Economic Anthropology
Economic Anthropology
• Economics is the study of
production, distribution, and
consumption of resources.
• Economic Anthropology studies
economics in a comparative
perspective.
A society’s economy consists of:
•
•
•
•
Production
Consumption
Distribution
Exchange
Economizing and
Maximization
Classical economic theory assumed that
individuals universally acted rationally,
by economizing to maximize profits, but
comparative data shows that people
frequently respond to other motivations
than profit.
Accumulation of food for a feast. Yams are heaped up on the
ground and fill the pwata'i (prism-shaped wooden
receptacle): coconuts, sugar cane and bunches of areca nuts
are displayed on top - the whole producing on the natives a
strong impression of beauty, power and importance.
The Trobrianders
produce far more yams
than they can ever eat and
often simply allow them
to rot. Why?
Exchange
“The act of giving or taking one
thing in return for another”
Exchange is:
• The chief means by which useful things move from one
person to another
• An important way in which people create and maintain
relationships and social hierarchy
• richly symbolic - all exchanges have got social meaning
•fun /exciting
• universal
• politically charged,
• emotionally charged
• important in people’s lives
• varied
What kinds of things
are exchanged?
In order for social relationships to exist we must
exchange something whether it is the
communicative exchange of language, the
economic and/or ceremonial exchange of goods
or the exchange of spouses.
i.e. exchange is important for the establishment
and maintenance of social relationships
“If Friends make gifts, Gifts Make Friends”
Marcel Mauss
exchange is important for the establishment and maintenance of
relationships
WHO
exchange relationships
WHAT
what is the significance and meaning of what is
exchanged
WHERE
what is the significance and meaning of where it is
exchanged
WHEN
on what occasions
WHY
social reasons
HOW
ceremony, mechanisms,
Patterns of exchange and circulation, lead us to the heart of
social and cultural organization
WHAT IS A GIFT?
•What kinds of gifts are there?
• When do we give gifts?
IS THERE ANY SUCH
THING AS A FREE GIFT?
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF NOT
RECIPROCATING?
 ARE THERE BONDS OF OBLIGATION?
 IS THERE SOME COMPETITIVENESS
INVOLVED IN GIFT GIVING?
 HOW DO WE FEEL WHEN WE HAVEN’T
RECEIVED A GIFT OF AT LEAST EQUAL VALUE?
 WHAT IF THE GIFT RETURNED IS OF HIGHER
VALUE?
Marcel Mauss 1925: The Gift: The Form and Reason for
Exchange in Archaic Societies
Mauss points to three fields of
obligation: to give, to receive
and to repay
Gifts, according to Mauss,
create relationships not only
between individuals but
between groups, relationships
which take the form of total
prestations
1872 - 1950
What rule of legality and self-interest, in societies of a backward or
archaic type, compels the gift that has been received to be obligatorily
reciprocated? What power resides in the object given that causes its
recipient to pay it back?” (Mauss 1925)
The Potlatch
A form of ceremonial
exchange of gifts employed by
indigenous groups on NW
coast of BC (Tlingit, Haida,
Tsimshian and Kwakiutl
(Kwakwaka'wakw))
Both sexes wore cedar-bark or fur
robes with one or both shoulders
covered, and women had in addition
bark aprons extending from the waist
to the knees of cedar bark or goat-hair
cords. Water-proof capes and hats were
made of bark.
Crossing the strait
"Interior of Habitation at Nootka Sound"
John Webber (British), April 1778
The Kwakiutl house is constructed of cedar boards on a framework
of heavy logs. The ridge extends from front to back, the roof-boards
run from ridge to eave, and the wall boards are perpendicular.
POTLATCH
held in connection with
events in the life cycle,
initiations, marriages,
house building,
funerals, assumption of
certain dance
privileges.
extravagant and lavish
preparations including
much food preparation
and the creation of
masks and art work
are made by the host as
gifts for the guests
The word means ‘to feed’
or ‘to consume’
Potlatch at Fort
Rupert, British
Columbia, 1898
A Kwakiutl clan chief wore this
mask when greeting rival chiefs
invited for a potlatch. It
reminded the guests of their
host's great riches and their
indebtedness to his generosity.
