time. In order to enact a new program or create change, time really has to be
allotted to think, plan and try new ideas. According to these teachers, if the
administrator gave time to the teachers to collaborate, they were valuing the teachers’
development.
Research Question #3: What are the Essential Elements of
Effective Classroom Leadership Training?
This final research question builds upon three sub-questions.
1. What are the most important characteristics for a teacher to possess in
order to be a successful leader in the classroom?
2. Can those characteristics be taught?
3. What is the best way to teach those characteristics?
Thoughts of collaboration, reflection, and learning will arise again as they did in
previous sections above. By looking at Table 10 readers will be able to see the themes
and notice commonalities.
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Table 10
Theme: Characteristics of Classroom Leaders
Sub-Themes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
Reflective
X
X
X
X
X
X
Collaborative
X
X
X
X
X
X
Flexible
X
X
X
X
X
X
Lifelong
Learners
Table 10 provides a quick overview of the noted theme and the sub-themes associated
with classroom leadership. This theme will become very important as the author
reflects in Chapter 5 about her thoughts for further development of this concept of
classroom leadership.
Characteristics of Classroom Leaders
Four main characteristics emerged from the data regarding characteristics of
classroom leaders. The participants in this study felt that teachers who were true
facilitators of the learning process believed in lifelong learning, reflection,
collaboration, and flexibility.
Lifelong Learning
The participants felt it was crucial that teachers believed learning was lifelong
and did not just occur that year in their class.
-
I like to start off with where they’re strong at and where their next
developmental step is, because learning is lifelong. They’re not going to reach
one step and be done. There’s going to be something that’s going to happen the
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next step to help them, so… And letting the parents know that they’re the
lifelong teacher, that I’m only there for a short part of the journey.
-
If they don’t know how to learn and how to work together and apart, how to be
responsible, all those … those to me are the core of lifelong learning. You
gotta have it. If you don’t have all of it, you’re not really going to make it.
-
I have changed so much in 23 years. I think I’ve gone from when you first start
teaching having management systems that… have extrinsic rewards to intrinsic
rewards over the years. And I didn’t quite understand that when I first started
teaching. You know, you had group points or team points, and you know, you
get to have like preferred activity time on Friday, so it’s like you’re dangling
this carrot…. But teaching kids that they need to be doing things because it’s
the right thing to do, ‘cause it’s respectful, because, you know, if you get your
work done you’re happy, you feel good about yourself, you have good grades,
your parents are happy. I don’t need to give them a piece of candy or a ticket.
Lifelong learning as pointed out by these statements was about learning from others,
like parents as well as teachers. It was about being able to work with others and be
responsible for one’s own learning whether one was a student or teacher. The
philosophies of continuous growth and development were not just reserved for the
students in these teachers’ classrooms. Coupled with the belief in lifelong learning, the
participants reiterated thoughts on learning from above that all people can learn. They
may learn at different rates or may develop concepts at different times in their lives,
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but all people can change their thinking and add to their development regardless of
what they are learning.
Reflection
When participants were asked questions regarding how they had changed over
time and how they had developed into classroom leaders, they overwhelmingly said
they were reflective in their teaching.
I: Do you think you were born to be reflective?
R: No, it had to be developed… yeah, that was developed, because otherwise you
can’t survive in the classroom if you’re not reflective and willing to quickly
assess, monitor and change. Sometimes it’s changing what you were going to
do.
-
Sometimes it’s just the pace that I need to sit down and really think and okay,
where do I want to go? Sometimes it takes me a little bit longer. And it
depends, I mean… One of the things from reading recovery was really learning
how to observe and see where they need to go next, so sometimes it’s just
debriefing at the end of the day to see okay, well, what do I need to go?
Because you can spend all this time on writing very detailed lesson plans, but
that time is really not that well spent if, you know, that’s not where they need
to go, so you have to be constantly thinking about what’s going to happen next.
-
I’m assessing immediately too, “Okay, who’s going to be okay? Who’s not?
She’s fine. He seems to…”
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This theme emerges throughout the study. In order to grow and change and
become better at something, the participants felt strongly about the importance of
reflecting. They also were able to reflect in action as they were teaching. Reflection in
action was defined by Schon (1983) in Chapter 2. This is the ability for practitioners to
adjust their course of presentation depending on the verbal and nonverbal feedback of
their followers. Through observations, the researcher noticed two brief examples of
reflecting in action. First, when students were misbehaving the teachers in this study
were able to quickly assess how they should redirect the students’ behavior while at
the same time continuing to teach. In addition, throughout the observations if students
starting tuning out of the lesson, teachers were aware and would use voice inflection
and proximity in order to regain the students’ attention.
Collaborative
Participants felt that collaboration was very important in developing as a
classroom leader. In order to grow and learn and create a learning environment both in
the classroom and throughout the school, participants felt school staffs needed to
collaborate and share ideas with each other. The notion of collaboration and sharing
ideas was pointed out by several participants to be predicated on the belief that one
can trust their colleagues. Trust, they felt, was a major component of true
collaboration.
-
I need you to show me something you learned and I need to show you
something I learned, that whole bit of collaboration. But collaboration on
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something you all believe in and not be afraid to [share]… you have to have
that trust in each other.
Flexible
Classrooms are very dynamic. Each student brings with them influences from
the outside world that may or may not impede their ability to learn. Several teachers
discussed how important it was for the teacher to understand where their students were
coming from in order to make adjustments to the way they approached the students.
One example that was given was a student who may be hungry and didn’t eat that day
may be acting out because they are hungry, not necessarily because they want to be
disruptive. A teacher who is flexible with their schedule will take the time to find out
why a particular student may be acting out. Another participant in this study noted that
there are so many things that affect a teacher’s day that if they are not flexible they
will “break.” She explained that classroom interruptions like fire drills or picture make
up days can throw the planning off for the day, but the teacher who is flexible will
recover quickly from disruptions and move on adjusting their plan as needed.
Can the Characteristics be Taught?
Another major point for reflection in Chapter 5 will address the question as to
whether or not these characteristics listed above can be taught. The beliefs from the
participants are depicted below in Table 11.
