BEHIND THE ILLUSION: ADDRESSING ADOLESCENT DATING VIOLENCE IN
SCHOOLS
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
School Psychology
by
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
SPRING
2014
© 2014
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
BEHIND THE ILLUSION: ADDRESSING ADOLESCENT DATING VIOLENCE IN
SCHOOLS
A Project
by
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Stephen E. Brock, Ph.D.
__________________________________
Date
iii
Students:
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
_________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Geni Cowan, Ph.D.
Graduate & Professional Studies in Education
iv
____________________
Date
Abstract
of
BEHIND THE ILLUSION: ADDRESSING ADOLESCENT DATING VIOLENCE IN
SCHOOLS
by
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
California Education Code section 200-201 (n.d.) states that schools have a duty
to protect students from harassment, discrimination, hate crimes, abuse, etc. This
encompasses adolescent dating violence. While this education code policy exists, many
schools lack the appropriate systematized or cohesive set of materials available to assist
staff to address these issues for the school population. Therefore, this project will address
this lack of materials at both the school personnel and student level, specifically
addressing preventive strategies to be implemented with middle and high school students.
The product of this project will be composed of three components: a handbook, a
school-wide middle school curriculum, and a small group high school counseling
curriculum. The handbook will function as a reference guide for educators on the
importance and severity of adolescent dating violence; it will include characteristics of
dating violence, community supports, and legal information. The middle school
curriculum is designed to offer prevention education for all middle school students for
v
one week every year. The last component, the high school curriculum, functions as a
therapeutic approach to support students who may have been victims or perpetrators of
dating violence. It is our hope that these materials will be utilized in the future to bring
awareness to the issue of adolescent dating violence, as well as hopefully decrease the
incidences of dating violence among adolescents.
________________________, Committee Chair
Stephen E. Brock, Ph.D.
________________________
Date
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the support and guidance of our advisor, Dr. Stephen
Brock. We would also like to thank our families and friends for their continual support
and encouragement throughout this educational journey. It has been a long process and
we appreciate everyone’s patience and confidence in our success.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Project ............................................................................................ 3
Description of the Project ...................................................................................... 4
Definition of Terms................................................................................................ 4
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 6
Statement of Collaboration .................................................................................... 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 8
Definition of Adolescent Dating Violence ............................................................ 8
Prevalence ............................................................................................................ 10
Risk Factors ......................................................................................................... 14
Warning Signs ...................................................................................................... 17
Impact of Social Media ........................................................................................ 19
Consequences of ADV ......................................................................................... 22
Addressing Diversity ........................................................................................... 22
Prevention ............................................................................................................ 26
viii
Intervention .......................................................................................................... 31
Postvention........................................................................................................... 32
Best Practices ....................................................................................................... 34
Resources ............................................................................................................. 37
3. METHODS ................................................................................................................ 42
Research ............................................................................................................... 42
Development of the Handbook and Curricula ..................................................... 43
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 44
Appendix A. Behind the Illusion: Preventing and Intervening in Adolescent Dating
Violence Program Supplement .................................................................. 46
Appendix B. Behind the Illusion: Addressing Adolescent Dating Violence A SchoolWide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence ...................... 69
Appendix C. Behind the Illusion: Addressing Adolescent Dating Violence A SmallGroup Curriculum for High School Students ........................................... 103
References ...................................................................................................................... 162
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
1.
Page
Percentage of high school students who experienced dating violence-selected
cities ................................................................................................................. 13
2.
Percentage of high school students who experienced dating violence
by grade ........................................................................................................... 13
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Adolescent dating violence is an issue that affects teenagers across the nation
(CVPC. 2008). Schools have a duty to protect their students from harm, but even though
abusive relationships are very prevalent in middle and high schools, there is a significant
lack of protocols within schools to address the problem of adolescent dating violence
(ADV; California Education Code, n.d.). Approximately 1.5 million high school students
report dating violence each year, which is a significant underestimate of the actual
number of adolescents who are affected by ADV, beginning in middle school (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). These students are in need of education to
combat ADV before it starts, and support to address dating violence after students are
affected.
Background of the Problem
Relationships among youth are profound and can, without a doubt, impact an
adolescent’s identity development and self-concept (Eccles et al., 1993). While some
adolescents have positive and supportive dating experiences that can help a person feel
happy and healthy, on the other hand, others have negative and abusive dating
experiences that can have injurious effects on an individual’s well-being (Eccles et al.,
1993).
Adolescent dating violence is becoming a pervasive public health concern in the
United States. In fact, research indicates that dating violence affects approximately 30
percent of youth and is linked with many serious mental, emotional and physical
2
outcomes (Martsolf, Draucker, & Brandau, 2013). In order to prevent and intervene with
those who experience such dating abuse and violence, it is imperative to be cognizant as
to what constitutes dating violence. Additionally, adolescents themselves must also have
a clear understanding about dating violence, as well as the psychological and behavioral
consequences that are associated (Eccles et al., 1993). The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (2012) defines dating violence as, “a type of intimate partner violence that
occurs between two people in a close relationship. The nature of dating violence can be
physical, emotional, or sexual” (p. 1). Recent technological advances have resulted in
social media being a mechanism for perpetuating acts of dating violence amongst
adolescents. Such types of cyber harassment or bullying, includes “teasing, telling lies,
making fun of, making rude or mean comments, spreading of rumors, or making
threatening or aggressive comments, that occurs through e-mail, a chat room, instant
messaging, a Web site, or text messaging” (David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007, p. 2).
In order to be attentive to adolescents in unhealthy relationships, one must be
knowledgeable of the associated risk factors and warning signs commonly related to
violent and abusive behaviors (Booth, Van Hasselt, & Vecchi, 2011). Risk factors for
dating violence are defined as “attributes or characteristics that are associated with an
increased probability of ADV reception and/or expression” (O’Keefe, 2005, p. 3).
Demographic characteristics, prior experiences/exposure to violence, peer influence, and
interpersonal variables are some risk factors commonly associated with teens that become
victims of violence in romantic relationships. Equally important is an understanding, and
the ability to recognize warning signs, of adolescent dating violence. Physical signs of
3
injury, truancy at school, decline in grades, indecision, changes in mood/personality, use
of drugs/alcohol, emotional outburst, and isolation are signs of behaviors that adults and
peers should look for if they suspect someone they know is in an violent and abusive
relationship (Booth, Van Hasselt, & Vecchi, 2011). Understanding the risk factors and
early warning signs of a partner that may eventually become abusive is important so that
teens can identify and prevent involvement in a relationship that could lead to violence.
The importance of teaching our youth to identify such behaviors associated with teen
dating violence can help to prevent and intervene upon potential and existing abusive
relationships (Booth, Van Hasselt, & Vecchi, 2011).
Ideally, if adolescents are knowledgeable of what comprises healthy and
unhealthy relationships, they will be more likely to seek those that are healthy. In
addition to being less likely to seek or find themselves in unhealthy relationships,
awareness of adolescent dating violence amongst adolescents will help them to recognize
when their peers are in abusive relationships and help encourage them to get help (Love
is Respect, 2012).
Purpose of the Project
California Education Code section 200-201 (n.d.) states that schools have a duty
to protect students from harassment, discrimination, hate crimes, abuse, etc. This
encompasses ADV. School psychologists should strive to ensure they are providing
effective services to youth, including those impacted by dating violence. However,
preventing ADV requires a collaborative effort between federal agencies, state and local
health departments, nonprofit organizations, and schools. Many schools lack the
4
appropriate standardized or cohesive set of materials available to assist staff to address
these issues for the school population (Khubchandani, Telljohann, Price, Dake, &
Hendershot, 2013). This project will address these issues by developing materials for
school personnel.
Description of the Project
Information in this project has been developed into a handbook and two separate
curricula (middle school and high school curriculum) for school psychologists, school
administrators, staff, and parents. The handbook provides education on definitions,
warning signs, risk factors, characteristics of healthy relationships, and resources. A
middle school curriculum offers a five one-hour sessions in a school-wide preventative
approach to combating ADV before it begins. The high school curriculum provides an
opportunity for students affected by ADV to seek support and allow themselves to be
heard, while fostering positive and healthy relationships. This intervention curriculum is
composed of eight, forty-five-minute sessions in a small group setting.
Definition of Terms
Abuse via technology: Any type of harassment, including teasing, telling lies, bullying,
monitoring or controlling partner, making rude or mean comments, spreading rumors, or
making threatening or aggressive comments, that occurs through e-mail, a chat room,
instant messaging, a website, or text messaging (David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007).
Adolescence: Generally ages eleven to twenty-one (Healthychildren.org).
5
Bystander Intervention: The concept that a person who witnesses dating violence can
intervene and help to stop the abuse from continuing (Branch, Richards, & Dretsch,
2013).
