BECOMING AN EFFICIENT STUDENT USING MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGY:
RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Counseling
(Vocational Rehabilitation)
by
Angela Fong
SPRING
2014
© 2014
Angela Fong
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
BECOMING AN EFFICIENT STUDENT USING MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGY:
RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
A Project
by
Angela Fong
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Guy Deaner, Ph.D.
Date
iii
Student: Angela Fong
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
, Graduate Coordinator
Geni Cowan, Ph.D.
Date
Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
iv
Abstract
of
BECOMING AN EFFICIENT STUDENT USING MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGY:
RESOURCE GUIDES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
by
Angela Fong
Statement of the Problem
By law, students with learning disabilities (LDs) entering higher education
institutions are eligible for reasonable accommodations with the intent to provide an
equal playing field to education and participation in a school’s program. Assistive
technology (AT) is an accommodation that has been effective in helping students with
LDs overcome academic deficits. Despite federal laws, access to AT is still challenging
for many students with LDs as they encounter barriers. Currently, there are no resource
guides on mainstream technologies that are comparable to AT, or technology-based tools
intended for students with learning disabilities in higher education. The purpose of this
project was to help students with LDs overcome barriers to AT access by providing
information on mainstream technologies that can enhance and personalize learning and
productivity.
Sources of Data
The resources obtained for this project originated from peer-reviewed journal
articles, learning disability organizations’ websites, and books pertaining to AT and
v
learning strategies. Additionally, the author had personal communication with relevant
staff and students with LDs in higher education.
Conclusions Reached
With the current state of technology, mainstream technologies with similar
features of AT utilized by students with LDs are easily accessible and affordable.
Therefore, a resource guide was created in hopes of removing barriers to AT access. A
second resource guide was also created to provide supplemental technology-based tools
that can enhance and personalize learning and productivity for students with LDs.
, Committee Chair
Guy Deaner, Ph.D.
Date
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my utmost appreciation for everyone who has inspired me
and who has been involved throughout my journey in the master’s program. First and
foremost, I would like to extend my gratitude to my mother, sisters, extended family, and
each of my best friends. I love you all so much. Thank you for your much needed
unconditional love, encouragement, patience and emotional support. Without it, I would
not be where I am today! And, thank you, Dad, Grandma Lum, and Cousin Jessica.
Although no longer here, remembering your spirit, love, support, and work ethic has
helped me to persevere through the toughest of times.
Second, I would like to thank all of the counselors and staff at American River
College (ARC), Disabled Student Programs & Services (DSP&S) for all their
encouragement, support, and always treating me as one of their own. My experience in
DSP&S and relationships with everyone in the department has truly inspired me to
continue my education to pursue a career as a DSP&S Counselor. And, a million thanks
to my good friends in the Financial Aid Office at ARC. You have been like family to me
and your tough love, flexibility, and encouragement is much appreciated!
Finally, I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor and Program
Coordinator Dr. Guy Deaner, and faculty members Dr. Todd Koch and Mark Frayser for
challenging me and for your guidance and support throughout my time in this program.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .....................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................8
Limitations ...............................................................................................................9
Definition of Terms................................................................................................11
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................15
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................16
Introduction ............................................................................................................16
Definition of Learning Disabilities ........................................................................16
Types of Learning Disabilities ...............................................................................18
Impact of Learning Disabilities in Higher Education ............................................21
Federal Laws in Higher Education ........................................................................25
Accommodations ...................................................................................................30
Assistive Technology .............................................................................................31
Barriers to Access Accommodations in Higher Education....................................39
Summary ................................................................................................................52
3. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................54
viii
4. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................62
Summary ................................................................................................................62
Recommendations ..................................................................................................64
Appendix A. A Resource Guide to Mainstream Technology Tools for Students with
Learning Disabilities ....................................................................................66
Appendix B. A Resource Guide of Supplemental Technology-Based Tools for Students
with Learning Disabilities .........................................................................126
References ........................................................................................................................141
ix
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem
There are a variety of reasons that make it challenging for students with learning
disabilities (LDs) to obtain and use assistive technology (AT), and the presence of AT in
and of itself does not guarantee that these students will have access to technology
(Wimberly, Reed, & Morris, 2004). Although there is evidence that there is inadequate
access to AT in higher education, students with LDs can circumvent barriers to AT
accessibility. Mainstream technology (MT) as well as AT is rapidly changing
(Burgstahler, 2003). As technology evolves to become more powerful, less expensive,
and more portable, it becomes progressively more helpful in improving learning (Green,
2011).
The purpose of this project is to remove obstacles to AT access by creating
resource guides to promote awareness of accessible and affordable alternatives to AT and
supplemental technology-based tools to enhance learning and productivity for students
with LDs. Resource guides will be available via web link to the author’s Google Drive
account. In this way, the resource guides will always be available to the public to view
and download. The first resource guide will provide the names of PC software and Apple
applications, price of software and applications, features of software and applications, a
brief description of how they may benefit students with LDs, and tips for using the
software and applications. In addition, information for a device called Livescribe 2GB
2
Echo Smartpen will also be provided. The second resource guide will include
supplemental technology-based resources to enhance learning and productivity.
Transitioning from the secure regulated world of secondary education to higher
education that requires greater independence, autonomy, and personal decision-making
can be extremely difficult. Handling this change can make students with disabilities feel
even more anxious and overwhelmed. Many students with LDs begin college unprepared
to manage the shift from others leading their learning to students leading their own
learning (Connor, 2012). Students move from a K-12 environment, where the
responsibility for student success tends to lie with educators, to a college environment,
where the responsibility for success lies with the students. Therefore, high school
students with LDs transitioning to college must develop specific competencies, respond
appropriately to their new environment, and develop independence (Hadley, 2006;
Hadley, Twale, & Evans, 2003). The increased planning and organizational demands of
college, combined with a more flexible daily schedule with absence of a supervising
parent, can significantly overload the student with a learning disability (LD). Persisting
cognitive difficulties with planning and follow through on tasks, procrastination, and time
management may underlie some of the problems encountered by students with LDs in
achieving their postsecondary goals (Wolf, 2001). AT is technology that is especially
designed to assist individuals with disabilities in overcoming barriers in their
environment (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006).
3
AT is defined as any item, piece of equipment, or product that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional abilities of people with disabilities. AT devices have
been effective in both the improvement and maintenance of learning, communication,
and daily living of students of varying age (Alper & Raharinirina, 2006) as they have
features that can help students with many different learning styles or needs (South
Carolina Assistive Technology Program, 2012). In other words, AT is a term that
describes a device that can help a person learn (Rabinovitz, n.d.). Increasing numbers of
AT items have been developed and utilized by educators to support students with
memory, organization, problem solving, reading, writing, and math (Lee & Templeton,
2008).
Numerous research studies on both children and adults with LD have shown that
AT such as word processors, spell checkers, speech synthesizers, graphic organizers,
word prediction programs, speech recognition systems, and OCR/speech synthesis (SS)
systems can be effective in compensating for difficulties in both reading and writing.
Furthermore, AT can be helpful in school and at home, and promote independence in
persons with LD (Raskind, 2013). Accessible technology creates greater access to
education for people with disabilities. Students with disabilities who continue on to
pursue a higher education must have access to high tech tools in order to compete with
their non-disabled peers (Yeganhey, n.d.). To address the needs of this population,
higher education institutions use a variety of policies and practices designed to help
4
ensure equal access to education through the purchase, development, and use of
accessible technology (Oblinger & Ruby, n.d.).
The legislation that requires equal access to education, including reasonable
accommodations, for students with LDs is different for K-12 schools than in higher
education (Hadley, 2006; Hadley et al., 2003). Additionally, the authorization of various
federal public laws has impacted the educational programs and services that children with
disabilities receive (Assistive Technology Training Online Project, 2005a). For example,
Johnson, Dudgeon, Kuehn, and Walker (2007) noted that K-12 students have more access
to AT than do students in higher education through schools and are also more apt to be
eligible for medical insurance that may cover the needed devices. As students with a LD
prepare for college, it is important that they understand their rights and options regarding
AT as these students will need to self-advocate their needs (Rabinovitz, n.d.).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is the law that provides
K-12 students free instructional and support services, which possibly includes AT tools
through an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Under this law, students are
allowed to receive services until they graduate high school or, as older high school
students, up through age 21 (Rabinovitz. n.d.). School districts are responsible for
acquiring AT devices on behalf of the child and assist in training the child and anyone
who may work with the child to effectively use the AT device. This must be determined
on a case-by-case basis at no cost to the parents (Assistive Technology Training Online
Project, 2005b). Unfortunately, IDEA services do not extend into a two- or four-year
5
college (Kaloi, n.d.). Accommodations that are required to be provided to youth with
disabilities within the educational system significantly change as they transition from
secondary to postsecondary education (Rehabilitation Research and Training Center
[RRTC], n.d.).
When a student enters a postsecondary institution, the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act take over and, and they have the
option to seek protection under the ADA (Cawthon & Cole, 2010; Rabinovitz, n.d.).
Therefore, students who were eligible for services under IDEA are not automatically
eligible for services under Section 504 and ADA in college and university settings
(National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007). While ADA is a federal civil
rights law that protects persons with disabilities from discrimination (Cawthon & Cole,
2010), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is legislation that requires all colleges who
receive federal funding to have disability services on campus for students with disabilities
(Connor, 2012). These civil rights laws mandate that colleges provide access to
accommodations and an equal opportunity in the institution’s programs, activities, and
services (Rabinovitz, n.d.).
While secondary schools adhere to both IDEA and to Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, only Section 504 and the ADA affect postsecondary
institutions (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007). With the
differences in laws and funding for technology between high school and postsecondary
school, students who were fortunate enough to have gained access to empowering
6
technology may not be allowed to take it with them when they exit high school
(Yeganhey, n.d.). Furthermore, colleges are not required to provide AT under the
following conditions: a similar and equally effective alternative is already available; the
AT device is not something that contributes to the individual’s learning needs; use of AT
significantly alters the institution’s program or activity; or if the AT causes an undue
financial burden to the college or university (Rabinovitz, 2013).
Funding for AT, therefore, remains one of the biggest obstacles to acquiring
needed devices and services (Judge, 2000). Despite the benefits that AT provides
students with LDs, many struggle to find available financial resources to acquire these
empowering tools (Gentry & Wallace, 2011). In the case that a college cannot provide
AT to meet the unique needs of students with LD, students can explore other resources
for funding such as state and government agencies (Rabinovitz, 2013). Generally,
government programs, such as Social Security, Veteran’s benefits, or state Medicaid
agencies and private health insurance will cover the cost of AT if it is prescribed by a
doctor as a necessary medical device or used for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation and job
training programs may be another option as they may pay for AT and training to help
people get a job (Assistive Technology Industry Association, n.d.; Rabinovitz, 2013).
Unfortunately, college students with LD are not guaranteed funding for AT if they do not
meet eligibility requirements for such programs. Although funding under the Assistive
Technology Act can supply technology-related needs, budgets are shrinking and
resources are limited (Judge, 2000). As a last resort, the student then has the choice to
7