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Table 11
Theme: Can Characteristics be Taught?
Sub-Themes
Yes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
No
Innate Quality
X
While all the participants in the study believed all people can learn and
teachers can be taught the classroom leadership characteristics above, there was some
differences amongst the teachers with regard to nature versus nurture and the impact
this ageless debate has on teaching.
-
Just like I said with, you know, students or football players,… I think
everything can be taught.… I think it comes more natural to some people than
others.
-
[There’s] some concept of that person was a good teacher from probably the
beginning… just who they were?
-
I think that that person that may be a good teacher has had other experiences,
other life experiences that have helped prepare them to more easily fall into the
role of a teacher.
-
I do think your experiences do help influence you, and you can learn certain
things.
-
I think it’s a combination. I think there’s some people that have the potential to
be good teachers and they may not have all the things that they need. And I’m
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not saying that I am a great teacher, but I think if you have the willingness that
you want to be there for those children, I think that you can learn that.
-
I think they have some components, and I think, you know, I think you’re born
that way, but I think you’re also influenced by your value and your family
structure at home. I think that has a huge influence. And I think that you can be
taught. I mean, you can be taught to be more organized and flexibility and all
those things that I talked about. But really, you know, you’re asking me about
nature and nurture, huh? I think they kind of go hand in hand
R: I’m very competitive, very competitive.
I: So the competitive nature, do you think that is innate or do you think you
developed that as well?
R: No, it’s innate.
These statements seem to reflect the belief that people can become better at teaching,
through their own desire but that their life experiences, upbringing and innate
personality also are a strong component of who they are.
One participant elaborated on her belief that while teachers can learn to be
good and become better throughout their career, truly great teachers are just born with
an innate ability to “feel” and are intuitive about their teaching. Her beliefs are
reflected in the statements below.
R: Yes [teachers can learn how to be better], but absolute great teachers are born
with the ability to “feel” and are “intuitive”. And your truly great ones are
good feelers. They can sense people’s anxieties or sadness or inability to focus
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that day for whatever reason it is. You don’t have very many good feelers. It’s
really hard in the world to find one.
I: Can you teach that?
R: No.
I: You can’t teach someone to be a good feeler, we’re either just born that way
or…?
R: Well, it’s like anything else, like spelling. I think you can teach them to be
better at it, but innately? No.
I: So you think there’s something about these teachers that you’ve seen before
that there’s just something they have.
R: Uh-huh. It’s an internal structure.
How to Develop Classroom Leadership
Although the participants noted that they had not directly gone to trainings that
were called classroom leadership, they believed that teachers could learn the
characteristics above through effective professional development. They believed that
in order to build the characteristics above effective professional development that
incorporated meaningful trainings, reflection and collaboration would help to develop
classroom leaders. These themes are shared in Table 12 below.
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Table 12
Theme: How to Develop Classroom Leadership
Sub-Themes
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
Collaboration
X
X
X
X
X
Reflection
X
X
X
Meaningful
Training
Time
Emotional
X
X
Event
Targeted
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Experiential
X
X
Modeled
X
X
After reading the following discussion above, the author hopes that the readers
themselves have been able to see the re-occurring themes throughout this study. The
themes associated with the category on developing teacher leadership are very similar
to those themes already presented. The section below will also be a point of further
development for the author in Chapter 5.
Meaningful Training
Teachers felt that several things could be done in order to make staff
development meaningful. All the participants believed that providing collaboration
time was helpful and that so often collaboration and reflection with peers rarely
happens but is a crucial part to learning. The statements below reflect the participants’
thoughts on the key components of effective trainings.
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-
The training that I did this summer was probably the far best training I’ve ever
had because what they did was they integrated everything they were teaching,
they had the teachers doing and reflecting on that [what was presented]. So that
would be like the strongest thing that I’ve seen.
-
I think when you are taught a strategy and then you actually have to do it, you
have to get up…it’s more meaningful and engaging.
-
And we can have room for discussion and disagreement because that’s how
you learn.
-
And then before they had them[do something] they would have the reminder
language, “Well, what would you need to do to achieve this?” so they got to
listen, they got to observe, and they got to verbalize. So really using the
different modalities to help [the teachers learn].
-
I think people have to have choice in what they go see and do. And even if it’s
something that they’re uncomfortable with but they’re trying to make sense of
it, they’ll come to it, if nothing but curiosity.
-
It needs to be targeted at what those people need to learn. The most valuable
trainings that we’ve had this year have been more towards our grade levels.
Not necessarily at grade level but at a primary level and an intermediate level
because it’s going to look differently.
-
And that’s what this training did, is that we started out whole group but then
we went in to grade levels so that’s a valuable part of it. You can do the
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general part of it but then you need to really gear it down to what levels that
those people need.
-
Finding out basically what teachers want. What do they need right now? Most
teachers want something they can use immediately because their job has that
daily press to it where it’s so overwhelming. You know, they just want
something quick that they can use right away. Find out what they want…
-
Behavior in general of children and adults, to make a change in your life there
has to be something emotionally that has touched you
-
Change doesn’t happen just by talking at people and changing children, I
mean, you have to get to that emotional level of I really care about you, that
they really know that you really… that you’re genuine, they know your
genuine
The statements above reflect the overall themes that arose from the data. Many
of the statements above relate directly to themes that have already been discussed
previously in this analysis. If teacher in-service can be looked at as learning, then it is
interesting to see the connections between these statements directly above and the data
presented earlier on with regard to learning. One participant believed that the best
training she had ever been to in her eighteen years of teaching was this past summer
where the presenters integrated multiple concepts throughout the seminar. The
presenters had teachers practice the skill they were modeling in order to provide
guided practice with the new strategies. This notion of integration, modeling and
practice in order to learn was apparent as well when teachers were describing their
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philosophies about teaching above. Several of the participants commented that the