Cyber abuse: Abuse that is conducted through the Internet. The abuser uses social media
networks to perpetrate abuse. This type of abuse often co-occurs with emotional abuse,
sexual coercion, and physical abuse (Zweig et al., 2013).
Dating Violence: A type of intimate partner violence that occurs between two people in a
close relationship. The nature of dating violence can be physical, emotional, or sexual
(CDC, 2012).
Emotional dating violence: A type of abuse in which one partner threatens the other or
harms his/her self-worth such as name calling, bullying, embarrassing on purpose, and/or
keeping him/her away from family and friends (CDC, 2012).
Financial abuse: Consists of one partner using money or accessing monetary accounts to
exert power and control over their partner (CDC, 2012).
Healthy relationship: Consists of mutual respect, honesty, emotional support, respected
boundaries, communication, encouragement, and safety (Love is Respect, 2012).
Intervention of Adolescent Dating Violence: The act of targeting adolescent dating
violence and stopping its occurrence by teaching adolescents relationship skills and
empowering them to make healthy decisions about relationships and sexual behavior
(Wolfe, Jaffe, Crooks, & Hughes, 2008).
Physical Dating Violence: Includes pinching, shoving, hitting, kicking, and strangling
(CDC, 2012).
6
Prevention: The act or practice of stopping something from happening (Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, 2014).
Risk factors for dating violence: “Attributes or characteristics that are associated with an
increased probability of ADV reception and/or expression” (O’Keefe, 2005, p. 3).
Sexual dating violence: Occurs when one partner forces the other partner to engage in a
sexual act without his or her consent (CDC, 2012).
Stalking: A type of dating violence that refers to repeated harassing and/or threatening
methods used by a perpetrator that is unwanted and causes the victim to fear the
perpetrator (CDC, 2012).
Warning signs: Various behaviors that adults and peers should look for if they suspect
someone they know is in an abusive relationship (Alabama Coalition Against Domestic
Violence, 2012).
Limitations
This project was designed to provide teachers, administrators, school
psychologists, and students with the tools necessary to educate themselves on the
pervasiveness of ADV, how to prevent ADV in schools, and how to address the problem
once students have been affected. While this project focuses on best practices for dealing
ADV determined by extensive research, the authors recognize that they did not have the
opportunity to implement these curricula to conclude their efficacy. The authors intend
to use future school sites to implement the curricula in both settings in conjunction with
the handbook. Future data collection will be conducted and additional research is
warranted to determine if the components of this project are effective measures.
7
Statement of Collaboration
This project was developed collaboratively by Marisa Acosta, Brynn Balcom, and
Caitlin Conheim, all graduate students in the School Psychology Ed.S. program at
California State University, Sacramento. Each co-author had equal responsibility in the
research, development, and production of this project. All sections of this project were
divided amongst the three individuals to create a comprehensive project. All duties
performed in the development of the project were equally divided.
8
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Throughout this review of literature, adolescent dating violence (ADV) will be
discussed. The initial topics being addressed with include the definition of ADV
(different forms) and the definition of a healthy relationship. The authors will review the
risk factors and warning signs for both victims and perpetrators of ADV, and explore the
differences in how diverse populations experience ADV. Also addressed will be the
consequences of ADV, and the impact social media has had on the prevalence of ADV.
The authors will examine the importance of ADV prevention, intervention, and
postvention, and best practices relating to all three will be considers. Lastly, resources
for more information on ADV, evidence-based interventions for ADV, and immediate
help for those currently experiencing ADV will be shared.
Definition of Adolescent Dating Violence
The CDC (2012) defines dating violence as “A type of intimate partner violence
that occurs between two people in a close relationship. The nature of dating violence can
be physical, emotional, or sexual” (p. 1). Physical dating violence is rarely an isolated
incident, but rather a part of a pattern within an abusive relationship. The violence or
threat of violence happens time and time again (Levy & Giggans, 1995). Physical dating
violence includes pinching, shoving, hitting, kicking, and strangling. Emotional dating
violence is a type of abuse in which one partner threatens the other or harms his/her selfworth. Examples of this include but are not limited to, name calling, bullying,
9
embarrassing on purpose, and/or keeping him/her away from family and friends (CDC,
2012).
Sexual dating violence occurs when one partner forces the other partner to engage
in a sexual act without his or her consent (CDC, 2012). Stalking is a type of dating
violence that refers to repeated harassing and/or threatening methods used by a
perpetrator that is unwanted and causes the victim to fear the perpetrator (CDC, 2012).
Financial abuse consists of one partner using money or accessing monetary accounts to
exert power and control over their partner. ADV happens often in face to face, but can
also occur electronically (Zweig, Dank, Yahner, & Lachman, 2013).
There are many forms of technological dating abuse. Controlling partners may
keep constant track of their victim by texting, tweeting, Facebook, tracking via cell phone
GPS, and using smart phone cameras. Furthermore, the use of cell phone cameras
contributes to adolescents’ vulnerability when it comes to tracking, sexual coercion,
blackmail, and retaliation. Verbal, emotional, and sexual abuse can all be perpetrated
through technology (Levy & Giggans, 2013).
A study by Zweig, Dank, Yahner, and Lachman (2013) examined the extent of
cyber teen dating abuse via technology, and how it relates to other forms of teen dating
abuse. They surveyed 3,745 youth from the North-Eastern U.S. who were either
currently in a relationship or had been in one within the last year. Findings indicated that
over a quarter of the youth in a current or recent relationship had experienced a form of
cyber dating violence in the last year, with females reporting to be the victim of the abuse
significantly more than males. One out of ten adolescents reported to be the perpetrator
10
of cyber dating abuse. Females reported higher levels of non-sexual cyber dating abuse
perpetration than males and conversely, males reported more perpetration of sexual cyber
dating abuse. These findings support the concept that technology is an area of concern
when it comes to ADV, and implications for further prevention of technological ADV
should be addressed.
It is crucial to educate students regarding what constitutes ADV. However, it is
equally important to help them learn and understand the elements of a healthy
relationship so they can strive to foster healthy relationships for themselves (Sanderson &
Cantor, 1995). A healthy relationship consists of commitment, satisfaction,
communication, conflict resolution, lack of domestic violence, fidelity, interaction/time
spent together, and emotional support (Moore et al., 2004). Ideally, if adolescents are
knowledgeable of what comprises healthy and unhealthy relationships, they will be more
likely to seek those that are healthy (Santabarbara, Erbe, & Cooper, 2009).
Adults can also help adolescents to gain knowledge and awareness of healthy
relationships. Adults connected to adolescents should be aware of their social skills and
relationships, including romantic relationships. When an adolescent does become
involved in a relationship, the adults closest to the child should be attentive and check in
with that person. In essence, monitoring adolescents as they navigate through
relationships should help to decrease the amount of ADV that occurs.
Prevalence
Romantic relationships are a fundamental component of a person’s individual
development (Clarke-Stewart & Dunn, 2006). While positive and supportive
11
relationships may help a person to feel healthier, happier, and more satisfied with their
lives, negative and abusive relationships may have powerful effects on a person’s selfconcept, self-esteem, and coping abilities (Umberson, Williams, Powers, Liu, &
Needham, 2006). Unfortunately, the reality is domestic abuse and intimate partner
violence are common problems in adult relationships (Foshee et al., 2009).
While dating violence in adult relationships is recognized as a serious problem in
the United States, people are not as quick to recognize that this problem also affects
adolescents. According to the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, between 8.9 percent
and 24.2 percent of adolescents, depending on the city in which they lived throughout the
U.S, reported to have experienced some form of dating violence within the 12 months
prior to collecting the survey (Eaton et al, 2011). For data specific of the cities in
California that participated in this survey, please refer to Table 1. For data throughout
the U.S. that is specific to high school grade levels, please refer to Table 2.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2012) has shared that,
“Among adult victims of rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner,
22.4 percent of women and 15.0 percent of men first experienced some form of partner
violence between 11 and 17 years of age” (p. 1). Current research indicates that
adolescent dating violence (ADV) is becoming a pervasive public health problem in the
United States as dating violence affects approximately 30 percent of teens and is
associated with many damaging physical and mental health consequences (Martsolf,
Draucker, & Brandau, 2013). To prevent, intervene, and provide post-treatment to those
who experience ADV, it is important to be clear as to what truly constitutes ADV. Not
12
only do adults need to be educated about ADV, but adolescents themselves must also
understand the psychological and behavioral aspects that comprise ADV. Dating
relationships are important in adolescent development (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992).