pay out of pocket. In an analysis of the National Longitudinal Transitional Study 2
(NLTS2), Bouck, Maeda, and Flanagan (2012) noted that none of the students with
disabilities in postsecondary school, including those with LD, had purchased AT even
though 1.5% had indicated that AT was needed. It is evident that efforts should be made
to support postsecondary students with disabilities who do not have financial resources
for technology with computers, hardware, and software (Goodman, Tiene, & Luft, 2002).
Although postsecondary schools often provide and not necessarily purchase AT to
students with disabilities, there are limited funding resources to help offset the cost of AT
(Raskind, 2013).
AT is available to students with disabilities in a resource center or other isolated
location (Burgstahler, 2002). The majority of higher education institutions in the
Sacramento area offer AT that are frequently used by students with LDs, such as
Kurzweil 3000, Inspiration, and Dragon Naturally Speaking, all of which are installed on
a desktop computer located in a specialized computer lab. Participants in a study
reported that the ability to pay for equipment for home use would be advantageous,
particularly because the setting at home would be superior to using AT in a crowded
computer lab (Goodman et al., 2002). Furthermore, efforts to make time to use AT
during lab hours in between classes can be extremely difficult for those who are also
employed. In 2003, data from the NLTS2 indicated 70.4% of students with disabilities
were employed at some point after high school (Bouck et al., 2012; Wagner, Newman,
Cameto, Garza & Levine, 2005). Additionally, success in college requires strong time
8
management and organization skills (Green & Rabiner, 2012; Wolf, 2001). The lack of
portability of AT on campus combined with specific operating hours further adds to the
inaccessibility of AT for students who struggle to manage their school and work
schedules.
Statement of the Problem
Access to AT for students with LDs may be limited. First, there appears to be
vagueness within the current laws and lack of clear, consistent guidelines on how services
should be provided (Lee & Templeton, 2008). Specifically, there is a disconnect between
the laws that govern secondary and postsecondary access to programs and services for
individuals with LDs (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007).
Secondly, eligibility for AT services, vary considerably (Raskind, 2013). Students must
present comprehensive documentation to validate a LD and their need for
accommodations to colleges and universities in order to receive disability support
services (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2007).
Limited funding for AT is also an issue. Consumers and service providers
identify that one of the biggest barriers to AT access is the lack of funding (Burgstahler,
2002). Additionally, AT devices represent a significant investment in time and money
(Assistive Technology Training Online Project, 2005b). Not only can AT be expensive,
but trained personnel must make AT recommendations to the user and provide services to
help them use it effectively (National Council on Disability, 1993). Products such as
speech recognition software may require several hours of training with a computer or AT
9
specialist (Raskind, 2013). For example, software and equipment for Kurzweil 3000,
which is frequently utilized by students with LDs costs up to $1500 and requires training
(C. Houston, personal communication, October 10, 2013). Training time varies on an
individual basis. For example, in one study, the specialist trained students to use
Kurzweil 3000 or Dragon Naturally Speaking (DNS) for 35–45 minutes. Basic sessions
with the specialist was spent scanning, reading, and annotating text with Kurzweil 3000
or dictating and composing documents with DNS (Silver-Pacuilla, 2006). High costs of
such products and time invested in training with a specialist poses another obstacle to AT
access for college students with LDs who cannot afford to purchase AT for home use.
Furthermore, AT availability on campus is campus-specific; not all college
campuses offer the same AT. Even so, the operating hours of the college campus’
adaptive lab may conflict with a student’s school and/or work schedule. An isolated
location then creates a lack of portability. Such difficulties accessing AT can further
perpetuate dropout rates for students who may already be struggling in an environment
that requires independence and self-advocacy. While this population is adjusting to the
more demanding environment of higher education, it is necessary to instill hope for and
to assist these students by educating them on ways in which they can use MT as
compensatory tools that can enhance their success in higher education.
Limitations
This project has limitations to the time, geography, population, and author bias.
The first limitation addresses the time in which this project was completed. Because
10
technology is rapidly advancing and evolving, this project will be outdated as new
updates and versions of software become available. The second limitation to this project
is geography. This project is intended and created for students with LDs in the
Sacramento area. However, students with LDs may be able to access this project via
internet by navigating to the California State University, Sacramento (CSUS) library
website and selecting the Scholar Works web link or Google Drive web link . This
geographical limitation introduces the third limitation to this project, which is population.
As mentioned before, this project’s target audience was students with LDs in higher
education. LDs are commonly co-morbid with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and the difficulties that both populations experience with learning are often
similar to those of other disabilities. As such, students with varying disabilities may also
benefit from this project. Finally, the author’s bias poses a limitation. As a student with
LDs, the author’s experiences and opinions have influenced the creation and development
of this project. Furthermore, given that MT is rapidly advancing, the author feels that
standard AT programs used by students with LDs on college campuses are no longer a
novelty; that the use of MT and its universal design (UD) is just as comparable, more cost
efficient, and convenient. Additionally, it is the author’s opinion that use of MT can both
remove any stigma students with LDs may feel when using AT in public or a classroom
setting and empower the student with a greater sense of confidence and independence.
11
Definition of Terms
Accommodation
An adjustment or modification to make a product or environment accessible to an
individual with a disability (Burgstahler, 2011)
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Prohibits discrimination and ensures equal opportunity for persons with
disabilities in employment, State and local government services, public
accommodations, commercial facilities, and transportation. Specifically Title II
of the ADA, mandates the establishment of auxiliary aids and services, which
includes but is not limited to: qualified interpreters, note takers, open and closed
captioning, assistive listening devices, taped texts, brailed materials, screen reader
software, magnification software, optical readers, and accessible electronic and
information technology (Department of Justice, 2010).
Assistive Technology (AT)
“Any item, piece of equipment, or product, whether acquired commercially or off
the shelf, modified or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve
the functional capabilities of a person with a disability” (Robitaille, 2010, p. 5).
Assistive Technology Act of 2004
Also known as the Tech Act, it is the reauthorization of the Assistive Technology
Act of 1998. Its purpose is to raise awareness of AT devices and services, and
12
access to, AT devices and services to persons with disabilities as defined under
any federal law (Bausch, Mittler, Hasselbring, & Cross, 2005).
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Neurobehavioral disorder that interferes with a person's ability to stay on a task
and to exercise age-appropriate inhibition (cognitive alone or both cognitive and
behavioral). Some characteristics of ADHD include failure to listen to
instructions; inability to organize oneself and school work; fidgeting with hands
and feet; talking too much; leaving projects, chores, and homework unfinished;
and having trouble paying attention to and responding to details. There are
several types of ADHD: a predominantly inattentive subtype, a predominantly
hyperactive-impulsive subtype, and a combined subtype. ADHD is usually
diagnosed in childhood, although the condition can continue into the adult years
(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2013).
Dragon Naturally Speaking
Voice recognition software that allows the user to input data and execute
commands by dictating into the computer or a Nuance-certified handheld device.
Users can also create emails, documents, and search the web simply by speaking
(Green, 2011).
Higher Education
Education or learning at a college or university (Higher Education, 2014).
13
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
National law that governs how states and public agencies provide early
intervention, special education and related services to children ages 3-21 years old
(U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). Additionally, the law ensures that services
be provided to children with disabilities. For example, Sec 300.105 requires that
AT devices and/or services are made available to this population (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006b).
Inspiration
Graphic organizer recommended for visual learners. Specifically used for visual
mapping, outlining, writing and making presentations (Inspiration Software, Inc.,
2014).
Kurzweil 3000
An assistive technology, text-to-speech learning tool to assist with reading,
writing, test-taking, and study skills. It is particularly appropriate for students
with learning disabilities, and those who struggle with reading (Kurzweil
Educational Systems, n.d.).
Learning Disability [LD]
A disorder that limits a person in any or all of the following areas: auditory
perception and processing, visual perception and processing, information
processing speed, abstract reasoning, memory (long-term, short-term), spoken and
14
written language, mathematical calculations, and executive functioning (planning
and time management) (DO-IT, 2012).
Mainstream Technology (MT)
Any technology that is intended for use by the general population rather than for
use entirely or primarily by people with disabilities (Institute of Medicine [U.S.]
Committee on Disability in America, 2007).
Postsecondary Education
All instruction for persons who have completed or discontinued secondary
education and are beyond the age of compulsory school attendance (Putnam,
1981).
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
National law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of a mental or physical
disability. All entities that receive federal funding from the Department of
Education, including higher education institutions, must provide auxiliary aids to
“to ensure that no handicapped student is denied the benefits of, excluded from
participation in, or otherwise subjected to discrimination under the education
program or activity operated by the recipient” (Office for Civil Rights, 1998, para.
4).
Specific Learning Disorder (SLD)
A neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin that affects the brain’s
ability to perceive or process verbal or nonverbal information efficiently and
15
accurately (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For the purpose of this
project, SLD will be used interchangeably with LD.
Universal Design (UD)
An item or product with that it can be used by individuals with or without
disabilities and without any additional adaptation (Lee & Templeton, 2008).
Organization of the Project
This project consists of four chapters and two appendices. Chapter 1 presented an
introduction, which includes the background and statement of the problem, project
limitations, and the organization of the project. Chapter 2 includes the review of the
literature to present a definition of LD and the various types, the impact of LDs in higher
education, and an overview of the laws that ensure equal access to accommodations and
AT in higher education. In addition, a summary of the types of AT used by persons with
LD is discussed as well as the various barriers that students with LD encounter in
accessing accommodations, including AT in higher education. Chapter 3 describes the
methodology used to develop and create the resource guides. The summary and
recommendations for future research is provided in Chapter 4. Finally, Appendix A will
include the resource guide of mainstream technologies that are comparable alternatives to
AT, and Appendix B will include the resource guide of supplemental technology-based
tools to enhance and personalize learning and productivity. Each appendix will provide a
web address to the author’s Google Drive account where they will be made available to
students with LDs to view and download.
16
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it pertains to students with
learning disabilities (LDs) in higher education. First, a broad definition of LDs is
presented, followed by the types of LDs that exist. Additionally, this chapter describes
how LDs can impact student success in higher education and the federal laws that
mandate equal access to education and accommodations for students with LDs. This
chapter also provides an overview of assistive technology (AT) and how each type of
learning disability (LD) can benefit from AT. Finally, the chapter concludes with a
discussion of the barriers that hinder access to accommodations, which include AT in
postsecondary school.
Definition of Learning Disabilities
In 2007, the most prevalent disability among students ages 6 through 21 was
specific learning disabilities (43.6%) (U.S. Department of Education, 2006a). Between
Fall 1998 and Fall 2007, the percentage of the population ages 6 through 21 under the
disability category specific learning disabilities decreased from 4.4% to 3.9% (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006a). According to the National Institute of Neurological
Disorders and Stroke (2011), approximately 8–10% of American children under the age
of 18 have some type of LD and 4% of adults are diagnosed with LDs (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
17
The term LD refers to an array of disorders in the domains of listening, speaking,
reading and writing, mathematics, and reasoning (Givner & Brodwin, 2009). These
disabilities affect an individual’s ability to store, process, and produce information and
are often hidden by the individual’s general level of functioning (Givner & Brodwin,
2009). Willingham, Ford-Martin, and Frey (2011) noted that there are four types of
difficulty with mental processing: input, or taking in information through the senses;
integration, or making sense of the inputs; memory, or the storage of information in the
brain; and output, which is the ability to express knowledge.
While LDs are considered to be neurological disorders that reflect difficulty with
information processing in the brain, they are not automatic indicators of low intelligence
(Willingham et al., 2011). In one study, Arceneaux (2006) noted that although they have
difficulty performing literacy tasks, individuals with LD have average or above average
intelligence. Interviews with postsecondary students revealed that some never had
difficulty in school prior to postsecondary school, and in some cases achieved honors and
advanced placement in classes. Denhart (2008) went so far as to self-disclose that as a
dyslexic, he was misunderstood as being “lazy.” However, in spite of his illiteracy, he
holds a doctorate in educational policy.
In addition, students with LD frequently have trouble with time management,
focusing on a task and completing tasks (Givner & Brodwin, 2009). Persons with LD,
especially dyslexia, have difficulty with executive functioning (Newhall, 2008).
Executive function allows people to perform activities such as planning, organizing,
18
strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time. However,
in persons with LD, especially dyslexia, executive functioning is impaired (National
Center for Learning Disabilities Editorial Team, 2013b). In a study, Arceneaux (2006)
found that those with a dual diagnosis of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (AD/HD) reported extreme difficulty paying attention in class.
LDs can be lifelong conditions that vary in severity (National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2011). While some people have several overlapping
LDs, others may have a single, isolated learning difficulty that may not significantly
impact their lives (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2011). In
addition to learning challenges, persons with LDs are frequently diagnosed with other
developmental disorders such as AD/HD (Wolf, 2001). In a study that included 367
participants with LD, Arceneaux (2006) noted that almost half had a comorbid diagnosis
of AD/HD (49%).
Types of Learning Disabilities
According to Willingham et al. (2011), the most common LDs affecting academic
achievement are reading disorder (dyslexia), disorder of written expression (dysgraphia),
and mathematics disorder (dyscalculia). Each type of LD is described below.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is defined as a language-based processing disorder that affects reading,
writing, spelling, and sometimes verbal communication (National Center for Learning
Disabilities Editorial Team, 2013b). According to Willingham et al. (2011), persons with
19
LD experience a wide array of problems, including difficulty identifying groups of
letters, difficulty relating letters to sounds, reversals and other errors involving letter
position, difficulty spelling, trouble with breaking words into syllables (syllabication),
failure to recognize words, hesitant oral reading, and word-by-word rather than
contextual reading.
People with dyslexia can also have problems with spoken language. They may
find it difficult to express themselves clearly, or to fully comprehend what others mean
when they speak (International Dyslexia Association, 2007). Additionally, some may
even mispronounce words (Givner & Brodwin, 2009). In an interview with college
students with LD, Denhart (2008) found that lip-reading and speaking in a southern belle
or New York accent were among strategies used to understand spoken words. For those
who had trouble communicating verbally, students expressed an inability to speak their
thoughts.
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia is the term used to describe writing disabilities or disorder of written
expression (Willingham et al., 2011). An individual with dysgraphia may have trouble
with the physical act of forming letters and words using a pen and paper and the
production of legible penmanship (DO-IT, 2004). For example, many children with
dysgraphia must labor with written work much longer than their classmates, only to
produce large, uneven writing that would be typically be appropriate for much younger
children (Willingham et al., 2011). Additionally, those with dysgraphia also have
20
problems with repetitions and omissions of letters or words, punctuation and
capitalization errors, forming letters backwards from right to left, and spelling problems
(Willingham et al., 2011).
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a LD that involves mathematics (National Center for Learning
Disabilities [NCLD] Team, 2013d). Persons with dyscalculia have average to above
average intelligence but have difficulty with numbers or remembering facts over a long
period of time (Job Accommodation Network [JAN], 2013). Summer (2011) noted
frequent mistakes in math intelligence among students with LD. According to
Willingham et al. (2011), dyscalculia tends to be diagnosed around eight years of age and
after reading and writing problems because language skills are needed long before the
child begins school. The authors also add that children with dyscalculia may have
trouble counting, reading and writing numbers, and measuring sizes or quantities of
items. However, persons with dyscalculia particularly have difficulty mastering basic
operations of mathematics, remembering the sequence of steps in algorithms, and solving
multistep mathematical problems (Givner & Brodwin, 2009).
In addition, this type of disability may also involve problems with nonverbal
learning, including spatial organization (Willingham et al., 2011). According to JAN
(2013), those with spatial problems may have difficulty aligning numbers into proper
columns or may reverse numbers. Additionally, persons with LD may have trouble with
21
the telling of time, following a schedule, estimating grocery costs, and balancing a
checkbook (NCLD Editorial Team, 2013e).
Impact of Learning Disabilities in Higher Education
The American Psychiatric Association (2013) reported that persons with LDs
experience lower rates of postsecondary education. Similarly, in an analysis of the
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), McAllister (2008) determined that as
recently as 2005, students with LD continue to have a significantly lower rate of
postsecondary enrollment than individuals with other learning or physical impairments
and individuals without a disability. Although overall enrollment may be low,
individuals with LDs are more likely to enter vocational or two-year college programs
and less likely to enter four-year college programs. Descriptive traits of students with
LDs enrolled in postsecondary were also analyzed. Results showed that individuals with
LDs have lower levels of education and academic expectations, are more likely to be
male, less likely to be Hispanic/ Latino, to have a lower mental health score, and lower
GPA.
In a study that compared educational supports of undergraduate and graduate
students with LD, Montoya (2009) discovered pre-existing conditions that led to the need
for support services. The pre-existing conditions are as follows: (a) difficulty completing
exams and course assignments during and outside the classroom setting; (b) difficulty
completing specific types of exams (essay exams and multiple-choice tests); (c) the need
for additional time to understand and learn the subject-matter; (d) inability to concentrate
22
during class lecture and exams as well as remaining on task while performing
assignments independently; (e) poor study, organization, time management, listening,
communication skills and test taking strategies; (f) difficulty with reading comprehension
and an established slow reading rate; (g) inability to complete required reading
assignments in a timely fashion; (h) difficulty with note taking and copying from the
board; (i) math, language, and handwriting deficits; (j) failing to understand directions
and recall information; (k ) difficulty memorizing facts; and (l) adjusting to the academic
demands of coursework in the college setting. Many of these pre-existing conditions are
evident in students with AD/HD. According to Summer (2011), students with AD/HD
experience similar problems to those with LD, such as slow and inefficient reading, slow
essay writing, and frequent errors in math calculation and the mechanics of writing. In
addition to reading, writing, and math difficulties, DuPaul, Weyandt, O'Dell, and Varejao
(2009) found that students with ADHD perceive themselves as struggling with both study
and organizational skills. In sum, students with both LD and AD/HD reported some
common problems.
Unfortunately, students with LD who do attend postsecondary schools experience
low graduation rates. Symonds, Schwartz, and Ferguson (2011) indicated that for
students without disabilities, the rate for graduation from a two-year institution (29%) is
almost half the graduation rate for students at four-year institution (56%). While these
statistics appear low, even for the general population, they are even smaller for students
with LDs. For example, Azarva (n.d.) reported that the postsecondary success rate for
23
students with LDs is half that of the general population (28%). The U.S. Department of
Education (2006a), Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, and Office
of Special Education Programs reported that, annually, approximately 40% of students
with LD drop out of postsecondary school.
The three most common academic skill areas affected by LDs are reading,
writing, and arithmetic (Willingham et al., 2011). Denhart (2008) found that many
students with LDs expressed difficulty with organization of concepts for reading and
writing, oral and written comprehension, verbal communication, and different thought
processes. Students specifically spoke of difficulty transferring their thoughts into
written words, difficulty composing sentences, and identifying key information from
large texts.
According to the NCLD Editorial Team (2013a), students with dysgraphia
particularly have trouble expressing written ideas in an organized manner, transferring
thoughts into written words, and even misspell common words. Arceneaux (2006) found
that for students with LDs who reported problems with spelling and handwriting also
reported difficulty with note-taking. For example, class notes can be so illegible that the
student cannot make any sense of them (Arceneaux, 2006). In another study conducted at
a private four-year college in the Midwest, Hadley (2007) found that all 10 students
identified with dyslexia or reading difficulty admitted to feeling challenged by college
writing expectations as compared to high school. Students further reported having sought
24
extra time for tests, writing assistance, and assistance from note-takers to aid with writing
assignments.
Findings from a study by Denhart (2008) showed that a common theme among
students with LDs is that they must put in extra time and effort when completing
assignments. Students also expressed fear that while they were spending longer hours to
complete assignments, their efforts go unnoticed by instructors. Furthermore, 72% of the
students noted that albeit their excessive workload, the product was not reflective of their
efforts. In another study, Arceneaux (2006) found that many students with LDs reported
the need to do homework assignments well in advance as to not fall behind.
According to Sullivan (2005), students with LDs become discouraged when they
fall behind in their mathematics class, and withdraw. Additionally, for those who spend
great amounts of time and effort and take advantage of college tutoring services and
faculty office hours, fail the course. In addition, Sullivan (2005) observed common
characteristics among these students were writing and/or copying number of figures
incorrectly; difficulty with sequences of math steps; difficulty naming math terms,
concepts, and operations; incorrectly decoding math context into math symbols; incorrect
interpretation and use of numerical symbols and arithmetic signs; incorrect computations;
trial-and-error sequence of calculator keystrokes; and immature appearance of work on
paper. Furthermore, students were unable to explain their methodology to problem
solving despite achieving correct answers.
25
Federal Laws in Higher Education
According to Griffiths (2003), LDs can affect classroom performance, making it
difficult for these students to succeed without supplemental classroom accommodations.
He further noted that supplemental educational services came about as a result of the civil
rights movement to provide students with disabilities equal access to educational
opportunities. In higher education, students with LDs are assured services by Section
504 of The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of
1990 (Hadley, 2007). The following sections discuss the federal laws that seek to
provide accommodations to students with LDs in higher education. In addition, the
federal law that seeks to ensure persons with disabilities access to AT is also reviewed.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is a federal law designed to protect
the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal
funding from the U.S. Department of Education (The Chicago Office of the Office for
Civil Rights, 2003). According to the U.S. Department of Justice (2009), Section 504
states that “no qualified individual with a disability in the United States shall be excluded
from, denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under” (para. 4) any
program or activity that either receives federal financial assistance or is conducted by any
executive agency or the United States Postal Service.
Each federal agency has its own set of Section 504 regulations that apply to its
own programs (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009). Agencies that provide federal funding
26
also have section 504 regulations covering entities that receive federal aid (U.S.
Department of Justice, 2009). Common requirements to these regulations include
reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities, program accessibility,
effective communication with people who have hearing or vision disabilities; and
accessible new construction and alterations (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009). Because
most school districts and higher education institutions in the country receive federal aid,
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act protects all students in public education from
discrimination or limited access to services on the basis of a disability (Cawthon & Cole,
2010). Section 504 has generally been the basis for disabilities protections in the nation’s
public schools because Section 504 preceded the enactment of the ADA by nearly 20
years (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009).
As it pertains to postsecondary schools, Section 504 requires schools to provide
necessary accommodations for students with disabilities (Cawthon & Cole, 2010).
According to Cortiella and Kaloi (2009), institutions of higher education are required to
provide qualified students with appropriate academic adjustments and auxiliary aids and
services that are necessary to provide the student an equal opportunity to participate in a
school’s program. Furthermore, they noted that schools use Section 504 to support
students with LDs who need instructional accommodations. Givner and Brodwin (2009)
stated that reasonable accommodations include equal opportunity for acceptance,
providing or modifying equipment, and modifying instructional methodology and
examination procedures to ensure equal opportunities to learn.
27
In addition, the Galvin Group (2014) cautions that it is very complicated to
determine if a specific service is required by state and federal law since accommodations
should be provided on an individualized basis, after engaging in an interactive process
with the student with a disability. However, institutions are not required to provide an
academic adjustment that would fundamentally alter the nature of a service, program, or
activity or impose undue financial hardship (Duncan, 2011). In the case that an
accommodation is found to be unreasonable, schools are only required to provide the
most basic accommodation (Cawthon & Cole, 2010).
Americans with Disabilities Act
The ADA was passed in 1990 and was the first comprehensive civil rights law for
people with disabilities (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009). According to the U.S. Department of
Justice (2009), the ADA “prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in
employment, State and local government, public accommodations, commercial facilities,
transportation, and telecommunications” (para. 1). The ADA defines disability as a
physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities
(U.S. Department of Justice, 2009).
Effective on January 1st, 2009, Congress then passed the Americans with
Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) of 2008 (NCLD Public Policy Team, 2014).
According to Cortiella and Kaloi (2009), prior to ADAAA, the definition of major life
activities included but was not limited to the following: caring for oneself, performing
manual tasks, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working. The ADAAA
28
now acknowledges activities such as eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending,
reading, concentrating, thinking, and communicating (Cortiella & Kaloi, 2009).
According to the NCLD Public Policy Team (2014), there is no specific mention