presenter should use different modalities in order to present the information. Direct
instruction alone would not be the best way to communicate the learning objective, so
if the presenter used whole group instruction, and then small group breakouts tailored
at different grade levels the in-service would be more successful because it was based
more on individual needs rather than a one size fits all presentation.
This is consistent with what the participants believed about delivering
instruction to their students. The teachers used multiple ways of communicating to
their students. Sometimes they would use direct instruction, while at other times they
would do group work. Several participants noted how important it was for teachers to
have choice in what they were going to learn. This ties into the discussion above about
the importance of teachers being involved in the planning of staff development and the
more teachers who were involved the more meaningful the training will be for a
school site. Furthermore, one participant felt that she was trying to provide academic
choice to her students and teachers should have choice as well of what they would like
to learn and that choice motivates the brain to retain and use what has been presented.
In addition, all of the teachers felt that in-services should focus on how to teach
and not on research and theory. While several of the teachers felt it was okay to infuse
some research and theory into the presentation, the majority of time should be spent on
the practicality of delivering instruction.
-
One of the things [that was modeled in the training] was morning meeting, and
the morning meeting has four components. Every day that we came into this
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workshop, we gathered in a morning meeting that basically was modeling what
we would be doing in the classroom, but at a faster pace than you would do in
the classroom. But they did a lot of what was called interactive modeling …
“I’m going to show you what we need to do to do this. You need to pay
[attention] … You need to let me know what you notice.”
-
I know when we did Smartboard training at the very beginning of the year that
flew, that we were able to really get to see how the Smartboard worked but
look at lessons that we could use in our classroom, and that’s valuable, if you
have something that you have that they can walk out the next day and use and
give it a try.
-
And then have them sit down… have them stop periodically so they can
[reflect]… I usually give them a little planning sheet where they can go in and
say how they would like to use this. Where am I going to use this?
-
Get something physical, depending on what you’re presenting ... How are kids
going to be comfortable? Show some pictures of [classroom] environments.
Why is the teacher doing this? Why did she do this? Look at her environment.
Again, as the data is presented, reflection plays a big part in one’s ability to learn. All
of the participants shared their thought processes of how they approach teacher
trainings and believe that the learner has to be actively thinking about how they will
use what is presented. Therefore, it is beneficial if the presenter allows time for
reflection and discussion of how to best use the strategies learned.
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In concluding the section on data analysis, several themes remain constant
throughout the three main research questions. Question number one asked, “What are
your experiences related to effective leadership practices within your classroom?” The
data showed that several commonalities amongst participants were evident. The
teachers in this study believed that all people could learn and that learning was a
process built on reflection, high expectations, experiences, and developmental
milestones. Some of the participants developed their philosophies about teaching and
learning from their families while others built upon the personal connections they had
made with others. What was consistent was that they all believed people can be
influenced by others and experiences shape who we all become.
Question number two asked the participants what their experiences were
regarding effective leadership training in the classroom. Themes that emerged from
this section revolved around similar concepts as in question one. The participants
believed that teachers learned best through trainings that built on developing teachers
through interactive learning experiences, modeling, reflection, collaboration, and
developmental expectations. Masterful teaching does not happen immediately but over
time. Again a common theme that arose was reflection and the belief that all people
can learn and develop into lifelong learners.
Finally, question three asked, “What are the essential elements of effective
classroom leadership training?” Teachers responded with beliefs that were consistent
with what has been shared above. Several of the teachers noted that in order for people
to change, an emotional event was needed or some tie to participant’s emotions in
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order to enact a change response. This was not shared by all participants, but was
noted because it was an intriguing concept to the author of this study. All of the
teachers believed deeply that learning, at any level, required practice through
scaffolded experiences. In addition, research participants believed that the more choice
given to teachers to learn what they felt important, the more people would “buy in” to
the training. This was consistent with what one participant called “academic choice”
and how important choice is in developing lifelong, motivated learners of any age.
The data analysis section thus far has included only the data as shared by the
participants which is consistent with phenomenological methodology. The
researcher’s personal thoughts and beliefs have not been shared in order to keep the
beliefs and values of the participants as pure as possible. What follows is a discussion
about the researcher’s thoughts on the research.
Researcher’s Thoughts
This section was developed by reflecting on the author’s personal journal and
notes throughout the research project. The author kept notes before, during and after
the interviews and observations. This section is divided by the three research questions
and then the author’s values and beliefs are shared with regard to each question.
Connections to the participants’ beliefs and values are made where appropriate.
Experiences Related to Effective Leadership Practices Within Your Classroom
The author’s beliefs about teaching and learning within the classroom were
consistent with the majority of the participants in this study. Most importantly, the
author believed that learning is a process, all people can learn, and that the goal of her
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teaching was to build autonomous students. These beliefs were influenced and
developed through family expectations. The author’s parents and grandparents were
people who were not necessarily formally educated, but constantly learned new things
and shared their love of learning with the author through the love of books and
experiences. Often the author and her family would take family road trips, and she was
encouraged to learn as much as she could about the places visited.
Two thoughts came to the author’s mind when she was researching that did not
come up in the participant data about values and beliefs. One was that her call to
teaching was based on her value of social justice. From an early age, she could
remember the desire and drive to help people. This drive transferred directly into her
classroom teaching as the author sees herself as an advocate for learning and for
students. She believes her call to teaching was based on her innate desire to help
others achieve. Another belief that was not directly articulated by the participants, but
could loosely be connected to their beliefs on learning, was knowledge on how the
brain learns. The author over the last 15 years has become increasingly interested in
learning about how the brain functions and how to best present information as a
