Gender, Glass Ceiling &
Leadership Styles
“ The Glass Ceiling” – the invisible artificial
barriers created by attitudinal and
organizational prejudices that bar women from
top executives. Domestic & International
Perspectives; Facilitating, Working in teams,
Communication, Leadership & Motivating
others
Any Gender Differences ? (Week 5)
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Studies of Glass Ceiling in the US
Early 1990s, the Centre for Creative Leadership. 1995
survey on HR mgrs from 304 large industrial &
service firms from Fortune1000, 500 & 50
companies. 2 key findings:
• White male mgrs uncomfortable with those unlike
themselves (women, women of color)
• The lack of accountability or incentives in
organizations to develop diversity.
In1996, Catalyst (nonprofit res organization for
women in business) examined perceptions &
experiences of the Fortune 1000’s most senior
level women & CEOs (male & female).
When comparing with 2003 study on women in
corporate leadership:
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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1. Compared with 23 % women in 1996, in 2003 only 30% of
women believed the opportunities for senior positions in
their own organizations have greatly improved in past 5
years.
2. Only 11 % of women believed opportunities in US have
improved in general.
CEOs views women’s advancement are critical in
supporting women’s talents in high-ranking positions.
The 2003 Catalyst’s survey of CEOs (no gender breakdown)
from Fortune1000 companies & compared with those of
senior-level females:
1. Women & CEOs agreed that the lack of general
management or line experience as top barrier to
women advancing into senior leadership roles.
2. Almost 2/3 (64%) of CEOs believed that organization is
responsible to change to meet women in management’s
needs
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4. 3. 47 % of women indicated that exclusion from informal
networks was a barrier to advancement, in contrast to 18%
of CEOs.
5. 16 % of women noted lack of mentoring, in contrast to 21% of
CEOs.
6. Differences in management/leadership styles bet men &
women as discussed by glass ceiling literature. Typically most
valued communication styles in corporate world are those of men
(being direct & factual) rather than interpersonal styles women
use. Therefore, women using more direct communication may be
more likely to advance than women who do not.
However, recent study shows that women tend to be more flexible
in leading than men & engage different styles & approaches.
Another report comparing highly successful women executives in
senior leadership positions with successful men executives &
less successful women – Fortune 400 companies inc.
PepsiCola, IBM, Unilever, Prudential
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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1.
Successful women executives are twice as likely to use a
more interpersonal style than men.
2. Women also use directive & authoritative style typically
used by men
3. The study points: the best leaders be women or men do
not use the style they are comfortable with, but rather
use style best suited to the situation/people.
A 2004 study shows those companies are able to “break
through” the glass ceiling” has prospered financially: Of
353 Fortune 500 companies, having the highest
representation of women as top mgmt teams
experienced better financial performance than those with
lowest women’s representation.
However, Statistics Don’t Explain Earnings Differences.
Pay inequities: In spite of women’s large share in the labor
force: 45% women & 55 % men in 1998, women’s labor
expected to rise in 2008 in the US & elsewhere)
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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In the Soviet Union (2001 survey in N. Vinokurova, Gender
Related Aspects of Mgmt, 2007) women faced multitude
of obstacles: Advancement blocked by a system of social
barriers.
Both men & women – i) ideological obstacles (required
membership in the Communist Party
ii) Socioeconomic obstacles (territorial restrictionsresidence permits governing rules.
Specific to women: gender discrimination. Other things
being equal, in making appointment, man is preferred
Women’s careers impeded by family obligations, the birth
of children..
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Women in Management: Closer to breaking through the glass ceiling?
Linda Wirth in Women, Gender & Work (ILO, 2001 ed. Martha Fetherolf
Loutfi.
Women have made enormous progress in many countries in
obtaining a greater share of professional and management
jobs. The data show the significant role played by education
and the growing diversification of women’s careers.
Nevertheless, research findings demonstrate how
unbreakable the glass ceiling is. Women’s overall share of
management jobs rarely exceeds 20 % in most countries, yet
they represent >40% of the world’s labor force. The higher the
position the more glaring the gap bet men & women. It is
suggested that some career-building strategies & enterprise
policies can help to speed up women’s advancement to the
top jobs.
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Women as ministers
Women as presidents
Women governors/presidents of
central banks
Women as Women as
commissioners (Human Rights)
Women as state governors
Women as Vice Chancellors
Women as board of directors
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Movement of women into
managerial jobs – are they even
across different economic
sectors?
Where are they fared better?
Services versus industrial sectors
(manufacturing & contstruction)
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Education & Training
Although the overall picture is positive with girls in
most countries perform better than boys, the number
of graduates & post graduates amongst women
increased, the question remains is
the application of gender criteria in the choice by girls
& boys of subjects & courses.