The romantic relationships that are experienced as a teenager are novel and if they are
abusive, can negatively impact a teenager’s identity development, self-concept, growth of
secure attachment to others, and facilitation of learning how to select a healthy partner
(Collins, 2003). Unfortunately, current research indicates that there are many adolescents
experiencing such abuse while involved in romantic relationships. According to Foshee
et al. (2009),
Between 9 % and 12% of adolescents reported being physically abused and 29%
reported being psychologically abused by dates in the previous year. In addition,
between 4% and 14% reported using forms of violence against dating partners
that are likely to result in serious injury, such as hitting a partner with an object,
beating up a partner, and using a knife or gun against a partner. From 1% to 13%
of adolescents have been forced by a date to have sex, and from 15% to 77% of
girls have been forced into other types of sexual activity by a date. (p. 380)
13
Table 1
Percentage of high school students who experienced dating violence-selected cities - United
States, Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 2011
Female
Male
Total
California
Cities
%
Los Angeles
11.0
(8.9-13.7)
10.9
(7.7-15.2)
11.1
(9.0-13.8)
San
Bernardino
9.3
(7.3-11.9)
9.3
(7.2-11.7)
9.3
(7.8-11.1)
San Diego
11.2
(8.8-14.2)
11.9
(9.7-14.6)
11.6
(9.8-13.6)
6.4
(4.8-8.4)
8.1
(6.4-10.3)
7.6
(6.3-9.0)
San Francisco
95% CI
%
95% CI
%
95% CI
Note. CI = confidence interval.
Table 2
Percentage of high school students who experienced dating violence by grade - United
States, Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 2011
Female
Male
Total
Grade
%
95% CI
%
95% CI
%
95% CI
9
7.6
(6.3-9.2)
7.4
(5.8-9.2)
7.5
(6.4-8.8)
10
9.8
(8.0-12.0)
9.5
(8.0-11.1)
9.6
(8.4-11.0)
11
9.3
(7.7-11.1)
11.2
(9.2-13.7)
10.3
(8.7-12.1)
12
10.7
(8.7-13.0)
10.0
(8.2-12.0)
10.3
(8.9-11.9)
Note. CI = confidence interval.
14
Risk Factors
To be attentive and able to monitor adolescents that are in unhealthy relationships,
one must know the factors that increase the risk of adolescents becoming involved in a
violent and abusive relationship. Risk factors for dating violence are defined as
“attributes or characteristics that are associated with an increased probability of ADV
reception and/or expression” (O’Keefe, 2005, p. 3). An important distinction to make is
that risk factors are not thought to be causal factors of ADV, but rather correlates of
ADV. Therefore, these risk factor variables may have implications for the primary
prevention of ADV, as well as treatment (O’Keefe, 2005).
Risk factors found to be associated with teens that become victims of dating
violence include demographic characteristics, prior experiences/exposure to violence,
peer influence, and interpersonal variables. O’Keefe’s (2005) research suggests that
victims who live in urban areas are at higher risk than those who live in rural areas, and
adolescent females with low self-esteem are at higher risk to experience ADV than peers
with a positive self-view. Additionally, O’Keefe’s research suggests that females
exposed to parental and/or community violence are at higher risk of becoming victims of
ADV and females that have friends who have been victimized by ADV are at high risk to
be victims themselves.
Results from a study conducted by Arriaga and Foshee (2004), examined which
antecedent, friend dating violence or interparental violence, if either, is more strongly
predictive of own dating violence perpetration and victimization. In the study, 526
adolescents (eighth and ninth graders) completed self-report questionnaires on two
15
occasions over a six-month period. Researchers found that the effect of friend dating
violence was more significant than the effect of interparental violence. Longitudinal data
predicted that neither friend dating violence nor interparental violence were related to
victimization of boys, but friend-dating violence was related to victimization experiences
of girls. Thus, overall, friends seem to be more influential than parents in shaping
standards of acceptable dating behaviors during adolescence.
Maas, Fleming, Herrenkohl, and Catalano (2010) investigated childhood
predictors of ADV victimization. Results indicated that both viewing domestic violence
between parents and personal experience of child abuse are correlated with a higher risk
of ADV victimization for females, whereas only child abuse was a risk factor for ADV
victimization in males. They also found that two more risk factors for ADV
victimization in both females and males were lack of social skills and alcohol use. In
addition to understanding the risk factors found in victims of ADV, it is equally
important for adults and adolescents to understand the risk factors associated with
perpetrators of the abuse. Foshee et al. (2009) conducted a study to determine the shape
of trajectories and risk factors from ages 13- to 19-years of four types of dating abuse
perpetration (moderate physical, severe physical, psychological, and sexual). The study
examined whether the demographic characteristics of sex, minority status, socioeconomic
status, and family structure methodically explained the differences in the trajectories and
levels of risk factors for dating violence perpetrators. Results indicated that at all ages,
males reported to be perpetrators of severe physical and sexual dating violence more than
females, supporting the fact that males are at higher risk for instigating dating violence
16
than females. Minority populations including African American, Asian, American
Indian, and mixed race adolescents reported to be perpetrators of moderate and severe
physical dating abuse more often than Caucasians; therefore, results from this study
indicate that ethnic minorities are at a greater risk of inflicting abuse upon their partner.
This study also found that adolescents brought up in a single parent households reported
more perpetration of psychological and severe physical dating abuse than those in a two
parent household. Lastly, researchers found that teens who had parents with lower
education levels (i.e., did not complete high school) were at higher risk of perpetrating
psychological and moderate physical ADV than those who had parents with higher
education levels (i.e., completion of high school and/ or college).
A risk factor associated with adolescent dating abuse perpetration for females is
the past experience of having been a victim of dating abuse. O’Keefe (1997) found that
among all the different predictors of dating violence that included attitudes towards
dating violence, dating violence conflict, alcohol or drug use, and childhood experiences
with violence, the strongest predictor of perpetrating dating violence for adolescent
females was having been the victim of past dating violence. Additionally, Capaldi and
Crosby (1997) found that among 18 year old females with past experiences of abuse,
those who reported struggling with symptoms of depression and low self-esteem were
more likely to be perpetrators of dating violence than those who did not experience that
symptomology.
17
Warning Signs
Awareness of what makes a student at higher risk for ADV is one factor that is
needed to target teens for prevention and intervention. Also important is the
understanding of, and ability to recognize, warning signs of adolescent dating abuse
(Hazelden, 2012). Warning signs adults and peers should look for if they suspect
someone they know is in an abusive relationship include physical signs of injury, truancy
at school, a decline in grades, indecision, changes in mood and/or personality, disordered
eating, use of drugs/alcohol, emotional outburst, and isolation. When a teen is noticed to
be exhibiting one or more of these indicators, they should be monitored and possibly
further evaluated for their involvement in an abusive relationship (Eaton at el, 2007;
Paludi, 2011). Additionally, when looking for warning signs of victim abuse, it is
important to acknowledge that the male and female genders are likely to experience
different types of abuse. For example, when examining specific abusive behaviors,
Schwartz, Magee, Griffin, and Dupuis (2004) found that females were more often
engaged in abusive behaviors such as pushing, biting, or slapping, whereas males were
more likely to behave in ways that were more seriously harmful such as punching or
using a weapon. Moreover, females were more likely to sustain physical injuries (e.g.,
bruises, black eyes etc.), which may necessitate medical attention. This information
suggests that when trying to identify an abuse victim, it may be more difficult to
recognize when a male is victimized due to the lack of physical evidence. For this
reason, it is essential that educators, parents, community members, and peers are equality
aware of the more internal, covert warning signs a dating violence victim may exhibit.
18
When educating teenagers about ADV, it is also important to teach the early
warning signs of an abuser. Early warning signs that a partner may ultimately become
violent include alcohol and drug use, explosive anger, tendency to isolate partner and
themselves from their family and friends, emotionally distress abusive behavior to past
partners, and the proclivity to become sexually active during or prior to 8th grade (Vagi et
al., 2013). Understanding the early warning signs of a partner that may eventually
become abusive is important so that teens can identify and prevent involvement in a
relationship that could lead to violence.
Branch, Richards, and Dretsch (2013) investigated the significance of “bystander
intervention” of ADV. Bystander intervention asserts that by providing education for all
students regarding the prevalence and warning signs of dating violence, these individuals
will “say something” when they see problem behavior. In this study, 275 undergraduate
students were asked 3 questions:
1. “If a friend tells me they are being abused by a partner…”
2. “If I witnessed a friend being abused by a partner I would…”
3. “If I witnessed a friend being abusive toward a partner I would…” (p. 3392)
For question one, results indicated that an overwhelming 98 percent of students
responded that they would encourage their friend to get help and 92 percent of these
respondents would encourage their friend to leave the relationship. Only 4 percent of
students said that they would tell their friend all they can do as a friend is listen. In
answering questions two and three, respondents overwhelmingly reported that they would
attempt to intervene in the dating violence victimization (87 percent) and perpetration (84
19
percent). This data indicates that bystanders, if provided with the knowledge of the abuse
and the opportunity to support/intervene, will do so. Therefore, the importance of
teaching our youth to identify and understand warning signs associated with ADV can
help to prevent and intervene upon potential and existing abusive relationships.