teacher so that the brain absorbs knowledge readily and as easily as possible. It was
interesting that although the participants focused a lot on learning and how students
learn best, not one participant talked about the science behind learning and how the
brain operates.
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Experiences With Effective Leadership Training
The author’s beliefs about classroom leadership training were also consistent
with the participants’ data presented. She believed that experiences, mentoring,
management and continuous learning were strong components of becoming a
successful classroom leader. The author believed the most important experiences she
had gone through as a developing teacher were observing other teachers and building
relationships with mentors and veteran teachers who helped her by teaching her key
components of classroom management and how to plan and organize a classroom
effectively.
As a former staff developer, the author could not help think about how she
struggled with planning effective staff developments that incorporated collaboration
time. It seemed that when she reflected on giving staff development in-services that
while she believed collaboration was important, she felt pressure to accomplish
everything planned in the staff development. Could this have been because the topics
of the training were mandated? Could this be because there just was not enough time
afforded to quality staff development? These questions may be ones proposed for
further research on quality staff development and pre-service training.
Essential Elements of Classroom Leadership Training
While the author felt that being flexible and reflective were components of an
effective classroom leader, and she shared the belief that teachers should believe in the
developmental processes of learning, she felt the most influential characteristic of a
classroom leader was the communication style of the educator. If teachers in their
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classrooms are effective communicators they will use multiple modalities in order to
promote the retention and acquisition of knowledge. Excellent communicators
understand the intricacies of communication. They can feel what is happening
underneath the surface of verbal communication and can often sense when students
are misbehaving or causing disturbances to the learning environment. Skilled
communicators are also able to build relationships with others and understand how to
alter their techniques of delivery according to their audience’s needs. When the author
reflected about what characteristic makes a classroom leader, an effective
communicator was the strongest characteristic according to the author’s perspective.
Interesting to the researcher was that only two participants in the study noted
communication style as imperative if a presenter was going to be able to reach their
students.
Can teachers be taught to be classroom leaders? The author believes that it is a
balance between nature and nurture. There is something innate in some people, but
whether that automaticity was born in them or developed through multiple experiences
is not clear. The author believes that it is a balance between how one was born and
then how they reflected on their life experiences that mold them into the teacher they
are.
As mentioned previously, the author was a staff developer for a local school
district and has many thoughts with regard to effective in-services for teachers.
Consistent with the teachers in the study, she felt that staff development should be
teacher centered and driven by teachers at a particular site. This helps to ensure that
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teachers are motivated to learn. One piece the author would have liked to change and
do differently with regard to trainings she gave in the past was to have more teacher
choice built in to the seminars. The author used to provide academic choice in the
classroom and did not provide much choice in the staff development trainings she
presented and through this research process she feels strongly that teacher choice is a
strong component to any valuable training development program. Finally, the more
teachers are involved in providing the training and offering breakout sessions, the
more “buy in” the staff will have to improving the teaching and learning at their site as
they work to build a professional learning environment where everyone has something
to contribute.
Conclusion
The findings presented in this chapter show a great deal of data with regard to
classroom leadership. Participant interviews, classroom observations and the
researcher’s thoughts and reflections were synthesized to provide a description of what
classroom leadership means. The data analysis process also led to the discovery that
while some people may be born natural leaders, all can learn and develop into teacher
leaders inside their classrooms. Results of the data found that by involving teachers in
the development of in-services effective training on classroom leadership could occur.
Chapter 5 will provide a discussion of the data with implications for practice, policy
and future research.
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study was based upon qualitative inquiry, specifically phenomenology.
The purpose of this study was to discover six teachers’ perceptions regarding teacher
leadership within the classroom. Teachers were asked about their beliefs regarding
classroom leadership and teacher training. The significance of this study was in
providing data regarding the process by which teacher leaders developed their
philosophies about classroom leadership.
Summary of Findings
Research Question #1: What Experiences are Related to Effective Leadership
Practices Within the Classroom?
According to the data gathered through interviews and observations with the
six participants, teachers felt that all people could learn, learning was a process,
learning should build autonomy, and personal connections and experiences affect
one’s ability to change. All the participants in the study believed that no matter what a
person’s background or education, they could learn and that learning does not just
happen in a vacuum in one day but over time. Some of the participants focused more
on developmental learning than others, but every participant shared beliefs that
learning had to be revisited and was built on a process of building blocks and that each
concept taught related to others. Some teachers felt very strongly about creating
autonomy within their classroom and had ongoing conversations with their students
about the importance of independence.
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These beliefs that teachers developed over time were created by experiences
they had with other people. Some of the participants attributed those beliefs to the fact
that they had become parents themselves which helped them to connect with other
parents. Three participants in particular noted that it was their interest in their own
child’s development that drove them to learn more about the learning process. One
individual believed that it was his experience with sports that helped him discover that
anyone could learn and that learning something took time and diligence. Teachers
throughout the study also gave recognition to the experiences they had with individual
people throughout their lives. One in particular gave tribute to her teachers growing up
who were inspirational based on the way they respected the class and guided students.
These findings are consistent with Lorraine Monroe’s (1997) philosophy on
educational leadership that good leaders remember what other people did to help and
nurture them along their life journey. Then good leaders pass what they have learned
from others on to their followers in order to support and nurture lifelong development.
Several participants believed that engaging workshops and collaboration time with
colleagues were instrumental in developing and re-developing their beliefs about
teaching and learning within the classroom. All the participants believed that they had