Thus, when women work in paid employment outside
their home, their jobs have often been an extension of
reproductive activities in areas such as welfare,
education, health, catering, services a& administrative
support functions.
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Although women are often better educated &
qualified than men in the same job, women still find it
difficult to reach top positions. They had to work
harder & perform better than men to move ahead
Studies:
In Jamaica, women had more years of schooling
before joining labor force than men, advanced more
quickly than men at middle management level but
took significantly longer to achieve top level mgmt
positions (Gershenberg, 1994)
Turkish Civil Service –women progress in overall
managerial jobs but stuck at middle mgmt level
(CEDAW, 1996)
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What is a real & practical constraint for women to achieve high
level positions?
1. Disproportionate responsibility –family, raising children, household
tasks. Professional/managerial jobs often require long hours of
recognition and eventual promotion.
2. Career progression structures & policies are around the ages of 3040 as most important for career development which is the most
intensive years for child rearing. Women who want both career & family
must juggle heavy responsibilities in both domains.
Women without family are often seen as potential mothers, thus even
with education & trng, they are often given less attention than that of
their male counterparts.
3. Women in developing countries may have fewer difficulties obtaining
mgmt jobs due to
a) smaller proportion of the population attained higher education, so the
skills & knowledge of qualified women in demand.
b) extended family/inexpensive domestic help provide crucial support
for childcare & household maintenance
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Potential Barriers (Kelsey Julian)
Negative assumptions of abilities/commitment
Discrimination & sexual harassment
Lack of management commitment to establish
systems & policies for achieving workplace
diversity & upward mobility
Sex, race, and ethnic-based stereotyping and
harassment
Lack of family-friendly workplace policies
Limited opportunities for advancement to decisionmaking positions
Inequitable appraisal & compensation
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Tackling the obstacles
Women perceived sex stereotyping regarding their ability
& willingness to accept positions of responsibilities esp if
long hours, ravel & relocation are involved- attitude that
assume all women have similar interests, ambitions &
constraints when in fact they do not form a homogeneous
group –just as men do not.
Thus, many women as a result of this attitude are placed in
less strategic areas of activity, not being given varied and
challenging assignments & not being exposed to the full
range of operations of activities of an
enterprise/organization –crucial factors for climbing the
ladder to top mgmt jobs.
No wonder the surveys of CEOs of companies revealed
that few women possess appropriate business experience
& not been long enough ina variety of mgmt positions to be
selected for top exec. Jobs.
Leadership & Glas ceiling wk 5
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Leadership Style (Crampton & Mishra, Public P. M. 99)
• Successful women describing their
leadership styles often as: transformational
– getting workers to transform or
subordinate their individual self-interests
into group consensus directed towards a
broader organizational goals.
• Power attributed by personal
characteristics: charisma, personal contacts
& interpersonal skills rather than org
structure.
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• Others suggest female managers are more
situation-based-adapting their strategies to
the contingencies of the situation. Whereas
men are more likely to view their leadership
style as Transactional – jobs are seen as
involving a series of transactions bet
themselves & their subordinates, leading to
rewards or punishment.
• Flattening structures & requiring more
participative management, which style
would best suit this environment?
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• Some suggested women
with their natural style
enabling tem to lead and
manage successfully within
this new corporate
environment compared to
more male dominated
pyramid-shaped hierarchy.
• However, women in upper
mgmt positions are mainly
in HR &
communication/public
relations where their
“softer” participative style of
management viewed as
better utilised.
Situation
based
Transformational
Participative
Women Leadership
Style
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Research on equal pay & career
advancement (US General Office –GAO
report), failed to explain the magnitude of
earnings differences bet men & women, nor
why these differences exist. Investigated
only differences bet work patterns of men &
women, as well other key factors such as
women earned on average, 80% of men’s
earnings in 2000. What about the remaining
earnings differences?
The report suggests: pay differences cld be
the result of managing work & family
responsibilities.
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• The Institute for Women’s Policy Research
(IWPR) differences of earnings include:
• Work experience, education & lack of
opportunities. Historically, women’s wages lag
behind men plus the gap on their earnings
increases with age.
• For example, in 2002 (The US Bureau of Labor
Statistics) the differences was much greater
among workers of 45-54: women in this age
earned 75% as much as men. But women of 1624 earned 93 % of men’s wage.
• Young women closing wage gap; they earned
82% of young men’s earnings in 2000 compared
with 68% in 1979.
• HR Professionals – a learning lesson.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Women of Color`
Face additional challenges – impact of glass ceiling: gender
based barriers & racial & ethnic obstacles at times to advance
the corporate ladder.
2004 research report of African-American women found:
•
Exclusion from informal networks & even conflicting
relationships with white women.
Although 75% of Fortune 500 companies have formal diversity
programs, 37% of African –American women stated
opportunities to advance to senior positions are declining.