Impact of Social Media
As discussed earlier, dating violence can take many forms: physical, verbal,
sexual, psychological, and emotional. In many cases, interpersonal violence occurs faceto-face; however, technology can be used as a vehicle to perpetrate verbal, sexual, and
emotional abuse. With the rapid technological advances and tools available, teens have
widespread accessibility and methods for initiating and maintaining communication.
Electronic technologies include cell phones, voicemail, text messaging, instant
messaging, social networking sites, blogs, e-mail, webcams, and websites. This
progressive new form of abuse, often referred to as electronic aggression, is a rising
public health concern. Electronic aggression is defined as “any type of harassment,
including teasing, telling lies, bullying, monitoring or controlling partner, making rude or
mean comments, spreading rumors, or making threatening or aggressive comments, that
occurs through e-mail, a chat room, instant messaging, a website, or text messaging”
(David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007, p. 3). In some instances, youth may feel that constant
meddling and consistent contact is a sign that the dating partner truly cares and loves,
while on the other hand, intrusive contact can cause a partner to feel harassed or
threatened. Thus, it is imperative to understand the impact social media has on romantic
20
relationships and to continue to educate our youth on the elements that comprise a
healthy relationship.
A study by Zweig, Dank, Yahner, and Lachman (2013) examined abuse via
technology in youth relationships and how it relates to other forms of ADV. They
surveyed a total of 5,647 youth from 10 schools in 3 northeastern states. Out of the 5,647
participants, 3,745 reported currently being in a dating relationship or having been in one
within the past year. Findings indicated that over a quarter reported experiencing some
form of dating victimization via technology. Additionally, 1 out of 10 youth reported that
they had perpetrated cyber-dating abuse. Zweig et al. also investigated the extent of
electronic aggression amongst teens in romantic relationships. Results indicated that the
most frequently reported form of cyber abuse was one partner’s use of the other partner’s
social networking account without permission. The next most frequently reported forms
of abuse were harassment through texts/emails, and pressuring their partners to send
sexual photos of themselves. The study also confirmed that cyber abuse often co-occurs
with other forms of abuse (emotional, sexual coercion, and physical abuse). They
encouraged schools to raise awareness about the harmfulness of perpetuating such acts
and educate victims about the importance of reporting incidents. Due to the vast impact
of social media, utilizing technology may be an opportunity for positive gains,
specifically in regards to prevention and intervention efforts.
A study by Alvarez (2012) examined electronic aggression, focusing on the
frequency, types, and effects of cyber bullying between intimate partners. In teen dating
relationships, as mentioned before, cell phones were found to be the major tool used to
21
initiate a relationship with a dating partner. Blogging, tweeting, posting on social
network sites, and “IM”-ing (instant messaging) were also found to be used to form new
relationships. These electronic forms of communication can be used as devices to gain
power and control for both the target and the perpetrator. Additionally, through
technology, individuals are able to harass, stalk, and threaten their partner. Alvarez
identified four specific methods of electronic victimization: (a) direct hostility, (b)
intrusiveness, (c) public humiliation, and (d) exclusion. This further stresses the need to
support and encourage open communication and awareness in teen dating relationships.
Due to technological advances and the impact of social media, perpetration of
psychological ADV is prevalent and is an extension of face-to-face violence.
Korchmaros, Ybarra, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Boyd, and Lenhart (2013) examined how
perpetration of psychological teen dating violence via technology relates to face-to-face
violence. Data from this study was collected from adolescents aged 14 to 19 over the
course of four months. Results indicated that 46 percent of teen daters had perpetrated
ADV in the past 12 months. Of those who perpetrated, 58 percent only partook in faceto-face abuse, while 17 percent used electronic aggression, and 24 percent used both.
The communication mode and type of psychological ADV behavior were separately
related to the frequency of perpetration. Additionally, results also revealed that the
frequency of cyber violence was often higher than face-to-face abuse. This study
concluded that prevention should focus on putting a stop to the perpetuation of face-toface ADV, as doing so would also prevent cyber violence as well. Evidenced through
research, the rise of social media has an impact on dating relationships, especially for
22
adolescents. Abuse via technology and media is a relatively new and advanced way that
adolescents can victimize dating partners; however, if used properly, technology and
social networking sites can aid the facilitation of ADV education, prevention, and
intervention (David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007, p. 13).
Consequences of ADV
There are a number of negative outcomes and consequences associated with ADV
which can impact a victim’s overall health and ability to live a functionally (Branch,
Richards, & Dretsch, 2013). A study conducted by Jouriles, Garrido, Rosenfield, and
McDonald (2009) found that psychological and physical relationship aggression were
correlated with symptoms of psychological distress. Findings also suggested that such
experiences of psychological and physical distress might be positively linked with mental
health challenges. Carlson (2003) identified that victims of abuse commonly suffer
through insults, humiliation, and intimidation, which can lead to relatively lower selfesteem and feelings of self-worth. Branch, Richards, and Dretsch (2013) assert
experiencing ADV can lead to Posttraumatic Stress Syndrome, sleep disorders,
depression, self-harming behaviors, and suicidal ideation. They also report that in
addition to psychological distress, consequences of ADV can also include physical health
effects such as chronic illness, headaches, and disordered eating.
Addressing Diversity
Diverse student populations appear to be at a higher risk for ADV. Lesbian, gay,
bi-sexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ) individuals/couples experience dating
violence at higher rates than heterosexual couples, according to Dank, Lachman, Zweig,
23
and Yahner (2013). In their study of 3,745 adolescents in relationships, LGBTQ youth (n
= 229) reported 42.8 percent have been victimized by physical dating violence, 59.2
percent by psychological abuse, 37.2 percent by cyber dating abuse, and 23.2 percent by
sexual coercion. These percentages were compared to the heterosexual youths in
relationships (n = 3,475) who experienced 29.0 percent by physical abuse, 46.4 percent
by psychological abuse, 25.7 percent by cyber abuse, and 12.3 percent by sexual
coercion. Adolescents who identify with the LGBTQ community are at an increased risk
of being in an abusive relationship. In a study by Elza (2002), 44 percent of the bisexual
female participants more often reported abuse than lesbian participants (25 percent);
however, of the female participants who only dated women, 28 percent reported abuse in
their dating relationships, as well. This suggests that dating violence can occur in
relationships of all forms. It has been suggested that the fear and anger from oppression
and discrimination can be redirected towards a partner and manifest into abuse
(LiveStrong, 2012); nevertheless, despite the odds and barriers that bisexual and lesbians
may face in relationships, they still actively date (Elze 2002). LGBTQ adolescents may
be less likely to seek help due to their fear of further discrimination or being exposed as a
LGBTQ adolescent.
Additionally, other minority groups also experience intimate partner violence.
The CDC (2012) found African-American and Hispanic students reported a high rate of
physical violence in their relationships. Foshee et al. (2008) found that ADV was more
prevalent among African-American youth than among other races/ethnicities, although it
is unclear whether the greater prevalence correlates with lower socioeconomic status,
24
residence in a disadvantaged neighborhood, or other factors (Foshee et al., 2009).
Further, disadvantaged communities that lack collective monitoring of adolescents,
wherein teens are left unattended, tend to see a greater likelihood of aggression and
socially impaired youth behaviors (Browning, Leventhal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2005).
However, a study by Love and Richards (2013) found contradictory data suggesting that
because of the way dating violence is perceived for African-American youths, the
reported rates of abuse may be lower. The researchers discovered that many AfricanAmerican teenagers did not consider emotional and sexual abuse to be forms of dating
violence, and only viewed physical abuse to constitute dating violence. Furthermore,
much of the violence was perceived as signs of love or “playin,” rather than being
problematic, actual abuse. Only in cases of serious physical violence was the line crossed
from “playin” to ADV. Love and Richards also found that when these adolescents
experienced dating violence in their relationships, females, as opposed to males, might
disclose such violence to other close females in their lives. This evidence suggests it is
possible more dating violence occurs among African-American youth than previously
suspected.
In 2009, 13.5 percent of Latino youth between the ages of 11 and 13 in the
Washington, DC area identified themselves as being victims of dating violence (Yan,
Howard, Beck, Shattuck, & Hallmark-Kerr, 2010). A study conducted by O’Keefe
(1997), found that Latinos were significantly more likely to be violent in relationships
than Whites. According to Children’s Safety Network article, “Percentage of High
School Students Who Reported Being Hit, Slapped, or Physically Hurt on Purpose by
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Their Boyfriend or Girlfriend During the 12 Months Before the Survey by Race, 20012009,” African-American, American Indian/Native Alaskan, and mixed race teens had
the highest percentage of reported abuse from a partner in 2009. Additionally, in a rural
North Carolina county, Foshee et al. (2008) found that adolescents from minority groups,
single-parent households, and homes in which parents had lower levels of education
reported more physical ADV that was either moderate or severe.