developed over time as educators, and it is clear that although their paths may have
been different to developing those beliefs, they all shared common values about
learning and professional development.
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Research Question #2: What Experiences Develop Effective Leadership Training
in the Classroom?
Three overall themes emerged from the data analysis: experiences, mentoring
and collaboration. Not as prevalent, yet still important themes were reflection, teacher
involvement, and administrative influences.
The data from this research clearly points out that teachers must experience
what good teaching and leadership is in order to become effective leaders themselves
within the classroom. All of the teachers felt that the more teachers and student
teachers could observe others effectively teaching, the more information they had to
build their own philosophies regarding teaching and learning.
Mentoring was a strong component of developing into a classroom leader.
Several of the teachers believed that not only did mentor teachers provide information
to their mentees, but they also helped less experienced teachers develop a scope and
sequence plan for their year of instruction. The teachers that talked about scope and
sequencing noted that it was this sort of planning that allowed less experienced
teachers to focus on other things like classroom management instead of what they
were going to teach every week.
Almost all of the participants discussed how important collaborating with
others was. What was also noted was that more often than not, teachers were not given
enough time to collaborate. Several of the teachers pointed out that it was the inservices where they were given collaboration time and time to reflect that were the
most meaningful to them. Half of the teachers shared that collaboration time was also
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directly tied to administrative support. Administrators who valued colleagues working
together and building their repertoire made time for collaboration on an ongoing basis.
In addition to administrators setting the tone for collaboration, several teachers pointed
out that the more administrators involved teachers in the process of creating inservices, the more valuable the trainings.
Research Question #3: What are the Essential Elements of Effective Classroom
Leadership Training Programs?
“Some people are born magicians, able to do wonders in their work. But
everyone can learn to make a contribution. Excellence takes both kinds” (Monroe,
1997, p. 154). Was this belief by Loraine Monroe consistent with what was found in
this study? It was important to the researcher to find out how these unique teachers
had developed, but more importantly she wanted to know what characteristics they
shared and then ultimately, could those characteristics be taught. Were the teachers in
this study “magicians”? Could others learn to be magicians too? And, if you weren’t a
magician, could you learn how to be one? This last research question really sought to
uncover what were the characteristics shared by these six participants and what would
be the best way to teach others to develop those characteristics. In order to narrow the
characteristics shared by the group, the researcher analyzed the data using the process
described in Chapter 4 and then discovered four main characteristics of classroom
leaders: lifelong learners, reflective, collaborative, flexible.
Interestingly, the teachers in this study showed examples of each one of these
characteristics as noted in the data analysis portion of Chapter 4. The teachers all
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enjoyed learning themselves and continued learning throughout their careers. They
were constantly reflecting on their practice and how their presentation of information
directly affected their students’ ability to learn. The participants made time to
collaborate with others and sought the advice of other people in order to reflect and
build their tools for teaching. Finally, they were flexible not only in how they planned
their instruction, and how they developed their beliefs about teaching and learning.
They were open to new ideas and questioned their own thoughts and beliefs. Many of
the teachers were not rigid in their daily planning. One particular teacher would
present the daily lesson and through class discussions and input would adjust his
lesson plan continuously to fit the needs and interests of the students.
What is extremely noteworthy is that these characteristics were shared by all of
the participants as the data shows and that the characteristics shared in this study of
effective classroom leaders is not site specific. The three sites where these teachers
worked are all different, yet their ability to lead and the development of the
characteristics needed for leading their classrooms are similar regardless of the
demographics of their school site. This supports Lorraine Monroe’s (1997) belief that
all can contribute to the excellence and magic of good teaching by learning how to
develop themselves as classroom leaders.
Uncovering the best way to teach these characteristics was the most interesting
for the researcher because it provided an avenue for future development. All the
participants believed teachers could learn to be effective leaders. Some of them felt it
was a balance between nature and nurture. Two felt that it was completely built upon
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one’s experiences and how one interprets their experiences that would allow them to
be a classroom leader. Another participant believed that the characteristics could be
taught, yet those teachers who are extremely effective were born that way and that
there was something about them that was innate. All of the participants believed that
in order for teachers to be provided trainings that developed the above characteristics,
the trainings had to be meaningful and that meaning came from trainings that were
based on targeted, modeled experiences whereby teachers were given time to
collaborate and be involved in the development of the in-service training.
Reflection and emotion were two concepts that were not strong themes with
regard to question number three; nonetheless, the author felt they were still important
to discuss. Reflection was important because it was a reoccurring theme throughout
the study. Half of the participants believed in reflection and using mistakes and
mishaps as a tool for improvement. One participant even noted that she was reflective
all the time within her heart and personal self in order to get better. Another
participant shared that it was important for less experienced teachers to have a veteran
teacher accompany them when they observe others in order to help them understand
the subtle nuances of teaching and how they might change or adapt a teaching strategy
observed in order to work for them. As the data revealed it was the participants’ ability
to go to an in-service, talk to a colleague or observe another person effectively
teaching that helped them become masterful within the classroom. Emotional events
were an interesting addition to the data and included in the discussions because the
author concurs with the other two participants who noted the importance of emotion
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and learning. The author as well as the other two participants felt that in order for
teachers to change their thinking the proposed change needed to emotionally connect
to the individual.
Discussion and Conclusions
A review of Chapter 2 shows that there are many connections between
effective leadership and classroom teachers as leaders in their classroom
organizations. Table 13 below demonstrates the connections amongst the major
research findings for each research question and how it ties with the literature on
transformational leaders.
Table 13
Major Findings and the Literature
Major Findings Related to Literature by
Research Question
Literature Associated with Finding
1. What experiences are related to effective leadership
practices within the classroom?