Primary barriers:
1. Negative race-based stereotypes
2. Lack of institutional support
3. Frequent questioning of African-American women’s authority
& credibility.
CP/Nina Long
To combat, these women recommended 3 proactive success
factors: communicating effectively, exceeding performance
expectations, & building positive relationships with managers
& colleagues.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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• Findings from Catalyst slightly more optimistic
for women of color & glass ceiling. Overall
experienced VE+ career growth. Eg. 57% were
promoted at least once (consistent with other
studies on white women & women of color).
• While this research indicates women of color
adopt several strategies for advancement &
emphasise greatly on networking & mentoring, it
also reports women of color are less hopeful abt
their career prospects as past barriers still
remain today.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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International Implications for HR Professionals
Knowledge of their own extraterritorial laws that
apply to their own firms conducting business
outside their own incl Civil Rights Act, Age
Discrimination in Employment Act & Disabilities
Act.
To abide International laws requiring
nondiscrimination in employment:
• European Union (EU) – Equal Pay Directive
• International Labor Organization (ILO) – equal
Remuneration Convention No. 100
• Organization for Economic Cooperation &
Development (OECD) – Guidelines for
Multinational Enterprises
• United nations – Global Compact
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Lack of global talent as an emerging issue of aging
workforce. Where to find the right people for the
organization as the baby boomers gen retires? HR
Professionals need to address this.
Seen as missing key ingredient – female global mgrs.
Women employees offer a wide range of talent &
potential but are largely underdeveloped in the global
managerial ranks. Top 3 barriers for women gaining
Global Business Experience (Catalyst, 2000)
1. Getting selected-the biggest obstacle to enter the global
business arena
2. Perceived as less internationally mobile than men due to
work & personal responsibilities
3. Lack of mentors & networks on international assignment.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Therefore developing global leaders requires experience
outside home country, & increasingly, international
experience is a must for global senior leadership
positions.
International studies on Glass Ceiling
A 2002 report indicated stereotypes & preconceptions
of women’s roles & abilities, & the lack of mentors
& visible successful female role models as to
barriers to women taking international leadership
roles. Analysis:
1. Many of the male & female respondents who are in
senior positions at large corporations across 20
European countries reported that the opportunities for
women’s advancement have greatly improved in the
past 5 years
2. Almost 25 % of women stated no change; 9% of men
agreed
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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3. For women who aspire to advance in the global
arena, they still face barriers of tokenism,
exclusion and isolation.
A study of women expat mgrs representing a wide
range of industry & service sectors in Europe
found the disadvantage is due:
Lack of organizational support seemed to be
readily available to their male counterparts.
Findings also noted few organizations have
developed career models for women expats.
1. All women managers in the study – hit the
glass ceiling in their organizations in their
early careers. Affirmed glass ceiling is very real
in Europe
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2. Only 25% believed they can break the
ceiling & make it to the top of their
professions.
3. Choices in lifestyles are more difficult for
women expats than for domestic women
managers, mainly due to the strain on
personal relationships & poor quality of life
arising from commuter marriages
4. Career success – still based on a male
career model ignoring factors of marriage,
pregnancy, children & household duties.
Plus, these women in their early careers
faced gender stereotypes.
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Catalyst interviewed & surveyed over 1,000
employees in US based global companies,
incl. 522 HR executives to answer why so few
women on international arena. Key Findings:
1. Only men often are assumed interested in
expat positions. No so as 42 % of women
indicated stating their interest was an
important factor to being offered a global
assignment compared to 29 % men
2. Women are perceived to be disadvantaged,
compared with men regarding international
assignment, balancing work & personal
responsibilities, & building business
relationships outside the US.
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3. There is a shortage of experienced international talent
for the traditional 3-5 year international assignment
largely due to dual-career marriages. Thus women
seemed to be burdened by this demographic. Among
married expats, 91% of women were in dual-career
marriages, compared with 50% men.
4. Internationally assigned women tend to be more isolated
than their male counterparts, often lacking formal
support such as mentors & networks from their
organizations.
Women in Senior Positions in the US & Abroad
With many barriers still remain, although there have been
some movement for women advancing to senior
positions, women are not gaining the required
experience to compete with men:
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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• `
Overt & Covert Barriers for Women
to Domestic & International Senior Positions.
•Balancing home life & career
•Isolation & loneliness
•Constant awareness of being a woman in man’s world
•Lack of access to male networks
•Having to prove oneself to others
•Having to work harder & be better than male counterparts
•Having to ask for promotions
•Having to ask for international assignments
•Less time available for networking due to domestic commitments
Source: Linehan, M., & Scullion, H (2001).
European Female Expat. Careers: Critical Success Factors. J of
European Industrial Trng.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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•
•
1.
2.
In 2002 women held only 10% of the 6,428 total
line corporate positions in Fortune 50.