of LDs in ADAAA. However, under the law, learning, reading, thinking, and
concentrating are all considered major life activities among others listed in the law
(NCLD Public Policy Team, 2014). The ADAAA requires a broader interpretation of
disability by schools, testing agencies and employers than the original law. As a result,
individuals with LD should have an easier time qualifying for accommodations (NCLD
Public Policy Team, 2014). Additionally, Cortiella and Kaloi (2009) noted that a student
with LD who is performing well academically may still be a qualified individual under
both the ADAAA and Section 504.
Title II of the ADA prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in all
state and local governmental entities, including public colleges and universities
(Disability Rights California, 2012). Once an individual has been identified as having a
disability, they are entitled to accommodations that enable him/her to participate in
activities at an equal playing field as their non-disabled peers (Cawthon & Cole, 2010).
However, entitlement to protection under the ADA is dependent upon the student to
inform the school of his/her disability in order to request accommodations (Cawthon &
Cole, 2010). In addition, Lindstrom (2007) noted that although guided by Section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the
29
process by which accommodation decisions are made for individuals with LD in
postsecondary settings varies across institutions of higher education.
Assistive Technology Act
The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act is a
national law that provides AT to individuals with disabilities. The law was enacted and
signed by President Reagan on August 19th, 1988 (National Association of Special
Education Teachers, 2009). Also known as the Assistive Technology Act (ATA), it is the
only U.S. federal legislation that provides funding for AT programs (Council for
Exceptional Children, 2005). The purpose of the ATA is to assist state governments in
addressing the needs of persons with disabilities, of all ages, by promoting awareness of,
and access to, AT so that they could participate on an equal playing field in all
environments, including postsecondary school (National Dissemination Center for
Children with Disabilities, 2009).
On June 14th, 2004, the ATA of 1998 was reauthorized. The ATA of 2004
requires states to use the bulk of federal funds to assist individuals in acquiring AT
(Council for Exceptional Children, 2005). Each state receives a grant to fund an
Assistive Technology Act Project (ATAP) to ensure that services are provided to persons
with disabilities for their entire life span, as well as to their families or guardians, service
providers, and agencies and other entities that are involved in providing services such as
education and employment to persons with disabilities (Relton, 2005). The Assistive
Technology Act of 2004 defines an AT device as “any item, piece of equipment, or
30
product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to
increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities”
(National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2009, para. 4).
Accommodations
Lindstrom (2007) noted that accommodations are a critical aspect of access to and
opportunities in higher education for students with LDs. According to Harris (2013),
services to California community college students with disabilities include the following:
Test-proctoring, learning disability assessment, specialized counseling, interpreter
or captioning services for hearing-impaired or deaf students, mobility assistance,
note-taker services, reader services, speech services, transcription services, oncampus transportation, specialized tutoring, access to adaptive equipment, job
development/placement, registration assistance, special parking and specialized
instruction. (p. 1).
In addition, Griffiths (2003) noted that standard institutional modifications for
students with LDs include institutional modifications, such as priority registration, taped
textbooks, note-taking modifications (note-takers, lecture notes provided by the
instructor), tape recorders or laptop computers (provided by the student); testing
modifications (extended time, alternative location, different formats, readers, oral exams),
use of word processor, use of aids during exams (spell-checkers, enlarged tests, adapted
answer sheets), auxiliary aids and equipment including computer screen, and readers or
voice recognition.
31
According to Lindstrom (2007), for students with reading and writing disabilities
enrolled in postsecondary institutions, it is important that accommodations are
individually determined and based on the functional impact of the condition and its likely
interaction with the environment (e.g., course assignments, program requirements,
academic setting, etc.). In addition, gathering background information about the
student’s history of accommodation use (e.g., frequency, effectiveness, training, etc.) is
critical. As such, accommodation recommendations may vary among individuals with
the same disability diagnosis.
In a study that surveyed the necessity of accommodations of first-year college
students with reading disabilities, Hadley (2007) found that while most students utilized a
testing center to take their exams for the distraction-reduced environment and privacy it
offered, all students reported using the extra time accommodation for testing on a regular
basis and underscored its importance. Several students indicated this testing
accommodation as particularly helpful during essay exams or in-class writing
assignments. In addition, access to class notes was an essential accommodation as the
majority of students admitted that they were unclear on what to write down during class
lectures.
Assistive Technology
AT is an accommodation that meets the demands of students with LD because
they can enhance the individual’s learning abilities by circumventing deficits (Day &
Edwards, 1996). AT has the potential to enhance the quality of life for students with LDs
32
by providing them with a means to circumvent their deficits and highlight their abilities
(GreatSchools Staff, 2007). According to Jendron (2013), AT can support both
compensatory and remedial approaches for a student. She explained these approaches
with the following examples:
A compensatory approach might be when a student listens to a digital version of
the book for English class to answer questions about it, with the goal of bypassing
a reading problem, not of learning how to read. If the student listens to the book
or has a computer reading a scanned or digital version of the book while
following along with the text and trying to learn unfamiliar words, this would be a
remedial approach, designed to improve areas of deficiency. Both approaches
have value. Using only the remedial approach (sometimes with little benefit) can
lead to burnout. Discouraged students benefit more from more immediate
solutions to particular problems. For example, it may be best to give up the goal
of learning to spell, in favor of using a “spell check,” so that a student can focus
on getting thoughts on paper and not mechanical details that can become
overwhelming barriers to self-expression. (para. 9)
In a review of AT services, Lee and Templeton (2008) found that studies
consistently show that AT use among persons with disabilities promotes self-confidence,
freedom, independence, and meaningful participation in multiple settings. Additionally,
Seale, Draffan, and Wald (2010) reported that when discussing the benefits for using
technologies to support learning, students with LD most frequently noted the efficiency it
33
offered them in terms of organization of time, organizing essays, and finding references
and information quickly.
Fortunately, there are various types of AT that are compensatory tools that ensure
the ability to perform for students with LD. According to Fichten, Barilee, and Asuncion
(2003), students with LD use many of the same technologies as students with visual
impairments to allow them access to, and better process print materials either written or
on a screen. For example, dictation software, document managers and schedulers,
concept mapping software, electronic dictionaries, grammar and spell checkers, and word
prediction software were frequently used. Additionally, Montoya (2009) found that
among AT used in higher education, graduate students with LD used calculators, word
processors, and spell checkers more than undergraduate students.
Proper AT recommendations and selection is on an individual basis that requires
an assessment of how the LD impacts the individual. According to Raskind (2013),
careful analysis of the relationship among the following should be considered:
1. The individual's specific strengths, limitations, special abilities, prior
experience/knowledge, and interests;
2. The specific tasks/functions to be performed (e.g., compensating for a
reading, writing, or memory problem);
3. The specific contexts of interaction (across settings – school, home, work;
and over time -- over a semester or a lifetime); and
34
4. The specific device (e.g., reliability, operational ease, technical support,
cost, compatibility with other devices and the Internet).
The following section discusses types of AT that have been recommended per the
literature by LD type.
Reading
There is a wide range of AT tools available to help individuals who struggle with
reading. Based on their findings, Higgins and Raskind (1995) recommended the use of
optical character recognition (OCR) /speech synthesis technology for students with
marked reading comprehension difficulties in managing the completion of reading
assignments and other course requirements (Lindstrom, 2007). Fichten, Asuncion,
Barile, Fossey, and de Simone (2000) asserted that scanning and OCR equipment can be
used to convert printed materials to electronic text, which can then be read by a computer
using synthesized speech (SS). In addition, these systems can display and read aloud text
on a computer screen that has been typed by the user or text appearing on the Internet
(Stanberry & Raskind, 2009).
For students who skip or reverse letters and who have difficulty reading left to
right in a straight line can use software that reads what is on the screen, also known as
screen readers (Day & Edwards, 1996). There are reading systems available that can
scan books, convert text to speech (TTS), and simultaneously highlight text and read it
aloud (Day & Edwards, 1996). Arceneaux (2006) noted that books on tape are helpful
for persons with dyslexia where reading speed is slowed. Although each tool works
35
slightly differently, each can help by presenting text as speech and help facilitate
decoding, reading fluency, and comprehension (GreatSchools Staff, 2007).
Writing
According to Lindstrom (2007), service providers recommend various types of
AT to help college students with writing disabilities compensate for their difficulties. For
difficulties in written language, assistive devices include word processors, spell checkers,
proofreading programs, speech synthesis software, and speech recognition systems (Day
& Edwards, 1996; Givner & Brodwin, 2009; Lindstrom, 2007). Arceneaux (2006)
observed that technology such as word-processing programs were seen as very helpful to
student with LD. For example, word processing can help students with LD avoid any
challenges experienced with pen/paper writing (Collins, 1990; Lindstrom, 2007). For
students who have difficulty with cursive text, a laptop or portable note-taking device can
also be helpful (Fichten et al., 2000).
In another study, Ofiesh, Rice, Long, Merchant, and Gajar (2002) found that for
writing tasks, students with LD used word prediction software and Inspiration, a mindmapping/graphic organizer software, during the paper-writing process. Graphic
organizers and outlining programs help users who have difficulty organizing and
outlining information as they begin a writing assignment (Stanberry & Raskind, 2009).
This type of program allows the user to unload information in an unstructured manner
and then assists in the organization of the information into appropriate categories and
order (Stanberry & Raskind, 2009).
36
Voice recognition software (VRS) can also benefit postsecondary students with
LDs in written expression. According to Roberts and Stodden (2005), VRS allows the
user to control the computer by speaking rather than utilization a keyboard and mouse.
Additionally, for individuals with LD who struggle with written language and spelling,
VRS allows them to use oral language abilities to dictate printed text. Notably, the study
revealed that ongoing use of Dragon Naturally Speaking (version 5.0), a VRS, is
dependent upon need and personal issues. For example, those who had a greater need
(e.g., a significant discrepancy between writing performance and status as a college
student) and higher motivation (e.g., strong desire for advancement in postsecondary
education and postgraduate employment requiring advanced writing skills) were more
likely to continue using VRS (Roberts & Stodden, 2005).
In another study, Arceneaux (2006) found that dictation software was
accommodating for students with dyslexia who particularly had difficulty forming
thoughts and getting ideas onto paper. Problems with grammar and spelling can be
compensated for using dictation software such as Dragon (Fichten et al., 2000) or
software that scan word-processing documents and alert the user to possible errors
(Stanberry & Raskind, 2009). Speech synthesis software can be used for proofreading
writing assignments. Higgins and Raskind (1995) studied the compensatory
effectiveness of speech synthesis and speech recognition programs on proofreading
efficiency and written composition of college students with LD and writing disabilities.
Results revealed that the speech synthesis condition created the most effective outcomes.
37
Participants were able to detect significantly more errors using speech synthesis
compared to the other proofreading conditions. Participants were also able to identify a
higher percentage of capitalization, spelling, usage, and typographical errors.
Math
AT for math can help those who struggle with computing, organizing, aligning,
and transferring math problems onto paper (GreatSchools Staff, 2007). Difficulties in
mathematical computations are compensated with calculators and simple spreadsheets
(Givner & Brodwin, 2009). According to Stanberry and Raskind (2009), electronic math
worksheets are software programs that can help students organize, align, and work
through math problems on a computer screen. This is particularly helpful for students
who have difficulty aligning math problems with pencil and paper (Stanberry & Raskind,
2009). The numbers that emerge onscreen can also be read aloud through a speech
synthesizer (Stanberry & Raskind, 2009).
Visual and/or audio support can help users set up and calculate basic math
problems (GreatSchools Staff, 2007). AT tools include talking calculators and electronic
worksheets (GreatSchools Staff, 2007). According to Stanberry and Raskind (2010),
talking calculators have a built-in speech synthesizer that vocalizes each number, symbol,
or operation key pressed by the user, in addition to the answer to the problem. The
auditory feedback from talking calculators can help students check the accuracy of the
keystrokes and confirm the answer before transferring it onto paper (Stanberry &
Raskind, 2010).
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In addition to talking calculators, accessible math textbooks can also help students
with math disabilities. Lewis, Noble, and Soiffer (2010) authored a paper to report
results from Project SMART, which measured student outcomes associated with
providing accessible math content in the classroom by using digital textbooks. Surveys
showed that 96% of students preferred using accessible digital math textbooks over paper
copies. Additionally, teacher survey responses revealed that having math content that can
be read by AT removed barriers in decoding so students could focus more on content and
move on to a higher level of application and reasoning. Some additional notable key
findings of student and teacher responses to questions about using AT for accessing the
curriculum are as follows:

90% of the teachers reported that the computer read math to the students better
than the students could read it by themselves.

96% of the students surveyed preferred reading math on computer instead of on
paper.

100% of teachers reported that the way the words and symbols light up and read
out loud at the same time helped students read their math, while 79% of students
said the same thing.

80% of students reported that when they have their math text on computer it is
easier for them to read their math materials.

74% of students reported that reading their math text on computer made it easier
to complete their math problems.
39

69% of students reported that reading math on computer improved their
understanding of math

60% of students reported that reading their math textbook on the computer helped
them do better on math tests, even though the tests themselves were not
accessible.
Organization
AT tools can help students plan, organize, and maintain calendars, schedules, task
lists, contact information, and miscellaneous notes (GreatSchools Staff, 2007). Personal
data managers can assist an individual who has difficulty with organization and memory
(Day & Edwards, 1996; Givner & Brodwin, 2009). Personal data managers can be
portable, hand-held devices, computer software, or a blend of those tools (Stanberry &
Raskind, 2009). Mind-mapping software such as Inspiration can help organize essay
ideas (Seale et al., 2010). According to Connor (2012), use of a digital tape recorder,
replaying of podcasts, or maintaining a digital organizer, can help students with LDs and
AD/HD organize and manage their work. All these tools allow the user to manage, store,
and retrieve information with the help of special software and hand-held devices
(GreatSchools Staff, 2007).
Barriers to Access Accommodations in Higher Education
Postsecondary school is a competitive environment, and even high achieving
students with LDs may find themselves with academic difficulties that they never
experienced before (Cawthon & Cole, 2010). Although accommodations, including AT
40
have been shown to be effective tools for students with LD, many students encounter
obstacles to access. Barriers to access of such accommodations for students with LD are
discussed in this section.
Unprepared for Transition from Secondary to Postsecondary School
According to the NCLD Editorial Team (2013c), many students with LD who
received accommodations in secondary school are not involved in planning their
education and transition to postsecondary school, leaving them unfamiliar and unaware of
special education and related services, accommodations, and needed transition services
available to them (NCLD Editorial Team, 2013c). As a result, proper accommodations
are difficult to secure due to the fact that many students are not prepared out of secondary
school to speak knowledgably and specifically about their disability (RRTC, n.d).
In a study to support that students with LD in secondary school are not involved
in their educational planning, Cawthon and Cole (2010) found that despite data that
demonstrated receipt of accommodations for which an Individualized Education Plan
(IEP) would have been required, 91% of students could not recall having an IEP at all.
For students who could recall an IEP, a large proportion of students could not recall
covering basic transition topics in their final IEP meetings. In addition, only 2% of
students had knowledge on how to communicate to their University about what support
services and accommodations they would need to be successful during their last IEP
meeting, indicating that students with LDs are potentially underprepared to locate
services, obtain services, and advocate for services once they reach college.
41
Additionally, 48% reported that they received no guidance on who to contact for services
at their university, what accommodations or services they might need from their
university, how to document their disability for their university, and discuss their
disability limitation.
Documentation Discrepancies for Eligibility
According to Gormley, Hughes, Block, and Lendmann (2005), students with LDs
must provide documentation of their disability in order to access services at universities
and colleges. However, inconsistencies between the requirements of postsecondary
institutions and information provided by high school can lead to inequity in accessing
postsecondary support services (Gormley et al., 2005). For example, Gormley et al.
(2005) argued that while Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) or 504 Plans are
considered by some colleges and universities (39%), they may not be sufficient in
determining eligibility and accommodation.
In addition to incongruent eligibility requirements from secondary to
postsecondary schools, Gormley et al. (2005) noted that colleges and universities use
various methods for determining LD eligibility. For example, many schools defer to
federal definitions of LD or other professional standards when determining LD eligibility
(Gormley et al., 2005). Additionally, organizational or governmental guidelines such as
ADA and Section 504, AHEAD, ETS, and state guidelines are used in the decisionmaking. Furthermore, Gormley et al. (2005) added that many institutions require proof
42
of a functional impact of the disability on a major life activity as well as evidence to
support the need for specific accommodations due to disability.
According to Gormley et al. (2005), discrepancy models such as aptitudeachievement or intracognitive discrepancies are used by approximately 25% of schools to
determine LD eligibility, and even fewer (14%) require that a processing deficit be
evident. The authors also noted that the DSM-IV code is required by 20% of all
institutions. Furthermore, Scanlon (2012) argued that the long-entertained theory that LD
could be assessed by an aptitude-achievement discrepancy model has been disputed as
both an inadequate theory and empirically discredited. As a result, the most significant
change to the latest definition of SLD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM)-5 is the removal of the aptitude–achievement discrepancy from the
identification criteria and is the current conceptualization of LD (Scanlon, 2012).
Another example of inconsistency is explained by Lindstrom (2011), who noted
that there are multiple models for eligibility determination at the postsecondary level: the
cut off method, which sets a cutoff below which scores are indicative of a functional
limitation; the discrepancy model that involves the examination of variability among
scores of administered measures, including intellectual ability/achievement, intracognitive, and intra-achievement discrepancies; and the integrated model, which
identifies a substantial limitation based on clinical judgment from a well-trained clinician.
Without a single model applied to postsecondary institutions, there will continue to be
43
significant variability when determining eligibility for students with LD (Lindstrom,
2011).
According to Lindstrom (2011), recommended guidelines for institutional
documentation requirements are as follows:
1. Be recent (e.g., three to five years old),
2. Be conducted by a licensed or otherwise properly credentialed professional with
comprehensive training and relevant adult experience, and include:
a. the reason for the referral;
b. developmental, educational, psychiatric, and medical histories;
c. documentation of informal assessment methods (e.g., clinical
observation);
d. the list of measures used, all of which must be valid and reliable for the
adult population;
e. comprehensive standardized test results and interpretations;
f. a clear statement of the disability and its functional impact;
g. a description of how the diagnosis was made and the rule out procedures
used;
h. prognosis details
i. support for accommodations, including current and past services, aids,
assistive devices, and accommodations; and
44
j. the names and titles of evaluators, dates of testing, and age and grade of
the student.
Unaccommodating Student-Faculty Experiences
Griffiths (2003) reported that Learning Skills Program staff often hear about the
negative experiences of students regarding the lack of understanding or compassion on
the part of faculty and staff. For example, in a study that compared educational supports
among graduate and undergraduate students with LDs, Montoya (2009) found that
students with LDs expressed that educational supports were least helpful when faculty
were reluctant to provide educational supports listed on their letters of accommodation.
One student recalled how some professor’s disliked accommodating and were sometimes
unwilling to provide accommodations. Additionally, students reported that some
professors were insensitive by drawing attention to their disability status. One student
shared how his instructor suggested, in front of the entire class, that he sit at the front of
the class in order to see the board. Another student claimed that her professor addressed
the entire classroom when inquiring which students needed to take their exams in the
office of disability services.
Time Constraints
Time poses another barrier to access, particularly to technology. In a study to
determine barriers to higher education for students with LDs, Denhart (2008) found that
82% of students with LDs expressed working significantly longer hours than their nonlabeled peers on the same assignments. In another study conducted in the United
45
Kingdom, Seale et al. (2010) found that a number of students reported that they had made
decisions not to access technology- related support because they were too busy. For
example, students with LD reported that required training to learn to use the technology
can interfere with the course load of a student with a disability and some just do not have
spare time to learn something new. One student quoted the following:
When I got all my software in autumn last year, and they said “You need to have
your training on this.”…I did feel like I was doing two courses and that was,
frankly, too much. I had to stay with my old bad habits because I just didn’t feel I
had the time to take out to learn something new to help me. (Seale et al., 2010, p.
456)
Additionally, Fichten et al., (2003) reported that many students with disabilities
have limited opportunities to determine if a product will work for them. They further
note that for those eligible for computer subsidy programs, evaluations and training from
professionals is often needed, which can be time consuming.
Lack of Funding
According to Robitaille (2010), postsecondary schools that receive federal
funding may be responsible for providing AT as reasonable accommodations.
Community colleges are allocated funding to provide access to services, classes, and
programs under Assembly Bill 77, which established Disabled Student Programs and
Services (DSPS) offices on every community college campus (Humphrey & Angeli,
2009). However, according to MPR Associates (2012), in 2009, Governor of California,
46
Arnold Schwarzenegger signed into law a budget that included a $333 million reduction
to programs in California Community Colleges. For programs, including DSPS offices
within the California Community Colleges, these budget revisions imposed funding
reductions of almost 40% (MPR Associates, 2012). In addition, MPR Associates (2012)
noted that during this time DSPS student counts increased by almost 10%. The most
dramatic growth were students classified with “other” disabilities, which includes
students with LDs (MPR Associates, 2012).
In addition, Harris (2013) similarly reported that funding for DSPS within
California Community Colleges during 2009-10 and 2010-11 underwent a cut of
approximately 40% since 2007-08 and 2008-09 award years. An allocation of
approximately $69 million was provided to DSPS to serve 98,014 students, 20% with LD
(MPR Associates, 2012), during the 2009-10 academic year and again during the 2010-11
academic year, serving 99,852 students, 18% with LD (MPR Associates, 2012). In the
two years prior to 2009-10, DSPS program funding was $115 million per year (Harris,
2013). While funding was reduced during 2009-10 and 2010-11, the numbers of students
being served by DSPS increased for both years, resulting in the need to serve an
increasing number of students with significantly fewer resources (Harris, 2013). As a
result of the funding reductions, many colleges reported having to reduce staffing,
eliminate services, curtail hours of operation, or take other measures to cut costs (MPR
Associates, 2012).
47
According to MPR Associates (2012), many DSPS coordinators and staff reported
reducing or eliminating services important to student success that are not explicitly
mandated by law. In a survey to examine the effects of reduced state funding on DSPS in
California Community Colleges, MPR Associates (2012) found that of the colleges
surveyed, zero had completely eliminated the provision of AT, although 2% had
eliminated AT training. Almost half (47%) reduced the AT provided, and just over half
(52%) reduced the amount of AT training provided.
In addition, more than half of the coordinators surveyed (57%) reported an
increase in delays in approving or delivering AT and AT training to students (MPR
Associates, 2012). For example, some institutions have not been able to update their AT
software and hardware to more recent versions resulting in compatibility and access
issues (MPR Associates, 2012). Results from their study showed that while the majority
of students receiving AT (90%) and AT training (89%) felt the services met their needs;
many also expressed concern with the reduction of staff available for training and limited
lab hours in which they could access such technology (MPR Associates, 2012).
Another example of how reduced funding has impacted services for students with
LDs is explained by Humphrey and Angeli (2009), who reported that California State
Universities (CSU) and Universities of California (UC) do not receive designated funding
for disabled student services. They further noted that during budget crises, disabled
student services must rely on existing resources. For example, the authors reported that
students have difficulty accessing textbooks and instructional materials in an alternative
48
format (Humphrey & Angeli, 2009). According to MPR Associates (2012), Alternate
Media Specialists (AMS) reported that their staffing had been reduced to fewer or no
student workers. Furthermore AMS noted that it took a long time to train student help,
especially if the student did not return to work over multiple semesters. Reduction in