Learning is lifelong

Goal of teaching is autonomous students
Senge’s “Learning Organization”
Autonomy through shared visions Senge
Crowther, Ferguson and Hann that TL is not just effective
teaching, it is about teaching for life
Brown that teachers who transform classrooms build students
capacity
Brown, autonomy through congruent communication and
classroom management
Cohen, Loten and Leechor and teacher interdependence
through student work arrangements
Katz and Moller, teachers’ responsibility is to be a facilitator.
Persistent and relentless teaching to find strategies that work
Scheurich and Skrla
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2. What experiences develop effective leadership training
in the classroom?

Developing reflective practices

Collaboration

Administrator sets the tone for effective
trainings
Crossan, Lane and White and the importance of interpreting
through reflection and collaboration intuition and
automaticity
Kezar, knowledge is not an individual truth, but collectively
built
Crossan, White and Lane institutions become well defined
with mechanisms in place that ensure learning
Schon and reflection
Senge and informational dialogue
Silva Gambert and Nolan-administrators affect teachers
Spillane et al and shared decision making of administration.
Kezar principals who encourage reflection
3. What are the essential elements of effective classroom
leadership training programs?

Characteristics similar to transformational
leaders

Characteristics can be taught

Experiences should be targeted and involve
teachers
Senge and the development of intuition
Characteristics mimic transformational leaders= Ruben,
Senge, Kanter, Crowther, Fergusson, &Hann, Yukl
Scheurich and Skrla teacher leaders are willing to restructure
and be flexible in their instructional day
Leaders use multiple frames-they are reflective, etc. in order
to navigate organization effectively
Involve teachers, Kanter
Crossan, Lane and White and shared experiences and ongoing
discussions
The major findings from the first research question regarding effective
leadership practices within the classroom are that learning is lifelong and the goal of
teaching should be to build autonomous students. The teacher leadership study by
Crowther et al. (2002) supports the notion of lifelong learning. They found that
effective teachers focus on developing students’ skills so that they can continue
learning throughout their careers. As the data from this current study showed, several
of the participants believed their job was to be the facilitator of the learning process
which is supported by the research of Katzenmeyer and Moller (1996) who found
teacher leaders are facilitators rather than holders of all knowledge.
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The literature surrounding building the educational capacity of students finds
that autonomy is also a component of teacher leadership. Brown (2005) believes that
teachers who transform their classrooms, do so by building the capacity of their
students through individual means. They use “congruent communication” whereby
eliciting input and information from the students in order to develop effective teaching
strategies for each student. Brown also shares that it is this form of communication
that allows students to become problem solvers themselves, a key component of this
research’s findings as well. Under building classroom environment in Chapter 4,
teachers reported that teaching students how to communicate was imperative to an
autonomous classroom. All of the classrooms in this study had organizational systems
that promoted student autonomy. In every classroom, students had access to materials
and tools in order to complete the learning task. Cohen et al. (1989) support the
building of independence through designing student work spaces that allow students to
work without constant teacher monitoring.
Major findings that arose from research question number two were: reflection,
collaboration, and administrative influences. All three of these findings relate to
effective leadership training within the classroom and can be tied to the literature in
Chapter 2. The Reflective Practitioner (1983) by Schon explains the importance of
reflecting and how it relates to leadership and learning. He presents three stages of
reflection. In the first stage, reflection for action, the teacher analyzes the plan
necessary to move students forward towards the learning objective. This is where
mentoring and collaboration become so important because mentors can help novice
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teachers develop plans for action. In addition, as noted by various participants in the
study, collaborating amongst their colleagues allows them to bounce ideas off other
teachers in order to develop and implement effective lessons.
Schon’s (1983) second form of reflection, reflection in action, is the ability of
the leader to adjust their presentation depending upon the responses from the group
they are involved with. One participant in the study was found to be extremely strong
in his ability to reflect in action. As noted earlier, he would share the overall objective
for the day’s lesson and throughout the lesson observation the researcher watched him
changing his plan as he read the students’ body language and interpreted their
comments during checking for understanding times. Several other teachers were
witnessed reflecting in action during conflict resolution when they were helping
students develop language to solve their problems. The teachers had to quickly
analyze the situation and then build language frames that addressed the students’
concerns in order to model the desired problem solving method.
Schon’s (1983) third form of reflection was reflection on action. This phase
allows the leader to reflect on what happened. All of the participants in this study, as
noted in Chapter 4, reflect and think about how their teaching affects students’
learning. Several teachers in particular noted that it was important to learn from one’s
mistakes after a lesson in order to improve the next time. This belief supports Schon’s
philosophies on reflection and the importance reflection has on developing leadership.
A study by Crossan et al. (1999) support Schon (1983) and his theories of
reflection but combine the need for reflection with collaboration. This is consistent
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with the majority of participants in the study. Crossan et al. found that people who
were able to collaborate became intuitive about what they were doing and their job
tasks became automatic. The above researchers found that it was through interpreting
experiences with others that people were able to build their own cognition because it
was the processes of dissecting patterns and mental mind maps that allowed one’s
brain to bring meaning to new situations. Kezar (2009) also supports the importance of
collaboration and believes that knowledge is not an individual truth, but collectively
built. This is consistent with the participants’ beliefs in this study. They believe that
they do not hold all the knowledge and that by communicating with others, they are
able to build upon their own experiences. Several participants within the current study
noted how important time was in order to effectively collaborate. Senge (1990) found
that when leaders encouraged workers to create shared results, and nurtured collective
aspirations of the group, the group in turn became inspired to continuously learn
together.
Half of the participants in this study felt that the administrators of a school or
district created the environment that supported teacher development. This is consistent
with the findings of a study by Silva (2000) which found that teachers can only be
leaders in schools where principals and district administrators valued learning for all
people, including staff. The researchers found that in schools where the principal
welcomed teacher involvement in decision making there was a positive correlation
between students’ academic success and teacher input. In addition, Spillane (2001)
found that principals who distribute their leadership tasks and solicit input from
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teachers showed that the process of sharing and creating staff development
significantly impacted the opportunity for teachers to become leaders of learning.
Lastly, Kezar (2009) pulled all three of these concepts together and found that
principals who supported ongoing teacher development programs that encouraged
teachers to reflect and build relationships with their peers in order to collaborate built
leadership skills within the teachers that transferred directly to the way they managed
their classrooms.
Findings associated with research question number three were: characteristics
of transformational leaders and classroom leaders are congruent, these characteristics
can be taught and experiences to build these characteristics should be targeted and
involve teachers.
The similarities between the classroom leaders of this study and the
transformational leadership characteristics presented in Chapter 2 are depicted in
Table 14 below. The characteristics of teacher leaders within the classroom displayed
in Table 14 are teachable according to the research participants of this study.
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Table 14
Connections Between Transformational Leaders and Transformational Classroom
Teachers
Transformational Leadership
Characteristics
Transformational Teacher
Leadership Characteristics
(Adapted from Bass 1985; Kanter 1981; Ruben 2006; Senge
1990; Crowther et al., 2002; Yukl, 1999 )
(From current research study)
Organizationally competent:
coach followers, inspire followers, share power,
intellectually stimulating, connect learning to the
future
Lifelong Learners:

Happens over time

All people can learn

Learning based on interpretation of
experiences
-Teacher’s job is to facilitate learning
-Learning should be autonomous
-Learning is relative to student’s needs
Analyze effectively:
committed to continuous improvement
Reflective:

Mistakes should be avenues for
improvement; share risks with students

Ongoing
Communicate effectively:
Interpretation developed through group dialogue, seek
to find interconnected meaning amongst topics
Collaborative:

Dialogue with others builds capacity

Build creativity by learning from others

Provides an avenue towards building
expertise

Create common goals collectively and
facilitate understanding
Scan the environment:
Understand members feedback and adjust, understand
systems theory that all pieces of an organization affect
another
Flexible:

Make adjustments in their teaching based
on student feedback

Maneuver through the many classroom
disturbances

Show a genuine interest in their students’
lives
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While all the teachers in the study believed the characteristics could be taught,
to what extent someone became transformational was not as easy to understand. All of
the teachers believed that effective teachers who transform their students’ thinking
could be born out of experiences and reflection. However, all the teachers reported
that nature played some role in who they had become as teachers.
Half the participants in this study thought it was imperative to involve teachers
in the development of in-service trainings. They believed that everyone on the staff
could provide some expertise and training. This is supported by Senge’s (1990) work
on the learning organization. Senge believes that in order for an organization to grow
and support learning, individualized thinking must be replaced by collective
engagement and reflection. By collectively engaging all levels of an organization,
Senge believes that common language and actions will emerge. This ties right in to the
type of staff development teachers were discussing in that if teachers were involved,
they will set collective goals for the school and reflect on how to best reach those
goals. In turn, routinized action will occur if their input was valued by administration
and sought on an ongoing basis.
Those teachers who had been involved in planning staff development at their
sites said that the staff development was very successful as well because it was
tailored to the needs of the individual. Kanter (1981) notes that effective leaders give
their followers voice and seek participation from followers at every level of the
organization. This is also supported by Bess and Dee (2008) who encourage leaders to
seek out individual voices and realize that everyone has a role to play that will impact
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the direction of the organization. Kanter (1981) further explained that when leaders
use communication processes that engage individuals in understanding group
experiences, individuals share their insights which allows the leader to gain an
understanding of individual needs in order to move the organization in a direction that
both respects the group and individual.
Lastly, the large quantitative study by Walumbwa et al. (2008) found that
leaders who “advanced the human enterprise achieved positive and enduring
outcomes” (p. 91). According to these researchers, leaders who were able to advance
their employees strengths and provide development opportunities that increased their
employees abilities were able to improve the overall friendliness and effectiveness of
their organizations.
Significance of the Study
As stated earlier, the significance of this study was in contributing to the
limited research on classroom leadership. As with all qualitative research, the findings
from this study offer a rich explanation of the given settings but are limited in
generalizability to other contexts. However, the rich data analysis may prove helpful
to those who analyze and build effective teacher training programs. In addition, this
study has aimed at encouraging a new paradigm with regard to how teaching is viewed
and that a leadership lens may prove helpful in educating teachers about their
profession. As noted earlier in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, there is little research that has
studied teacher leadership within the classroom. This study may be one of the very
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few studies ever conducted to look at teachers as organizational leaders within their
classroom setting.
The doctoral program at California State University, Sacramento has three
main program goals. In order to solve California’s complex educational challenges in
dire fiscal times, the program has sought to encourage research in transformational
leadership, critical policy analysis, and data driven decision making. This study clearly
addresses all three program goals. Transformational leadership is the basis for the
entire study. The researcher looked at six transformational teachers to uncover what
was unique about them. The teachers in this study used multiple forms of data on a
daily basis to inform their decision making within their classrooms. As explained in
the findings, the teachers scaffolded lessons and reflected in action all the time in
order to analyze their classroom and students’ learning. It is the hope of the researcher
that the findings of this research will be used as a new way to develop effective
teachers. The two program goals of policy analysis and data driven decision making
will be further discussed below.
Strengths and Limitations
The researcher believes that this study had certain strengths. First, the study
was well grounded in leadership and organizational literature. This provided a strong
base for the author to interpret and discuss the findings as presented in Chapter 4.
Second, the face to face interviews and observations with the participants contributed
to the genuineness and accuracy of the data, making it personal and from the
participants’ perspective, not the researcher’s. Third, the doctoral committee and other
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faculty who reviewed the data analysis process found that the methodology for
uncovering participants’ beliefs and values was both extremely reliable and valid.
Finally, the journal that the researcher kept throughout the study helped the researcher
record personal thoughts and interpretations which allowed her to focus on the
participants’ data without tainting the research data with her own beliefs and values.
In addition to the strengths of the study, it is important to recognize the
limitations of this study as well. First, the study was confined to only six participants
and three schools. Second, the sample was purposeful and based on observed
leadership characteristics exhibited by the teachers in this study. Although such
procedures are characteristic of phenomenological research, some may find the
sampling restrictive. Third, the author was able to conduct only one interview and one
observation with each teacher. Multiple interviews and observations may have
provided more information to corroborate the findings. The participants were
overwhelmingly female. Five out of six participants were female. Lastly, half of the
participants were Caucasian and half were Latino. While it is not clear to what extent
these facts impacted the research, they should be noted as limitations of the study.
Although there are limitations to this research it definitely can be used as a
basis for further studies. First, phenomenology should be used more frequently
especially with regard to teacher leadership and teacher development. In order to
improve the craft of teaching, it is imperative to study the phenomenon from the
teacher’s perspective. Too few studies are conducted from the viewpoint of teachers.
While the author believes that teachers should be the focus of further research, it may
153
prove beneficial to have several other voices represented such as administrators,
students and community members in order to broaden the audience of the research.
Finally, the author would like to propose that upon further research, a model
professional development program be developed whereby teachers would sign up for
the training and then through pre and post analysis researchers could discover whether
or not the trainings had any impact on the development of the given teacher leadership
characteristics.
Recommendations
This study provides rich insight into how policy makers and teachers
themselves can improve teaching and learning. The author has three recommendations
based on the current study which are discussed below.
Recommendation #1: Classroom Leadership Academies
Table 14, which associates transformational and teacher leadership, should be
developed into a more formal framework that can then be used as a basis for creating
classroom leadership academies. The framework could be shared, refined and further
developed in order to provide another lens for understanding teaching and learning.
Classroom leadership academies could focus on professional development that
increases teacher leadership skills and should be tailored to the needs of each
particular school site using the framework as presented in Table 14 along with teacher
centered methods of research and inquiry. One such method is the Participatory Action
Research (PAR) model. Classroom leadership professional development should be
embraced and supported by administrators in order to empower teachers to develop
154
themselves as classroom leaders. The PAR process is a very valuable tool and by
virtue of the process engages teachers in meaningful collaboration and reflection,
which participants noted as crucial components of successful leadership training. The
PAR process is described below.
Using Participatory Action Research as a mode for staff development is a way
to modernize professional development and turn knowledge into action. The research
suggests the investment in human capital provides a meaningful pay off to employers.
The specific PAR steps are (a) identify the problem, (b) review relevant literature, (c)
create the study, (d) analyze given data, (e) plan the action (Fisher, 2008). A sample
classroom leadership academy training is given in Table 15.
Table 15
Sample Classroom Leadership Academy: Participatory Action Research Methodology
PAR Steps
Example:
1. Identify the problem
Local junior high school teachers feel that the behavior at their site
is rising and is not being addressed appropriately.
Literature on leadership and classrooms as organizations can be