Not only does abuse occur among high school students. It has been found to
occur among middle school youth found as well. Middle school students experience
ADV at similar rates as high school students (Lormand et al., 2013). There also appears
to be risky dating situations in conjunction with substance abuse. Moreover, some
middle school youth who have experienced ADV may be at a higher risk for other
adverse health behaviors. In a longitudinal study, Howard, Debnam, and Wang (2013)
found that 1 in 10 girls reported to have experienced physical dating violence (PDV)
annually, over the course of 10 years. Additionally, they found that girls of Hispanic and
white ethnicities were less likely to report than girls of other ethnicities. This suggests
that awareness of how students perceive dating violence and education for adolescents
regarding healthy relationships may give girls more confidence to report violent acts
against them. Since it appears that diverse populations are at a higher risk of being in
abusive relationships, it is imperative that schools tailor prevention and intervention
methods to meet the needs of diverse student subgroups (Noonan & Charles, 2009).
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Prevention
Paul Schewe (2004), in his book Preventing Violence in Relationships:
Intervention Across the Life Span, provided sage advice when speaking about violence
prevention. He wrote, “Until educators, policymakers, and researchers come to realize
that strong, healthy relationships between individuals are the key to preventing violence,
little progress will be made in the effort to promote peaceful coexistence” (p. 3).
According to Schewe, prevention truly is the key in reducing all types of violence,
including ADV. Prevention efforts previously had focused on high school students and
left out middle school youth and abuse via technology. However, as researchers began to
understand the seriousness of ADV in this day and age, the research began to grow and
evolve. Currently, the most effective prevention research is that which is universal and
school-based (World Health Organization, 2010). Due to the recent knowledge that
middle school students experience ADV at roughly the same rates as high school
students, the school-based prevention efforts also need be focused in the formative years
as to intervene when students are aware of the issues related to ADV, but are not yet
involved in sexual relationships. Education should be geared not only towards teens in
relationships, but all youths to maintain the significance of peers supporting and
encouraging nonviolent relationships (Wilson, 2006). Many teens might not recognize
the negative outcomes in risky dating situations, but instead may view a risk as
problematic and adaptive simultaneously. In a study by Helms, Sullivan, Corona, and
Taylor (2013), six themes of negative and positive outcomes related to problematic
dating situations were identified. The positive themes included were potential for
27
relationships and connection; fun, tangible benefits, and things to do; warning signs and
ending unhealthy dating relationships; mastering interpersonal skills; love, intimacy, and
strengthening relationships; and getting attention or improving image. Negative themes
included were violence, victimization, and risk for harm; feeling controlled, pressured or
hurt; rule-breaking and consequences; conflicts and breakups; cheating, jealousy, and
trust; and damaging image or getting a bad reputation. The authors found that both
previously held beliefs and peers played significant roles in the perceptions of possible
dating situations. In this sample of teens, peers tended to promote aggression and
although research stresses the importance of boundaries in relationships, a blurred line
still lies between “play” and “real” aggression. The study emphasizes how preventative
education would highlight and address some of the vague beliefs held by adolescents.
Additionally, there appears to be merit in developing focus groups to understand
what views adolescents have about relationships, violence, relationship norms,
relationship roles, and who to trust. The focus groups should ask questions regarding
other risky behaviors, which stem from abuse. Noonan and Charles (2009) gathered data
from focus groups, finding specific themes concerning beliefs and perceptions of middle
school youth. What they found was promising. The majority of the focus group
participants did not promote violence in relationships. The participants did express
beliefs regarding specific gender roles in relationships and that adhering to the roles
would assist in maintaining a healthy relationship. Conversely, participants also
expressed their beliefs about intervening as a bystander; they were not willing to
intervene, especially if the violent couple was not friends of the bystander.
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A longitudinal study examined youths’ beliefs and whether those beliefs predicted
perpetration (Mueller, Jouriles, McDonald, & Rosenfield, 2013). The researchers
enlisted adolescents from truancy courts, juvenile probation, and victim services and
found that at baseline, ADV perpetration predicted acceptance of violence. However,
baseline beliefs were not predictors of ADV at follow up. This suggests that there may
not be more dating violence within the population that is accepting of ADV, but those
who perpetrate tend to see violence as more acceptable. This research supports the
importance of understanding adolescent’s beliefs and perceptions of ADV. Prevention
programs should bring these beliefs and perceptions to light to help adolescents form an
accurate understanding of what constitutes a healthy relationship in addition to how they
can respond if they experience or witness perpetration.
O’Keefe (2005), in an attempt to find the best program, examined the
effectiveness of the prevention programs that were available. At the time, she found that
the majority of the programs were school-based and provided in a group format. She
found that many of the programs were promising, especially when they incorporated
knowledge about ADV, how to improve communication skills, and the idea of changing
norms. Many of the programs focused on the idea of what ADV can look like, what
healthy relationships should look like, and they encouraged students to report violence,
abuse, bullying, and harassment. O’Keefe also noted that these prevention programs
served teens best when they were incorporated into systems like school, juvenile justice
programs, and recreational programs etc. The potential benefits for everyone were vast
29
when adolescent environments incorporated and promoted healthy, safe, and violencefree ideals.
As part of the journal on Violence Against Women, Mulford and BlachmanDemner (2013) analyzed the National Institute of Justice’s (NIJ) recent collection of
ADV research. The NIJ has currently funded the only middle school youth dating
violence prevention program, known as the Shifting Boundaries Program. The program
included classroom-based, as well as school-based curricula, targeting topics of state
laws, healthy relationships, raising awareness, and consequences for perpetrators. The
effectiveness of these curricula were such that students who received either school-wide
or school and classroom-wide interventions had reduced levels of dating violence and
sexual harassment compared to the control group. They also found that the classroombased intervention was not effective by itself, but that the school-based curriculum
assisted students in intending to intervene between peers if they witnessed abusive
behavior. These research findings, along with previous NIJ studies, create a stable
foundation for future intervention projects.
One such project that is popular and effective is called, “Safe Dates.” Safe Dates
is an evidence-based curriculum that has demonstrated effectiveness in helping teens
understand healthy versus unhealthy relationships and preventing ADV, which can also
lead to problems with substance use (Hazelden, 2012). To further evidence effectiveness
of Safe Dates, Foshee et al. (1998) evaluated the program. Foshee et al. examined the
program using 14 different schools, of which participants were 80 percent eighth and
ninth graders in a rural county. All groups were compared at baseline. Follow-up
30
indicated that treatment groups reported less psychological and sexual abuse, and
violence perpetration. Overall, the program was effective in altering gender stereotyping,
awareness of services, and dating violence norms.
Though some full curricula and programs may be difficult to find for educators,
there are several easily accessible and informative websites that offer information/facts
about ADV, answer frequently asked questions, and provide some training (Utah
Department of Health, 2007; Veto Violence, 2012). These accessible sites supply various
professional educators with curricula to provide education and prevention knowledge to
students in their schools. Additionally, Veto Violence offers continuing education credits
and a reliable training course for educators through Continuing Education and the CDC’s
training site. The CDC also has training booklets with various screeners and ADV
assessment instruments. The screening tools provide various questionnaires for health
professionals, and offer some screeners in Spanish, as well (CDC, 2007). Additionally,
the CDC has developed the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), which
monitors “health-risk behaviors that contribute to the leading cause of death and
disability among youth and adults” (CDC, 2012, p. 1). Among these risk behaviors are
substance use and sexual behaviors that lead to sexually transmitted diseases and
unintended pregnancies. These screeners can also assist educators in looking for warning
signs and behaviors that may suggest ADV. Though there is more that needs to be
developed, there are currently preventative programs that incorporate the important issues
facing middle school and high school students.
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Intervention
Dating violence is not only a North American phenomenon. Leen et al. (2013)
suggest that the rates of ADV are equivalent across North America and Europe.
However, these researchers did identify nine different U.S. based intervention programs.
In these programs, researchers identified perpetration risk factors, which they found to be
comparable across findings and to be the basis for each of the prevention programs.
These risk factors included substance use, peer influences, attitudes towards violence, and
psychological adjustment. Though the efficacy of the intervention programs is mixed,
the researchers suggested that programs would likely obtain viable effects when focused
on changing the behavior of students. Findings suggest that groups and focus groups
would also assist students experiencing ADV, such as the Expect Respect groups in
middle and high school (Safe Place, 2012). This small group intervention can be led by
psychologists or counselors for 24-weeks and incorporates activities for students who are
victims of violence, pregnant, using substances, those who bully, and/or hold beliefs that
bullying and threats are acceptable. Groups such as these lend some hope to students in
risky dating situations. Furthermore, there are sites in which students can do their own
research on the subject. The School Health Centers (2012) website contains ADV
resources, which include a “Student Health Services Dating Abuse Screening and
Response Protocol” currently used by the Austin, Texas School District. The website
includes education and resources on wallet-sized cards for teens, and resources for
students and educators. The Fourth R: Relationship Based Violence Prevention is
another online source for curricula, school-based projects, strategies for youth, resources
32
for parents, and community partners (Wolfe, Jaffe, Crooks, & Hughes, 2008). The goal
of Fourth R is to help reduce the instances of risk behaviors and violence by educating
teachers, parents, community members, and youths on the concept of a healthy
relationship, how they can build those relationships, and reduce the risk behaviors.