staffing forced some AMS to also supervise the High Tech Center, which further limited
their time to producing materials in alternative formats (MPR Associates, 2012).
Moreover, AMS believed that the quality of the materials they were producing was not as
high because they did not double check the scanned material as closely nor listen
thoroughly to all texts to make sure the computer software reader had read it properly
(MPR Associates, 2012).
However, in an effort to address the need for accessible materials, Humphrey and
Angeli (2009) noted that CSU created the Center for Accessible Media. The Center for
Accessible Media operates a database where scanned or copied course materials can be
converted into electronic format, and can be stored and shared across CSU, UC, and
community college campuses (Humphrey & Angeli, 2009). This sharing of resources is
important to note because campuses are responsible for funding the conversion of
documents, which can be very time consuming and expensive (Humphrey & Angeli,
2009).
Another resource for accessible instructional media can best be explained in the
legislation by Assembly Member Steinberg (1999), who introduced Assembly Bill 422
(AB 422) Education Code section 67300, which states the following:
49
A publisher or manufacturer of instructional materials offered for adoption or sale
in California is required to comply with specified requirements, including
providing to the state, at no cost, the right to transcribe, reproduce, and distribute
the material in braille, large print, recordings, or other accessible media for use by
pupils with visual disabilities. This right includes computer diskette versions of
instructional materials if made available to any other state, and those corrections
and revisions as may be necessary. This bill would require every individual, firm,
partnership or corporation publishing or manufacturing printed instructional
materials, as defined, for students attending the University of California, the
California State University, or a California Community College to provide to the
university, college, or particular campus of the university or college, for use by
students at no additional cost and in a timely manner, any printed instructional
material in unencrypted electronic form upon the receipt of a written request,
provided that the university or college complies with certain conditions. This bill
would require that the computer files or electronic versions of printed
instructional material maintain their structural integrity, as defined, be compatible
with commonly used braille translation and speech synthesis software, and
include corrections and revisions as may be necessary. This bill would authorize
the Chancellor of the California Community Colleges, the Chancellor of the
California State University, and the President of the University of California to
each establish one or more centers within their respective segments to process
50
requests for electronic versions of instructional materials, as prescribed. This bill
would also require an individual, firm, partnership or corporation that publishes or
manufactures nonprinted instructional materials for students attending the
University of California, the California State University, or a California
Community College to provide computer files or other electronic versions of the
nonprinted instructional materials for use by students, subject to the same
conditions for printed instructional materials, when technology is available to
convert these nonprinted instructional materials to a format that maintains the
structural integrity of the nonprinted instructional material that is compatible with
braille translation and speech synthesis software. (para. 1-5)
However, despite AB 422, DSPS students still experience difficulty in obtaining
instructional media, as mentioned before by Humphrey and Angeli (2009) and MPR
Associates (2012).
Self-Advocacy
Self-advocacy is a skill that is necessary to access accommodations in higher
education. According to Cortiella and Kaoli (2009), higher education institutions are not
required to locate and serve eligible students. Rather, it is the student’s responsibility to
seek academic support services and provide supporting documentation necessary for
these services.
In their study to assess willingness to seek support services, Hartman-Hall and
Haaga (2002) found that the more participants saw their own LD as circumscribed,
51
changeable, and nonstigmatizing, the more willing they were to seek help from
instructors and peers. Findings from a case study by Bradshaw (2001) revealed that for
one student, his ability to discuss his needs and self-advocate contributed to his success in
postsecondary school. The same student’s community college special needs counselor
reported to be successful, students need to be willing to self-disclose, not be in denial
about their learning difficulties, and to advocate for themselves.
However, choosing not to self-disclose is common among college students with
disabilities (Madaus, Faggella-Lubby, & Dukes, 2011). For example, limited knowledge
regarding one’s own disability is related to self-advocacy. Students who are unfamiliar
with their assessment scores or how their disability impacts their learning have a difficult
time stating their needs. Eight participants reported not receiving enough information or
were not able to recall enough information from their assessment to clearly understand
how the LD affected them. For example, although one student knew her diagnosis, she
lacked an understanding about the nature (Denhart, 2008).
According to Griffiths (2003), many students are concerned about the negative
connotation that the label often brings because misconceptions about LDs are
widespread. In a study, Arceneaux (2006) found that despite being proficient technology
users, students with LD described specific experiences where they felt uneasy that their
AT use might be labeling them as different. Other students mentioned how using AT in
lectures drew unwanted attention. In another study, Denhart (2008) reported that 9 of 10
students with LD confessed that the LD label prompted negative connotations such as
52
“stupid” and “weird.” In addition, another 9 of 10 students had denied their
accommodations because they felt it showed weakness. Furthermore, Denhart (2008)
reported that one student stated that she was too afraid to ask for extensions and preferred
to receive lower grades instead. He further claimed that this fear of stigma resulted in
refusal of accommodations that would have improved their performances. In addition,
results from a study by Hartman-Hall and Haaga (2002) showed that students who
perceived their LD to be more global, stigmatizing, and/or nonmodifiable reported less
willingness to seek help in the face of negative responses from peers and professors.
Summary
In summary, students with LD have difficulty in the areas of reading, writing,
math and organization. However, with the academic support services such as
accommodations, students with LD can overcome their academic deficits in higher
education. Namely AT devices and equipment have been tools to assist students with LD
by compensating for, and circumventing their deficits, which allow them greater
independence in higher education and promoting self-confidence. Although there are
federal laws and legislation to ensure equal access to create an equal playing field for
students with LD, they encounter many barriers in accessing accommodations and AT in
higher education. These barriers include being unprepared during transition from
secondary school to postsecondary school, documentation discrepancies for eligibility,
time constraints that prevent use of AT, and funding for AT. Additionally, the inability
to self-advocate and fear of stigma prevent students from reaching out to request for
53
accommodations and services. Research has shown that there is need for students with
LD to have ease of access to cost efficient technologies to support learning.
54
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Having been diagnosed with learning disabilities (LDs) during postsecondary
school, the author’s personal experience and perseverance to overcome challenges in
academia spurred the desire to help other students with LDs. While the author was
fortunate to have been assessed for LDs at no cost, some students are not as fortunate.
With a documented diagnosis, the author was able to gain access to a computer lab
equipped with various assistive technology (AT). Unfortunately, for those without
documentation, access to the specialized lab is near impossible as utilization of the lab
often requires a referral from the disability services office. However, with the vast
advancement of technology, the author came to the realization that everyday technology,
software, and smartphone applications could be considered helpful educational tools
while maintaining affordability.
In the Fall of 2013, educational databases such as Google Scholar, ERIC, EBSCO
Host, PsycINFO, PubMed, Social Sciences Citation Index (ISI Web of Knowledge), and
ProQuest - ProQuest Dissertation Publishing were used to research peer-reviewed articles
in the acquisition of knowledge about LDs and most frequently used AT utilized by
college students with LDs. Organizations’ websites, for example, National Center for
Learning Disabilities, were also used to gain further understanding of the types of LD and
ways to compensate for LDs. Additionally, the author relied on books pertaining to AT
and learning strategies.
55
During Fall 2013, the author also sought out cost effective mainstream computer
software and Apple applications that could benefit students with LDs in higher education.
Specifically, the author targeted software available for desktops/laptops running
Windows due to its affordability. For example, the lower-end of Mac notebooks (11-inch
Macbook Air) start at $999 (Apple, 2014) compared to Toshiba’s Satellite Series laptops
whose base price starts at $329.99 (Toshiba, 2014). In fact, Covert (2013) reported that
Apple sales fell last quarter while PC sales for Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Lenovo, and
Toshiba rose. He also noted that this rise in sales was during the back-to-school
marketing push in the United States.
The selection of computer software was chosen based on its productivity in an
academic setting and similarity to AT used by students with LDs. Software selection was
also influenced by a software handout given by Mela Bennet, Instructional
Assistant/Support Staff at ARC, and an adjunct professor in the College of Education at
California State University, Sacramento (CSUS). The handout contained a list of ELearning 2.0 web applications available for download on desktops and laptops.
Additionally, the author visited the main website to further explore E-learning and mobile
applications available to students. The product (e.g. software and application)
developers’ websites provided the author with prices and product description such as
special features.
However, as to not completely disregard the iOS, the author targeted iPhone and
iPad applications for this project. The author purchased an iPad 2 and accessed her
56
iPhone to research, download, and experiment with educational applications from the
App Store that may be beneficial to students with LDs in their studies. Applications were
selected based on those that had been helpful to the author herself, and that had been
recommended by the author’s classmates and higher education staff from American River
College (ARC) and CSUS. Finally, the author also had personal communication with
ARC staff who work directly with college students with LDs, and spoke briefly with
postsecondary students with LDs to acquire information for this project.
Disabled Student Programs and Services (DSPS) staff at ARC were also key
figures in the development of the resource guide. In speaking with Jon James,
coordinator of DSPS, the author learned about the Livescribe Smartpen. Mr. James gave
a brief description of the device and stressed a need for students with LDs to become
familiar with the Smartpen and how it can help students with LDs (personal
communication, September 2013). The author was then referred by Mr. James to speak
with the LD Specialist at DSPS and instructor at ARC, Joseph Rust to learn more about
the Livescribe Smartpen and other technology-based tools for students with LD.
Mr. Rust was also a primary resource in educating the author of the various ways
that students with LDs could use mainstream technology (MT) software and devices to
become successful students in college (personal communication, September 2013). In
addition to the Livescribe Smartpen, the author learned about some Apple device
applications that can be helpful tools for students with LDs. An explanation of how the
application can assist a student with LD in a college setting was provided to the author.
57
In addition, organizational tools and tips were also discussed. The information from the
meeting with Mr. Rust provided the author with strategies for using MT for students with
LD. Furthermore, Mr. Rust stated that there is a need to show students with LD how to
use MT to become better students since it is cheaper and more easily accessible compared
to AT (personal communication, September 2013). He further added that ARC,
specifically, no longer offers useful AT such as Kurzweil 3000 and Dragon Naturally
Speaking, further stressing the need to explore different avenues for using MT, such as
smartphones so that students with LDs can still become successful in college (J. Rust,
personal communication, September 2013).
In order to gain insight of student’s awareness of AT, and use of AT and MT
among students with LDs, the author approached Mr. Rust to obtain consent to speak
briefly with students from the LD program at DSPS. Mr. Rust allowed the author to
conduct brief interviews with students from his Human Career Development (HCD)
class, which is a learning strategies class for students with learning difficulties. During
Fall 2013, the author attended a HCD 382 class on a Wednesday to conduct brief
interviews with students who self-reported an LD diagnosis regarding their technology
use and access to both AT and MT. A total of 12 students (nine females, three males)
volunteered to briefly speak with the author, and were later awarded extra credit points
by the instructor. Responses from the students further supported the need of a resource
guide for MT that students with LDs could utilize at home or portably. The following are
the findings from the brief interviews:
58