suggested from Chapter 2 of this study.
A. Teachers would reflect on their own behavior intervention
practices.
B. Teachers would keep notes on observations of staff members
with regard to how they intervened in student discipline.
C. Inventory teacher, student, parent, administrative perceptions
about behavior on campus.
Teachers could analyze suspension rates, classroom referrals to the
office, school wide behavior policies, attendance and grades.
Depending on what the teachers found through the data analysis
process, they would come up with a plan of action that would be
implemented for a number of weeks and revisited based on a
timeline that was appropriate for them.
2. Review the literature
3. Create the study
4. Analyze data
5. Plan action
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The steps of PAR are based on the philosophy of continuous academic
improvement whereby offering a dynamic process for personal and professional
development by engaging many partners in the process of school reform (James,
Milenkiewicz, & Bucknam, 2008). The steps as laid out in Table 15 are actually
cyclical and throughout the PAR process the steps are revisited in the order that best
suits the participants.
The purpose of PAR is to improve teaching. PAR offers a more flexible means
of conducting research as opposed to the traditional methods, which often require
large sample groups and months or years of study in order to draw conclusions. As
Killion (2006) and Jolly, Gandara, and Benavidez (2005) found, teachers feel staff
development is more meaningful when they are able to collaborate with peers. One of
the underlying fundamentals of the PAR process is collaboration amongst colleagues.
These beliefs of collaboration and involvement have been corroborated as well
throughout this current study’s literature review and study findings with regard to the
teacher leaders in this research project. The PAR process ties directly into the program
objectives of the doctoral program as well. PAR is based on data analysis and action
which are two main objectives of the California State University, Sacramento
Educational Doctorate philosophy.
The audience that would benefit from this research is vast. However, the
researcher sees three immediate stakeholder groups that would be interested in this
research. First, classroom teachers would benefit from the findings of this research
because it gives them a platform for improving their profession from within.
156
Developing the teacher leadership framework and utilizing the PAR process above
empowers teachers to become leaders throughout the educational organization. In
times of fiscal drought such as now, it is important to find inexpensive ways to
motivate and inspire followers to build a better organization. The PAR process above
may prove to be a cost effective means for improving our nation’s classrooms. The
other two stakeholder groups-administrators and teacher preparation programs-are
discussed in recommendations two and three.
Recommendation #2: Administrators Distribute Their Leadership
As explained in the literature review and the research findings of this study,
administrators who distribute their leadership and empower their teachers to have
input in school decisions, like staff development, build a learning organization. It is
imperative that administrators listen to the voices of these teachers in this study and
understand that persons at all levels of any organization can contribute to the overall
effectiveness and productivity of the collective group. As noted in the paragraph
above, fiscal hard times call for drastic measures to improve achievement but without
a high cost of implementation. The recommendations above are extremely cost
effective and productive. Administrators set policy for our educational institutions and
schools, and districts can use these recommendations and research findings to build
successful teacher training programs within their own schools, districts, or states.
Recommendation #3: Teacher Preparation Programs
In addition to teachers and administrators teacher preparation programs could
greatly benefit from this study. As noted in the research findings, these teacher leaders
157
believed that the more time student teachers spend in the classroom, the better, and
teacher development built on a collection of experiences would benefit inexperienced
teachers the most. The participants noted that it was imperative for student teachers to
observe and see as many different teaching strategies as possible prior to graduating.
The teachers also felt strongly that mentoring was a powerful tool for helping new
teachers learn how to reflect and adjust what they had seen in classrooms to make the
strategies their own. Lastly, the teacher leadership framework could be used to
develop and infuse leadership training into pre-service programs. It is the author’s
beliefs that if new teachers were better equipped to be leaders, and trained to develop
themselves as leaders, they would be better equipped to handle the challenging
dynamics of today’s classrooms.
The results of this study will be disseminated several ways. First, the
researcher will be sharing the study with district leadership within her own school
district. The researcher is also scheduled to provide guest lecturing with regard to the
process of qualitative inquiry and teacher leadership at California State University,
Sacramento. In addition, the author has secured speaking engagements with one
California professional educational association and plans to share this study with more
educational associations throughout the state in the next couple of years. Lastly, the
author has been approached by another researcher to publish the findings in a joint
article for scholarly publication.
In conclusion, the researcher feels that she has gained a new perspective for
qualitative research and the rigor involved in both collecting and analyzing data
158
associated with this methodology. The phenomenological approach is a powerful tool
that allows researchers to gain a deep perspective of a given phenomenon and has
proven to be well suited for this study on classroom leadership. The researcher came
to the research with one main bias that upon reflection did not seem to affect the
research data, but may have impacted her selection of participants based on similar
characteristics between the participants and the researcher. The researcher approached
this study with the belief that all people can learn and can be taught depending on
one’s own desire to change. This is a major characteristic that the researcher and all
six participants shared. Although the researcher is aware of her bias, she strongly feels
that the methodological steps she used in analyzing the data and the use of journaling
helped her to provide reliable and valid data.
Throughout this research journey, the researcher has finally been able to define
teacher leadership within the classroom and feels confident that a new piece of fabric
will be added to the educational leadership quilt as she continues her quest to improve
teaching and learning. Teacher leaders within the classroom are learners, reflective,
collaborative and flexible and anyone can be taught to be an effective leader. Finally,
upon further reflection of the findings, it became clear to the author that teachers have
a tremendous amount of autonomy with regard to how they conduct their classrooms.
Despite all the external influences that may affect one’s ability to teach, it still is left to
the individual to determine how they will conduct themselves in front of their
students. This ending quote gives testimony and validity to the findings of this study
through the words of the poet.
159
I am the decisive element
"I have come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element.
It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily
mood that makes the weather. I possess tremendous power to make life miserable or
joyous.
I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration; I can humiliate or humor, hurt
or heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis is escalated or
de-escalated, and a person is humanized or de-humanized.
If we treat people as they are, we make them worse. If we treat people as they ought to
be, we help them become what they are capable of becoming."
--Goethe
160
APPENDIX A
161
Interview Protocol
A. What are your experiences related to effective leadership practices
within your classroom?
1. Please describe your journey that brought you to the teaching field.
2. Please explain the most important experiences you have gone through that have
made you the teacher you are today.
3. Describe what teaching means to you.
4. What does a typical day in your classroom look like, how does your day start and
end?
5. Describe your best teaching day.
6. How have you developed your beliefs and values about teaching?
7. Could you please describe your classroom management practice?
8. Could you please describe your classroom environment?
B. What are your experiences regarding effective leadership training
in the classroom?
9. If you could create the perfect teacher preparation program, what would it look
like?
10. What kind of advice would you give a beginning teacher?
11. What has been your experience with effective teacher in-service programs?
C. What are the essential elements of effective classroom leadership
training?
12. What characteristics are most important for a teacher to possess in order to be
successful in the classroom?
162
13. Can those characteristics be taught?
If yes, What is the best way to develop those characteristics?
If no, Why do you feel the characteristics cannot be taught?
14. If you could create the perfect teacher in-service program, what would it look like?
163
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