Wolfe et at. (2009) used the intervention “Fourth R: Skills for Youth Relationships” in an
experiment to determine if the 21-lesson curriculum reduces physical dating violence
(PDV) in target schools versus control schools that taught the same information without
training or materials. They introduced the curriculum in ninth grade health classes and
followed up after two and a half years. Wolfe et al. found two main outcomes of the
curriculum integration, which suggested that control schools experienced more
incidences of PDV than intervention schools, as well as increased condom use after the
two and a half years for the intervention group.
Postvention
When school professionals become aware that dating violence occurs in their
schools, they can incorporate policies and intervention programs that can be implemented
to support students that are in tumultuous relationships. The California Women’s Law
Center (2007) has developed a policy for professionals to implement in their schools as a
response to ADV, called “Just Date Now.” This program’s purpose is to educate school
professionals on their duties to protect their students, which includes protecting them
against ADV. California law states that schools must provide safe schools, fight sexual
harassment, respond to hate violence, foster discrimination-free campuses, protect
students, report suspected child abuse, and discipline perpetrators. By abiding these laws
33
and being cognizant of dating violence at their schools, professionals will be better
equipped to intervene when perpetration occurs.
Additionally, the Crime and Violence Prevention Center (CVPC, 2008) developed
“A Guide to Addressing Teen Dating and Sexual Violence in a School Setting.” As the
California law requires schools to respond to sexual harassment and ADV, the CVPC
provides a guide to the policies and protocols for schools to respond in meaningful ways.
They recommend including the community members for support and ensuring that the
school professionals are aware of and implement the protocols in place. Furthermore, the
CVPC guide includes a sample policy for schools to adopt that includes tools for training
said educators. These policies will ensure that student victims of sexual assault and
abuse will be protected and supported by their schools.
Unfortunately, according to Khubchandani et al. (2013), school nurses, who could
be among the most important support systems in schools regarding dating violence, do
not have protocols to respond to ADV. Since adolescents spend a significant amount of
time at school (approximately one-third of their day) where socialization and budding
relationships occur, school nurses could identify and intervene in ADV. However, many
schools do not have screeners or student surveys to assess teen dating behaviors. It was
found that the nurses who have done surveys felt they had a greater ability to connect
with the students in order to assist them (Khubchandani et al., 2013). If nurses can be
trained in ADV prevention, intervention, and postvention, then they can assist students
without barriers and provide in-school education to prevent, assess, and intervene with
ADV.
34
Best Practices
School psychologists should strive to ensure they are providing effective services
to youth, especially those impacted by dating violence. As stated earlier, school districts
and school personnel have a duty to protect students from harm and districts may be held
liable for failure to address the problem (Carlson, 2003). Thus, there is a strong need for
universal awareness and appropriate prevention and intervention materials for dating
violence aimed at both middle school and high school youth. A growing body of
research has provided promising and effective best practices in addressing ADV in the
schools. A positive school climate of healthy relationships requires active promotion and
modeling of the healthy, expected behaviors, as well as education and early intervention
for unhealthy behaviors. Thus, the reinforcement of positive messages while establishing
expectations that foster a culture of healthy relationships can help prevent ADV.
According to Furlong, Felix, Sharkey, and Larson (2005), creating a safe
environment for students at school is essential to their academic and social success. Best
practices for safe and encouraging schools require the implementation of prevention
strategies to reduce violence in all forms. Research indicates that positive supports, skill
building, parent and community involvements, and improved school climate are the
foundations that will reduce school violence and improve academic and social outcomes.
Furlong et al. (2005) further indicated that addressing bullying and employing bullying
intervention programs are integral to overall violence prevention efforts. Bullying
intervention programs help schools to eliminate existing bullying problems, prevent
future bullying issues, increase healthy behaviors towards peers, and create a positive
35
school climate. Utilizing preventative approaches and educating students on campus of
appropriate, healthy attitudes and behaviors is best practice. In essence, efforts to reduce
school violence will ultimately encourage and model the development of a safe school
climate.
Foshee et al. (2004) examined the use of Safe Dates, a school-based intervention
for the prevention and reduction of dating violence among adolescents. They looked at
the program’s long-term effects on dating violence four years post-intervention.
Participants eligible for this study were adolescents enrolled in the eighth grade from ten
different public schools located in a rural area of North Carolina. Findings indicated that
adolescents that received the Safe Dates intervention program reported significantly less
psychological, physical, and sexual dating violence perpetration and victimization than
those who did not receive the intervention. Best practices indicate that prevention and
intervention programs that foster education are effective and likely lead to better longterm effects and outcomes for adolescents. The Minnesota Department of Health (2002)
began collecting and analyzing intimate partner violence data as a means to offer best
practice and preventative strategies to aid in this rising public health concern. From 1998
to 2001, 30 percent of women in the United States reported some form of intimate partner
violence. Reported violence included physical, emotional, and psychological. In all its
forms violence was most often perpetrated by someone known to the victim, including
peers, family members, and intimate partners. Findings suggest that the best practices for
addressing intimate partner violence include providing healthy models of intimacy and,
more generally, the overall increase of services available to victims. Additionally,
36
community connectedness, education for the victims and the perpetrators, and help to
individuals, families, and communities will help to address and intervene in intimate
partner violence.
In conjunction with prevention and intervention programs, therapeutic counseling
sessions may also be a best practice approach in addressing intimate partner violence.
Joint couple treatment and counseling for interpersonal partner violence remains
controversial, yet a growing body of research indicates it can be effective and safe.
McCollum and Stith (2008) stated the “one size fits all” approach to intimate partner
violence is not appropriate, and best practices indicate that inclusion couple therapy can
be an alternative approach. Within this framework, best practices suggest careful
screening of couples, modification of typical conjoint approaches, promotion of
education, safety, and ongoing assessment plans. In conjunction with the aforementioned
best practice suggestions, it is also important for professionals to remain cognizant of not
only the individual’s chronological age, but also their social-emotional development.
Thus, careful consideration must be employed with regard to middle and high school
couples when facilitating counseling in this modality.
To identify best practice procedures, Iliffe and Steed (2000) aimed to explore the
impact on counselors who work with domestically violent clients. Clinicians and
psychologists who work with victims of interpersonal violence are at an increased risk of
developing vicarious traumatization and distress, emotional fatigue, and impaired
professional competence. Data obtained from their study suggested best practices for
clinicians and psychologists working with domestic violence clients include monitoring
37
client caseload, debriefing, peer support, and self-care. The role of monitoring one’s
mental and emotional well-being is crucial component of self-care and psychological
wellness for those who work directly with individuals experiencing trauma and violence
(World Health Organization, 2010).
Best practices are drawn from published research that identifies effective services
and programs. In regards to ADV, best practice programs encompass several key
elements. For one, a comprehensive program that educates teens on healthy dating, while
listing and promoting examples of positive female and male behavior in a relationship is
ideal. Secondly, a program should foster and encourage peer discussion and parent
involvement, in addition to building strong, positive connections and relationships
between youth and adults, and youth to other youth. Lastly, programs addressing ADV
should be theory-driven, utilizing prevention approaches that are evidence-based. Best
practices aim to expose participants to an extensive and complete prevention or
intervention program. Research has shown that seven to nine trainings is deemed
adequate and can result in changes in attitudes and behaviors. The most effective and
best practice model for eliminating ADV in the schools is to have a collaboration of
services available that address primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention.
Resources
The authors of this project assert that school psychologists and other educators
can work together to help prevent dating violence in the schools. As described above,
there are various types of abuse and teens are at high risk for interpersonal violence,
which can adversely affect an adolescent’s health and safety. Statistics indicate that one
38
in three teens experiences some kind of abuse in his or her romantic relationship
including verbal and emotional abuse (Tucker Halpern et al., 2001). Furthermore, nearly
80 percent of girls who have been physically abused in their intimate relationships
continue to date their abuser (Claiborne, 2007). Thus, it is imperative that faculty and
staff at school sites are not only cognizant of the risk factors and warning signs that are
linked to intimate partner violence, but are also knowledgeable of the services, supports,
and resources available.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) gives an educational
overview on intimate partner violence. This website offers definitions, data sources, risk
and protective factors, consequences, and prevention strategies. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention also provides additional resources designed to help educators and
others working with teens about developing healthy, respectful relationships. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) is leading initiatives to prevent dating
violence and promote respectful, non-violent dating relationships among adolescents.