All 12 students owned some sort of technology to assist them with their
studies (eight students owned a computer; 10 students owned a laptop;
five students owned a tablet (e.g. iPad); and 11 students owned a
smartphone).

Four of 12 students reported having been aware of AT.

One student reported using AT, specifically Kurzweil 3000, Blio, and
Bubble.

Zero students reported not owning any specialized software/programs.

Eight students reported that they do not own specialized programs because
they were unaware of programs that can assist with reading, writing,
organization, and performing math; three students reported that they had
no need for specialized programs; and one student reported that although
she is aware that programs do exist, she does not know of the names of
such programs.

Nine of nine reported that it would be more convenient if they could use
specialized features of AT software for home use, rather than coming to
the ATC lab.

Seven of nine reported that it would be more convenient if they could use
features of specialized programs on a mobile device.
On October 8th, 2013, the author met with Jamie Jones, Learning Disabilities
Specialist at CSUS to learn about various technologies that her students use and
59
recommend. Ms. Jones shared that many students with LDs are using mobile devices
such as iPads and smartphones as tools in and out of the classroom (personal
communication). For note-taking, she noted several techniques that students can use:
Dragon Dictation, a voice recognition application on smartphones is used to transcribe
spoken lectures into text instantly; the Livescribe Smartpen is also popular because it
allows the student to handwrite their notes while audio recording the lecture
simultaneously; MP3 files can be plugged into a PC that can be converted to text; and
iPads can be used during lecture to take notes and record lectures (personal
communication).
Furthermore, Ms. Jones mentioned that in conjunction with the Peer and
Academic Resource Center (PARC) for tutoring, students are using YouTube to search
for tutorials for any subject matter and Skype for distance tutoring (personal
communication). For organization, Ms. Jones said that students use built-in calendars in
their phones to keep track of important dates, such as those for homework assignments
(personal communication). Additionally, she shared that there are text-to-speech tools
for smartphones and PCs (e.g., Natural Reader and Adobe Reader) that can be low cost
and even free (personal communication). Finally, Purpose Games and Quizlet can be
used on PCs as interactive tools to review course content and material for exams and
quizzes.
On October 10, 2013, the author met with Carol Houston, the High Tech Center
(HTC) coordinator at CSUS to gain a fuller understanding of types of AT used by
60
students with LD. Ms. Houston was able to provide the author with an overview and
demonstration of the various computer equipment and software available to students with
LDs on the CSUS campus (personal communication). Special features of the computer
equipment and software were considered when selecting apps and other mainstream
computer software in the development of this project.
On November 8, 2013, the author went to the HTC lab to briefly talk to a total of
eight students (six females, two males) with LDs on ways in which they use technology
to assist their studies. The author gathered the following information:

Three of eight students reported using their planner/calendar on their
mobile device to stay organized.

Three of eight reported using the alarm on their mobile device to be
reminded of important dates.