This Kwakiutl mask represents
a mythic ogress of the forest.
Dz'onokwa, who skulked
through villages at night to
steal children to eat. She was
also the "master of wealth,"
represented by the copper of
her eyebrows, and so an
appropriate symbol for the
ceremonial feast.
The most central symbol of wealth, power and prestige is the
copper, a shield-shaped plate of beaten copper that usually has a
painted or engraved representation of a crest animal on its
surface. Contemporary coppers as well as older ones frequently
bear animal names - Sea Lion, Beaver face - probably referring
to the crest of their original owners.
The Kwakiutl
chief Tulthidi
prepares to give
away his valuable
copper in honor of
his son
Broken copper
Tsimshian: Gitsan,
British Columbia
Collected by G.T.
Emmons, prior to 1914
Chilkat Blanket" 1890-1900, Tlingit
•Because of all the gifts, a traditional potlatch took years
to prepare
•A large potlatch
held in 1921 was
said to take 17
years of
preparation
• A modern day
potlatch may
take about a
year to prepare
and cost
$10,000.
C. 1900
Today potlatch gifts include
coffee mugs, socks, hand knit
blankets and clothes, as well as
carved masks and murals
Parties, as they are now
sometimes called, commemorate
a significant event in an extended
family's or clan's collective life.
They are held today for baby
showers, namings, weddings,
anniversaries, special birthdays,
graduations, and as memorials
for the dead
Twined grass basket
Nootka/Makah, British
Columbia/Washington
Cedar carrying basket
with handles
Why would they spend years
accumulating wealth only to
give it away - or even throw
the objects into the sea?
Social Significance
 potlatch celebrations are a significant representation of
the host's status and the display of rank and title
In return for giving away food and wealth they get
recognition of their status and that of their lineage.
Marriages for one’s children and places in the
brotherhoods are only won during the potlatch
Potlatches become very competitive
 aspiring leaders use competitive potlatching to move up
the system.
 The potlatch is a system of gift exchange--- material
goods are exchanged for social recognition and power
The obligation to give
The obligation to receive
The obligation to reciprocate
Prestation
• More
than simple exchange
• Also includes reciprocity and the various
obligations
• ‘total social phenomenon’
• It is not individuals but collectives that impose
obligations of exchange and contract upon each
other
• What is exchanged is not solely property and
wealth
Thomas and Jane Carlyle’s Christmas Presents
• Renowned 19th century English historian and essayist
• Spent Christmas in the 1850s with Lord and Lady Ashburton
(wealthy Scottish banker)
• In 1851 The Ashburton’s gave Christmas
presents to the Carlyles
• Mrs Carlyle got a scarf and a bracelet
• Thomas got a jigsaw puzzle
• both were well received
•In 1855 Mrs Carlyle received a black
silk dress - A novelty because it was
only recently that they were produced
by machine
• Mrs Carlyle claimed that she was
being insulted.
What do we have to know to be able to understand those meanings
attributed to these gifts?
class,
social mobility,
matrimony,
patronage,
employment,
manufacturing processes,
issues of style,
conventions of gift-giving.
Gift Exchange does not operate according to market laws, but
the social rules of power, symbol, convention, etiquette, ritual,
role and status.
Economic Anthropology:
Substantivist
Formalists
-economic affairs are embedded in social
institutions and cannot be studied
separately from other social institutions
social structures
•kinship system
•political structure
•religious ideologies
-people in nonindustrial economies
function with different logic than
capitalist economies. Exchanges occur
for reasons other than economic benefit
•culturally unique values
•group benefits
•“rational” culturally relative
•maximization of personal gain
•supply-demand relationships
•“rational” decision-making
•individual self interest
•economy can be analyzed
independent of other social
structures and institutions
•research tools of western
economics applicable
Economic interactions are social
interactions.
• the flow of goods
indicates social
relations
Raffia Cloth among the Lele (Zaire)
The movement of raffia cloth among the
Lele is another example of the mediation of
status by goods.