Women successfully attained senior positions
recommend several career strategies:
Consistently exceed performance expectations
Develop a style with which male mgrs feel
comfortable
Seek out challenging & visible assignments
Obtain support from an influential mentor
3.
4.
[Townsend & Mattis, 1998. Gender Gap in the Executive Suite. Breaking the
Glass Ceiling. The Academy of Management Executive, 12.1]
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• 1 critical measure of women in senior positions –
numbers of women in corporate directorships.
• EG. In US in 1995, 10% of women as board
directors, increasing to 16% in 2002. In Canada,
11% of women in the board in 2002 & 2003. In
UK, 101 women as directors of FTSE 100 board,
when the number of companies with female
directors increased from 61-68.
• However, as CEOs, women score lower than as
directors. In 1995, the Fortune 500 had 1
woman CEO. Today, 7 female CEOs (increase
of 0.2% - 1.4%)
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Women Entrepreneurs.
Women moving into entrepreneurship as a path around
glass ceiling.
Key factors in business ownership are:
Leadership recognition & the authority to make decisions.
Why wld women leave corporate world?
• Increased compensation
• Opportunity to develop new skills/competencies
• Greater advancement opportunities
• Increased intellectual stimulation
• Different type of work
• More authority to make decisions
• Organizational values
• [Catalyst, 2003].
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Women Entrepreneurs Mgmt Styles
• Buttner (2001) reports that the management styles of
women entrepreneurs was best described using
relational dimensions such as mutual empowering,
collaboration, sharing of information, empathy and
nurturing. Importantly, these dimensions, which have
also been associated with women in different
professional occupations, were deemed to be
associated with firm performance. Women do work
differently from men. According to Heffernan (2003),
female negotiating styles have been shown to be
different and it has been demonstrated that they are
significantly more beneficial to long term business
success. The most recent study that explored a genetic
basis for special attributes of women in social ability and
empathy imply a better performance of companies created
and run by women because of their ability to communicate
better with employees, suppliers and customers (Valencia,
2006).
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Motivation & Business Performance
• According to Brush (1990), individual motivations and
goals such as profitability, revenues and sales growth
have been found to be related to performance in womenowned businesses, albeit their tendency to perform less
well than their male counterparts (Fisher et al., 1993).
Researchers found that women typically are motivated
by a more complex set of objectives for starting a
business than male counterparts. Factors related to
the desire to achieve flexibility between work and
family lives are valued differently by the genders
(Cinamon & Rich, 2002; Stephens & Felman, 1997). In
addition, Hisrich and Brush (1987) found that
individual motivations and owner/founder goals are
related to performance in women-owned businesses
where opportunity motivation was related to survival
and independence was associated with “no growth”.
As a result, motivation shows a strong relationship to
performance (Lerner et al., 1997).
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Entrepreneurial Networking & Mentoring
• According to Fraser (1995) and Wheeler
(1995), the use of informal mentoring
supportive relationships is one of the best
ways of establishing a business and these
relationships helped the new entrepreneur
bypass the obstacles which impede
growth, success, and personal fulfillment.
However, women are often excluded from
social networks or informal networks of
information such as male-only clubs, old
boys networks, and business lunches
compared to men (Brush, 1990) due to
lack of time (Belcourt et al, 1991).
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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Entrepreneurial Networking & Mentoring
• In Malaysia, women entrepreneurs faced a shortage of
peer support networks compared with men [Women
Institute of Management (WIM), 1997] even though
various women entrepreneurs and industry associations
have been formed (FEM, NAWEM, USAHANITA) which
generally serve as a platform for women entrepreneurs
to establish networks and exchange information and
experiences as well as to conduct training programmes,
seminars and workshops on motivation, leadership and
entrepreneur development and to provide other means
of support.
• This is due to the fact that women may not join these
associations as they might be overloaded with business
and family responsibilities. This limits the women
entrepreneurs’ ability to seek informal advice and peer
financing as well as the information networks needed for
survival and growth. This might pose a challenge to
women entrepreneurs in establishing networks which
are helpful to the survival of their businesses.
Leadership & Glass ceiling wk 5
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• Globally, the growing number of women owned or
majority women-owned businesses proved that women
entrepreneurs are breaking through the glass ceiling.
• Survey of Women-Owned Business Enterprises reported
women owned 51% or more of 5,417,034 firms in 1997.
The 4 industries with the largest total revenues for
women owned businesses: wholesale trade, service,
retail trade & manufacturing (US Dept of Labor, the Census of Bureau)
• Women of color also made significant inroads as
entrepreneurs. Bet 1997 & 2002, the number of owned
businesses by minority increased by 32%. 1 in 5 women
owned businesses in the US was owned by a women of
color in 2002.
• In recognition of their work & their growing companies,
The Veauve Clicquot Business Women of the Year
Award acknowledges women as the leading edge of
entrepreneurship.
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