All eight students reported using both AT and MT for schoolwork (eight
reported using text-to-speech software, specifically Kurzweil 3000, for
reading their textbooks; three reported using the Smartpen; two reported
using speech-to-text software (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking); three
students reported using an audio recorder to record lectures; and two
students reported using mind-mapping software).
On January 13, 2014, the author phoned one of her best friends, law school
student Sean Lodholz. The author has always known Mr. Lodholz to be an extraordinary
student and extremely organized throughout his academic career. Mr. Lodholz educated
61
the author about his note-taking and organizational strategies (personal communication).
Additionally, Mr. Lodholz also informed the author of free Optical Character
Recognition services available on the internet (personal communication). Insight into his
study strategies was therefore considered for this project.
To determine which technology-based tools to include for the resource guide, the
author selected the most cost efficient and user-friendly MT tools that were comparable
to more expensive assistive technologies. She then downloaded them either to her laptop
or iPad. She also referred to the product websites to research the basic features of the
technology tools. Subsequently, the author used Microsoft Word 2010 to create the
resource guides. The first resource guide includes the name of each MT tool, its price
and its features, information on how it can benefit the student, tips for using the tool, and
where to go to find more product information. The second resource guide includes the
name of the technology-based tool, product website, a brief description of what the
product is, and a recommendation for using the tool.
A Google account was created in order to establish a Google Drive account,
which is a cloud storage. The author then uploaded the resource guides to the Google
Drive account, which was made available to the public to view and download. The
author copied the web address to the resource guide to another website called Bitly.com
in order to provide a shortened web address to each resource guide. The web address for
Appendix A is http://bit.ly/1ecnA6N and the web address for Appendix B is
http://bit.ly/1gfFhkP.
62
Chapter 4
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Students with learning disabilities (LDs) have difficulty with reading, writing,
math, and organization. Support services and accommodations, particularly assistive
technology (AT) tools, can assist students with LD overcome their academic deficits in
higher education by compensating for their deficits, thus allowing them to become
confidence and independent students. However, students with LDs encounter many
challenges to gain access to AT in postsecondary school.
While there are federal laws that require secondary schools to provide AT to
students with LDs, different federal laws that apply to higher education institutions have
some ambiguity in how services and accommodations, including AT are provided to
students with LD. Documentation of a learning disability (LD) is required in order to be
considered for eligibility of services by postsecondary schools. If the student was
successfully deemed eligible for support services, including AT use, the student with LD
would be given access to an technology lab where he/she has access to AT that is
installed on desktop computers. The isolated location creates a lack of portability which
may be inconvenient for a student who may have other obligation and cannot access the
AT lab during normal operating hours. In the case that a student cannot provide
documentation of an LD, students may have to tap into their own personal finances in
63
order to purchase AT, which can be costly. In addition, some AT tools require training,
which can be time consuming for the student who is already struggling academically.
A review of the literature demonstrated the academic struggles students with LDs
face in higher education along with the challenges they encounter in accessing
accommodations and assistive technology. In particular, barriers include an
unpreparedness for transition from secondary school to postsecondary school,
discrepancies when determining LD diagnosis and eligibility for services in
postsecondary schools, unaccommodating student-faculty interactions, time constraints
that conflict with AT use, lack of funding for AT and services in higher education
institutions, and lack of self-advocacy on the student’s part to seek services.
The purpose of this project was to remove obstacles to AT access that students
with LDs encounter by educating them on cost-effective mainstream technologies (MTs),
software and applications that are comparable to AT and that can enhance their learning
and productivity. And while Robitaille (2010) argued that AT can help individuals with
disabilities increase their independence, build their self-esteem and self-confidence, and
break down barriers to education, the author hopes that the use of MT can do the same for
students with LD in higher education. Personal communication with higher education
staff from American River College and California State University, Sacramento provided
vital information and validated the need to create a resource guides for students with LDs
in postsecondary school.
64
Additionally, the author specifically investigated software available for
desktops/laptops running Windows due to its affordability. However, as to not discount
iOS users, the author targeted cost-effective iPhone and iPad applications for this project.
Therefore, the resource guide will provide the names of PC software and Apple
applications, price of software and applications, a brief description of how they may
benefit students with LDs, and tips for using the software and applications. In addition to
software and applications, the resource guide will also provide information for a device
called Livescribe 2GB Echo Smartpen.
Recommendations
As technology is rapidly advancing, devices, software, applications, and operating
systems become outdated and updated. It is strongly recommended that (a) this resource
guide be updated every 6-12 months. For example, future authors can add to the list of
resources and include different tips or strategies for utilizing the technology tool; (b) an
open-access website be created where students with LDs can share new technologies,
software, and applications they utilize, how they utilize it, and how it can be an effective
tool. For example, DSPS websites can contain a web link on their website where
students with LDs can be given access to add and update a list of technologies, software,
and applications they find beneficial to their academic success and further explain how it
can assist other students with LDs; (c) LD workshops be conducted as a webinar and/or
in person where tech-savvy staff who work with students with LDs can demonstrate and
teach students with LD how to use the latest technologies effectively; and (d) this
65
resource guide be updated to focus on Android applications that may benefit students
with LDs, especially since Android phones are becoming more popular. According to
Stenovec (2013), 81% of the smartphones shipped worldwide in the third quarter of 2013
were running Android’s operating system. Gartner, Inc. (2014) further noted that
Android will surpass one billion users across all devices in 2014.
66
APPENDIX A
A Resource Guide to Mainstream Technology Tools for Students with Learning
Disabilities
67
Introduction
This resource guide is intended for students with learning disabilities (LDs) in
higher education. The resource guide will provide an overview of various cost-effective
mainstream technology tools that are comparable to assistive technologies that can help
enhance and personalize learning and productivity. While several MT tools are covered,
the resource guide will contain the following information for each tool:

Product name and type of software/application it is

Price of product

What device(s) it is available to download on

Product features

Benefits to using the product

Tips for using the product

Where to find more information on the product
The resource guide will be saved in the author’s Google Drive account where it
will be available to view and download. The web address to this resource guide is
http://bit.ly/1ecnA6N
68
This resource guide is intended for students with
learning disabilities (LDs) in higher education. The
resource guide will provide an overview of various
cost-effective mainstream technology tools that are
comparable to assistive technologies that can help
enhance and personalize learning and productivity.
 Dragon Dictation (app) – Speech-to-text
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
69
o Additional mobile apps
o Products for PCs
o Product Website
 Foxit
o
o
o
o
o
o
Reader (PC, app) – PDF reader
Price
Mobile apps
Features
Benefits
Tips
Product website
 Mind Maple (PC, Mac, app) – Mind
mapping
o Price
o Mobile apps
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
o Product Website
 Natural Reader (PC, Mac, app) – Textto-speech
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
o Product Website
70
 Online OCR (web-based software – no
download required) – optical character
recognition software
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
o Product Website
 SwiftKey Note (app) – Note-taking with
autocorrect and word
suggestion/prediction
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
 Evernote (app) – notetaking/organizing
o Tips
o Product Websites
 Voice Dream Lite (app) – Text-to-speech
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
o Product Website
71
 Livescribe Echo Smartpen – Audio
record/Note-taking
o Price
o Features
o Benefits
o Tips
o Product Website
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81
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APPENDIX B
A Resource Guide of Supplemental Technology-Based Tools for Students with Learning
Disabilities
126
Introduction
This resource guide is intended for students with learning disabilities (LDs) in
higher education. The resource guide, also available to view and download via Google
Drive at http://bit.ly/1gfFhkP will provide a brief overview of technology-based tools to
help enhance and personalize learning and productivity.
127
This resource guide is intended for students with learning
disabilities (LDs) in higher education. The resource guide
will provide a brief overview of technology-based tools to
help enhance and personalize learning and productivity.
128
khanacademy.org
FREE




Available on any device that has internet access. Mobile application
for iOS and Android
Students can search an extensive library of content, including
interactive challenges, assessments, and videos.
Learn about Math, Science, Economics, Finance, Humanities, and
Computers.
Use Khan Academy as an online tutoring tool to learn more about a
subject area at their own pace.
129
skype.com
FREE


Available for desktop and mobile application for iOS and Android
Voice calling, videochat, instant messaging, and file sharing.
** webcam, microphone, speakers, and internet access required

Use as Skype as:
 A distance tutoring tool - interact face-to-face with another
individual.
 Group projects – face-to-face interaction and share files
** Can only video chat with one person at a time-- group
calling/video chat is $9.99/mo
130
YouTube.com
FREE


Available on desktop and mobile application for iOS and Android
Watch videos on anything and everything!

Use YouTube as an online tutoring tool to learn more about a subject
area at their own pace.
131
Quizlet.com
FREE

Available on desktop and mobile application for iOS and Android

Search on just about any subject and retrieve electronic flash cards
from all over the world

Create your own flash cards online to quiz yourself and share with
others

Interactive learning – learn by hearing and seeing, practice test mode,
game-like mode

Use Quizlet as an interactive study aid to learn more about a subject
area at their own pace.
132
evernote.com/peek
FREE

Available for Apple iPad

Turn your notes, audio and images from Evernote into study materials
with Evernote Peek.

Designed to help you study, learn and strengthen your memory. Once
you’ve connected Peek to your Evernote account and selected your
study materials, close the Smart Cover and peek under it to see a
clue. Raise the cover further to reveal the answer. To advance to the
next clue, just close the cover and repeat.

Create quizzes and study guides for Peek by creating a new notebook
in Evernote and typing notes --The note titles become clues and the
body of the notes become the answers. ** For best results, keep the
title to 50 characters and the body to 250**

Use Evernote Peek as an interactive study tool to prepare for exams
and quizzes, or brush up on a language.
133
evernote.com
FREE

Available on desktop and mobile application for iOS, Android,
Blackberry, and Windows Phone





Create notebooks and to-do lists; create notes from text, camera,
and photos
Built-in audio recorder
Add tags to notes to quickly find keywords within all your notes,
Set reminders.
Use Evernote to:
 Stay organized by creating a notebook for each class.
 Set reminders for exams or homework assignments.
 Use the built-in audio recorder so that you never miss a
word from lecture.
 Add tags to your notes to quickly find information to
prepare for exams
 With permission from your instructors, audio record
lectures
134
voicebase.com
FREE

Available on desktop and mobile application for iOS and Android

Audio to text transcription software - record and upload spoken
content, and then share and search it by what was said

Built-in audio recorder, add tags to quickly find keywords within
notes, and set reminders.

With permission from the instructor, students with LDs can audio
record lectures with the app. Upload the audio file to have the spoken
words transcribed into text. Search for keywords in your notes to find
specific information and prepare for exams
NOTE: Transcription is not always accurate. Quality of transcription is highly
dependent on the audio quality of your recording.
135
Genius Scan
FREE


Mobile application for iOS and Android
Mobile scanner - Quickly scan your documents on the go, add tags to
the documents, and export them as JPEG or multi-page PDF files

Select from the following image enhancements to apply to your
exported file: No enhancement, black and white, or color.
Export your file to email, print, other apps, Dropbox, Evernote, Google
Drive, OneDrive (Skydrive)
Use Genius Scan to take pictures of homework, or any other courserelated material to quickly share them with classmates or instructors


136
FREE

Mobile application on iOS

Stay organized and keep track of birthdays, events, meetings,
appointments, and homework assignments

Add events, location of the event, specify start and end dates and
time, option to have this event repeated throughout your calendar
(e.g. every day, week, every 2 weeks, every month, every year), share
events with others, set alerts to remind you of that the event is
approaching (e.g., 15 minutes before the start time), and add any
additional notes



Sync calendar with your email accounts (e.g., Google calendar)
Search icon allows you to quickly search your calendar for keywords
Use Calendar to:
 Input all your assignments, exams and quizzes from syllabi.
 Set reminders to notify yourself of approaching deadlines or
exam dates
 Color code your calendar (e.g., purple = work events, blue =
school, etc.).
137
FREE

Mobile application on iOS

Never forget a thing and stay organized!

Easily create new lists (e.g. reminders, to-do lists, appointments,


assignments, exams, etc).
Set alarms (e.g., 15 minutes before the start time); repeat the
reminder to occur every day, week, every 2 weeks, every month, every
year; Add a location; specify priority of the reminder; and add any
additional notes
Use reminder to (1) create a list for each course, (2) Refer to your
syllabi and input all your assignments, exams and quizzes under each
course, (3) Set reminders to alert you of deadlines and exams
138
www.google.com/drive
FREE (account required)

Web-based, desktop download, and mobile application for iOS and
Android


Free 15GB of cloud storage for documents, images, and media files
Always have access to your files from any device that has internet
connection
Create word docs, spreadsheets, and slideshow presentations
Share files with the public or restricted to certain people


 Use Google Drive to:
 Save all your schoolwork to access it anywhere with internet
connection
 Take notes during class, or on the go
 Collaborate with others on group projects and assignments
 Tells you who made changes to the document.


Everyone can log in and add into the doc at the same time
Create study guides together - everyone can contribute their
notes or split up study guides on one shared document
139
www.google.com/calendar
FREE (account required)

Web-based, and mobile application on iOS and Android -- Offline
access available (Google Chrome required).

Stay organized; share your calendar, sync to your mobile device to
always have access to your calendar; receive your daily schedule via
email
 Use Google Calendar to (1) color code by assignment type or course (2)
input your assignments, exams, quizzes, and appointments (3) set
reminders for important dates (you can choose to be notified by email or
receive text messages directly to your mobile phone).
140
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