This approach will build upon the growing body of evidence-based practices and help
reduce ADV in the schools.
Dating Matters (CDC, n.d.) is a free, online course available to educators, school
personnel, youth leaders, and parents to help improve the health of teens. This 60minute, interactive training helps an individual understand ADV and its consequences,
identify factors that can place teens at risk for dating violence, communicate with teens
about the importance of healthy relationships, and learn about resources to prevent dating
violence. Also available is an extension of Dating Matters (CDC, n.d.), which aims to
39
reduce dating violence and increase healthy relationships in high-risk urban communities
through a comprehensive and culturally competent preventative approach.
Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence: Program Activities Guide
(CDC, n.d.) is a resource that outlines four categories of activities which are essential to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention work: tracking the problem, developing
and evaluating prevention strategies, supporting and enhancing prevention programs, and
providing prevention resources. The activities included in this preventative resource
emphasize primary prevention of violence perpetration, reduction of violence before it
occurs in adolescent relationships, and increasing the factors that protect teens from
becoming perpetrators of abuse.
FindYouthInfo.gov (n.d.) is an electronic database filled with resources from
various fields. ADV is a featured topic within this online resource that provides
information on characteristics of healthy/unhealthy relationships, prevalence, electronic
aggression, prevention, consequences, legal responses, resources for victims, and public
awareness for youth, families, schools, and community organizations. There are many
national hotlines available that allow individuals to seek help and guidance for domestic
violence, teen dating abuse, sexual assault, and sexual violence. These online and
telephone hotlines for the aforementioned public health issues are effective ways to
provide individuals with accurate information, counseling, and referrals to communitybased services or resources. A study conducted by Champion, Foley, Sigmon-Smith,
Sutfin, and DuRant (2008) investigated community resources and individual risk factors
in protecting youth from intimate partner violence. Findings indicated that neighborhood
40
organizations and community supports available are ways to protect and combat
adolescent dating abuse. While these national strategies to reduce and prevent adolescent
violence provide a large volume of information in regards to dating risk factors and
causal pathways for such abusive behavior, there is relatively little evidence-based
research about the effectiveness of hotline interventions at the national level. One of the
positive points associated with hotlines is the anonymity. As previously discussed,
adolescents who experience abuse and violence are reluctant to speak out for help,
therefore, the lack of face-to-face contact associated with national hotlines may aid in
individuals feeling more safe and comfortable reaching out for guidance and advice.
Additionally, hotlines can help determine the need and impact of public education and
media campaigns. Hotlines can also help provide information to guide new preventative
and intervention approaches. Specifically, the National Teen Dating Abuse Helpline
(loveisrespect.org, n.d.) is a resource that is dedicated to ending dating abuse and
engaging all individuals in promoting healthy relationships. This resource offers data and
studies that document rates, types, and views of dating violence. In addition, multiple
resources and curriculums are available to educate students (middle school, high school,
university students) about healthy relationships and avoidance of abuse
(loveisirespect.org, n.d.). In closing, some teens will not tell anyone they are
experiencing interpersonal abuse and violence. If they do choose to tell someone, odds
are the first person will be a trusted peer, rather than a parent or teacher. Adolescents in
abusive relationships face a variety of obstacles when asking for help that may range
from fear of social consequences and embarrassment, to loss of independence and distrust
41
of adults (Carlson, 2003). Teens are relatively unlikely to approach their parents or
adults for help. Therefore, adults must be willing to take the first step of reaching out to
teens they suspect are experiencing abuse, and be able to provide resources for them
when they ask for help. Preventing ADV requires a collaborative effort between federal
agencies, state and local health departments, nonprofit organizations, and schools. This
project will address these issues by developing an educational handbook and two separate
curriculums. The educational handbook will provide students, teachers, administrators,
and community members on the definition, warning signs, risk factors of dating violence,
what constitutes a healthy relationship, and resources. A middle school curriculum will
be developed as a school-wide approach as a prevention method to stop dating violence
before it starts. Additionally, a high school curriculum will be designed to better serve
high school youth who have likely had dating experiences that are more serious and
intimate in nature, which will provide these adolescents with the skills and tools they
need to foster healthier relationships.
42
Chapter 3
METHODS
Research
The authors utilized several techniques in the researching for this project. Google
Scholar, EBSCO, PsycInfo, the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and the
California State University, Sacramento, library host databases were searched for peerreviewed journal articles, both qualitative and quantitative, using a variety of search
terms. The key words “Adolescent Dating Violence” were searched in conjunction with
other terms, such as risk factors, warning signs, best practices, and resources. Additional
searches were performed using words and phrases such as prevention, intervention,
postvention, social media, and diversity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) website was used as a search engine for preventive and intervention approaches,
definition of terms, and resources, such as Break the Cycle, Dating Matters, and
LoveIsRespect.org. Further, as part of the research process, the co-authors assembled
poster presentations detailing prevalence, risk factors, warning signs, intervention
techniques, and resources for adolescent dating violence for the California Association of
School Psychologists convention in October of 2012 and the National Association of
School Psychologists convention in February of 2013. The co-authors were assigned to
write specific sections of the outline for the literature review.
43
Development of the Handbook and Curricula
The handbook was developed as an educational manual for school administrators,
staff, and parents to serve as a quick reference of warning signs, risk factors, and
prevalence. Additionally, the handbook will provide resources and best practices for
addressing, preventing, and intervening in adolescent dating violence (ADV) in the
schools. In conjunction with the educational handbook, two separate curricula were
developed. The middle school curriculum serves as a preventative universal approach to
educate youth on how to identify dating violence, how to avoid engaging in abusive
relationships, what to do if one finds themselves in or witnesses the occurrence of a
violent relationship, and ultimately, how to make decisions that will lead to partaking in
positive, healthy relationships. The high school curriculum is designed as a small group
intervention for high school youth who have experienced dating violence. This
curriculum discusses topics such as substance abuse, peer influences, beliefs and attitudes
toward violence, elements of healthy and unhealthy relationships, and additional supports
and resources. Due to this project not being implemented to the target audiences prior to
submission, suggestions were sought from the school psychology faculty at California
State University, Sacramento. The handbook, middle school curriculum, and high school
curriculum are located in the appendices of this project.
44
Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The CDC reports that 22.4 percent of women and 15.0 percent of men will first
experience some form of adolescent dating violence (ADV) between 11 and 17 years of
age (2012). To help educators address the problem of ADV in an effective, evidencebased, and organized manner, the authors of this project created Behind the Illusion:
Addressing Adolescent Dating Violence in Schools. This included the development of
two separate yet related curricula and a curriculum supplement. All three sets of
materials are intended for use by school staff to promote the prevention and intervention
of ADV amongst students.
One of the two curricula is to be implemented using a school-wide approach for
middle school students. In order for this to be accomplished, a school staff will agree
upon and commit to systematically conducting the lessons in their classrooms. For
example, at a school in which every student has a homeroom class, the staff may decide
that every homeroom teacher will implement the lessons with their homeroom students,
thus, every student in the school will participate in the lessons at the same time every day.
This curriculum has five sessions that are to be conducted for five days in a row over a
one-week period. The sessions consist of approximately 45 minute long activities that
will raise awareness of ADV and serve as a preventative intervention tool for 7th and 8th
grade students.
The second curriculum is to be implemented at the high school level. This
curriculum serves as an intervention approach to be used in small counseling group
45
settings with students who currently are or have experienced ADV firsthand. The school
psychologist will run small counseling groups that consist of 6-8 students. School staff
and parents who have knowledge of students who are in or have been in abusive
relationships will make referrals for the group. The school psychologist will briefly meet
with each referred student to ensure he or she will benefit from the group and has a desire
to participate in the group. This curriculum consists of nine 45-minute sessions that
promote self-esteem, acceptance of engagement in a violent relationship, awareness of
different types of ADV, knowledge of how to build healthy relationships, and resources
for help.
The ADV supplement serves as an easily accessible informational tool for
teachers, administrators, parents, and community members. The ADV supplement
provides an overview of both curricula, information about characteristics of both abusive
and healthy relationships, definitions of the different types of AVD, warning signs of
AVD, risk factors for ADV, and resources.