Younger men need raffia to marry. But
raffia is made and controlled by older
men. In order to have access to raffia and
hence marriage, younger men need the
social approval of older men.
Since more raffia is required to marry
than any one man can produce, it takes
community approval to marry.
In modern economy, men can gain access
to raffia through wage labor. This
undercuts authority of elders and leads to
charges of the selling of brides.
Karl Polanyi
Divided economies into three types
according to the dominant mode of
distribution
reciprocity-- The return of a
gift or prestation
redistribution
-- collection from members
of a group and then
redistribution within this
group. E.g. tribute, taxes
market --involves money and
profit
1886-1964
Distribution and Exchange
• reciprocity
• redistribution
• market principle
Marshal Sahlins Stone Age Economics (1972)
•A material transaction is usually
a momentary episode in a
continuous social relation.
• The social relation governs the
nature of the immediate exchange
and the flow of goods
• Sahlins suggests that there are 3
types of reciprocity that form a
continuum that correlates with
kinship and social distance.
1930-
Reciprocity: exchange between
social equals
• Generalized
• Balanced
• Negative
Generalized reciprocity
•
e.g. gifts, or sharing, helping, generosity.
• between close kin and friends
• highly moral – no expectation of return
• Generalized reciprocity is correlated with
Rank
relative wealth and need
food
Geographic distance
Balanced reciprocity
• return expected
• delayed exchange
• maintains ties with
more distant people
• A precise balance
between the things
exchanged
• Important in e.g..
peace making death
payments and
marriage alliances.
Kula Ring
Kula Ring: vast inter-island
system of exchange of certain
classes of ritual objects —
men’s armbands and
bracelets
– exchange within Massim
linguistic group
– not a system of
“commercial trade” in
utilitarian objects (most
islands self-sufficient in
staple foods & goods)
– objects acquired,
displayed, and then passed
on
mwali
soulava
Like the crown
jewels, their value
is symbolic
There is no
practical utility
Each valuable has
its own name and
history
Owning them
provides the
owner prestige
and pride
 at each meeting, “visiting” partner bestows
gift on home partner
 the same object that he received from his other
partner a few months or years earlier
 over time, value (rarity) of objects exchanged
increases, as does renown of the partners
necklaces
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
armbands
Kula Ring had been cited as an example of the economic
irrationality of “savages”…
–took great risks for “fanciful” ends
–not survival or commerce, but to obtain “baubles”
–pursued out of “sheer habit”
the Kula Ring is a vital institution which contributes to the
security and continuity of Massim cultures
–needs to be seen within the total context of Massim society
–ripped out of context, it appears irrational, “savage”
intertribal
tribe
village
lineage
family
social distance determines the nature of the exchange
Negative Reciprocity
• less common
• impersonal, distrustful
• not based on ongoing
social relations
• exchange without money
• taking items by force
Haggling at the market of
Riobamba, Ecuador
Reciprocity:
Generalized
Balanced
 value unspecified
 return not immediate
 long term view
 no gratitude expected
Creating AND satisfying
obligations
 Equal value
 Expectation of
immediate return
 Similar to trade or
barter
 Common in more
distant kin
relationships
Negative
 Personal gain
is primary
motivator
 something for
nothing
- haggling
- bargaining
- theft/seizure
- cheating
Self Interest
Prevalence in band societies
Redistribution
Exchange among social unequals
•centralized accumulation and
reallocation of wealth (taxes,
tributes, tithes, spoils)
–maintain power, superior
status (internally)
–keep constituents happy,
maintain standard of living
–use wealth to leverage
power (externally)
–leveling mechanisms
•typical mode of exchange in
chiefdoms and some nonindustrial states
These workers in Yunnan
Province, China, strive for an
equal distribution of meat.
Redistribution in Western Society
Taxes
Food Bank
Market exchange
–value preset by
impersonal
“market forces”
–exchange
occurs
presumably
independent of
and
uninfluenced by
social relations
–usually involves money, a widely agreed on
abstract symbol used to measure value