46
APPENDIX A
Behind the Illusion: Preventing and Intervening in Adolescent Dating Violence
Program Supplement
47
Behind the Illusion:
Preventing and Intervening in Adolescent Dating
Violence
Program Supplement
Marisa Acosta, Brynn Balcom, and Caitlin Conheim
California State University, Sacramento
48
Table of Contents
Program Overview ...........................................................................................................49
Violent Adolescent Relationship Characteristics, Healthy Adolescent Relationship
Characteristics, and Forms of Adolescent Dating Violence Abuse .............................52
Definition of Adolescent Dating Violence ...........................................................53
Definition of a Healthy Relationship ....................................................................53
Types of Adolescent Dating Violence Abuse .......................................................53
Risk Factors Associated with Adolescent Dating Violence ..........................................55
Definition of Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence .................................56
Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence Victims ..........................................56
Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence Perpetrators ...................................56
Addressing LGBTQ Students ................................................................................57
Warning Signs of Adolescent Dating Violence ..............................................................58
Definition of Warning Signs for Adolescent Dating Violence ..............................59
Warning Signs for Victims of Adolescent Dating Violence ..................................59
Warning Signs for Perpetrators of Adolescent Dating Violence ...........................59
Resources for Students, Educational Staff, Parents, and Community Members ......61
Resources for Students ...........................................................................................62
Resources for Educational Staff, Parents, and Community Members ...................63
Final Thoughts… ...................................................................................................64
References ..............................................................................................................65
49
Program Overview
50
Behind the Illusion: Preventing and Intervening in Adolescent Dating Violence
California Education Code section 200-201 (n.d.) states that schools have a duty to
protect students from harassment, discrimination, hate crimes, abuse, etc. This
encompasses adolescent dating violence. While this education code exists, many schools
lack the appropriate systematized or cohesive set of materials available to assist staff to
address these issues.
Behind the Illusion is a middle and high school curriculum designed to address the
problem of adolescent dating violence (ADV). The materials are intended for use by
school staff to promote the prevention and intervention of ADV amongst students. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that 22.4 percent of women and 15.0
percent of men will first experience some form of ADV between 11 and 17 years of age
(2012). Without the knowledge how common ADV is, people may view many
adolescent relationships as typical and normal. However, educators have the opportunity
to decrease the prevalence and intervene upon present occurrences of ADV by educating
themselves and their students about what is behind that illusion. The materials will serve
as a guide for doing so in an effective, evidence-based, and organized manner.
The current program encompasses three components:
1. An educational supplement that provides the definition, warning signs, and risk
factors of dating violence; specifies what constitutes a healthy relationship; and
offers resources for students, teachers, administrators, and community members to
help those who have been victims of dating violence.
2. A middle school curriculum implemented in a school-wide approach as a
prevention method to stop dating violence before it starts. Topics include healthy
versus unhealthy relationships; warning signs of, and risk factors for dating
violence; student beliefs and views about dating; and resources for students
experiencing ADV to seek help.
3. A high school group curriculum designed to provide interventions and support for
students involved in unhealthy relationships. Topics include peer influences,
substance abuse, attitudes towards violence, healthy versus unhealthy
relationships, and resources for students experiencing ADV to seek help.
The Behind the Illusion program is broken down into these three pieces to better facilitate
education and prevention of adolescent dating violence. From the research, we found that
adolescent dating violence (ADV) occurs at roughly the same rates in middle school as in
high school (Mulford & Blachman-Demner, 2013). Multiple findings indicate that the
nature of middle school relationships is generally not as developed, nor as intimate as
seen within high school relationships. Therefore, we have established that a preventative
51
school-wide approach would better serve middle school youth who are beginning to form
romantic relationships. To better serve high school youth, who likely have dating
experiences that are more serious and intimate; a targeted intervention curriculum is
designed to provide adolescents with the skills and tools they need to foster healthier
relationships.
The online resource, LoveisRespect.org (2014), has proclaimed the month of February to
be National Teen Dating Violence Awareness month. Given this designation, our hope is
that this program will be implemented during February to honor this national campaign.
52
Violent Adolescent Relationship Characteristics,
Healthy Adolescent Relationship Characteristics,
and
Forms of Adolescent Dating Violence Abuse
53
Definition of Adolescent Dating Violence
The CDC (2012) defines dating violence as “A type of intimate partner violence that
occurs between two people in a close relationship. The nature of dating violence can be
physical, emotional, or sexual” (p. 1). While adult relationship and dating violence is
recognized as a serious problem in the United States, people are not as quick to realize
that this serious problem also affects adolescents in relationships. According to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2012), “Among adult victims of rape,
physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner, 22.4 percent of women and 15.0
percent of men first experienced some form of partner violence between 11- and 17-years
of age” (p. 1).
Current research indicates that adolescent dating violence (ADV) is becoming a
pervasive public health problem in the United States as dating violence affects
approximately 30 percent of teens and is associated with many damaging physical and
mental health consequences (Martsolf, Draucker, & Brandau, 2013). In order to prevent,
intervene, and provide post-treatment to those who experience ADV, it is important to be
clear as to what truly constitutes adolescent dating violence. Not only do adults need to
be educated about adolescent dating violence, but adolescents themselves must also
understand the psychological and behavioral aspects that comprise adolescent dating
violence.
Definition of a Healthy Relationship
While it is crucial to educate students regarding what constitutes adolescent dating
violence. However, it is equally important to help them learn and understand the elements
of a healthy relationship so they can strive to foster healthy relationships for themselves
(Sanderson & Cantor, 1995). A healthy relationship consists of commitment, satisfaction,
communication, conflict resolution, lack of domestic violence, fidelity, interaction/time
spent together, and emotional support (Moore et al., 2004). Ideally, if adolescents are
knowledgeable of what comprises healthy and unhealthy relationships, they will be more
likely to seek those that are healthy (Santabarbara, Erbe, & Cooper, 2009).
Adults can also help adolescents to gain knowledge and awareness of healthy
relationships. Adults connected to adolescents should be aware of their social skills and
relationships, including romantic relationships. When an adolescent does become
involved in a relationship, the adults closest to the child should be attentive and check in
with that person. In essence, monitoring adolescents as they navigate through
relationships should help to decrease the amount of ADV that occurs.
Types of Adolescent Dating Violence Abuse
Adolescent dating violence can take several different forms. It is important that
educational professionals and students alike are able to identify these different types.
Specifically, dating violence includes the following:
54

Physical Dating Violence. Physical dating violence includes pinching, shoving,
hitting, kicking, and strangling (CDC, 2012).

Emotional Dating Violence. Emotional dating violence is a type of abuse in
which one partner threatens the other or harms his/her self-worth. Examples of
this include but are not limited to, name calling, bullying, embarrassing on
purpose, and/or keeping him/her away from family and friends (CDC, 2012).

Sexual Dating Violence. Sexual dating violence occurs when one partner forces
the other partner to engage in a sexual act without his or her consent (CDC,
2012).

Stalking. Stalking is a type of dating violence that refers to repeated harassing
and/or threatening methods used by a perpetrator that is unwanted and causes the
victim to fear the perpetrator (CDC, 2012).

Financial Abuse. Financial abuse consists of one partner using money or
accessing monetary accounts to exert power and control over their partner (CDC,
2012).

Technological/Cyber Abuse. There are many forms of technological dating
abuse. Controlling partners may keep constant track of their victim by texting,
tweeting, Facebook, tracking via cell phone GPS, and using smart phone cameras.
Furthermore, the use of cell phone cameras contributes to adolescents’
vulnerability when it comes to tracking, sexual coercion, blackmail, and
retaliation. Verbal, emotional, and sexual abuse can all be perpetrated through
technology (Levy & Gillians, 2013).
55
Risk Factors Associated with Adolescent Dating
Violence
56
In order to be attentive and be able to monitor adolescents that are in unhealthy
relationships, teachers, administrators, and parents must know the factors that increase
the risk of adolescents becoming involved in a violent and abusive relationship.
Definition of Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence
Risk factors for dating violence are defined as “attributes or characteristics that are
associated with an increased probability of adolescent dating violence reception and/or
expression” (O’Keefe, 2005, p. 3).
Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence Victims
Researchers have found the following risk factors to be associated with adolescents that
become victims of dating violence include:

Demographic characteristics. Higher rates of ADV victims come from low
socioeconomic backgrounds and/or live in urban areas (O’Keefe, 2005).

Prior experiences/exposure to violence. Both viewing domestic violence
between parents, and personal experience of child abuse are correlated with a
higher risk for ADV victimization for females. In addition, child abuse is a risk
factor for ADV victimization in males; however, exposure to inter-parental
domestic abuse is not (Maas, Fleming, Herrenkohl, & Catalano, 2010).

Peer influence. Adolescent females that have friends who have been victimized
by ADV are at high risk to be victims themselves (Arriaga & Foshee, 2004).

Interpersonal variables. Adolescent females with low self-esteem are at higher
risk to experience ADV than peers with a positive self-view. Additionally, lack
of social skills is found to be a risk factor for ADV victimization in both females
and males (O’Keefe, 2005).

Substance Abuse. Adolescents who consume alcohol and use drugs are at a
higher risk of becoming ADV victims than peers who abstain from substance use
(Maas, Fleming, Herrenkohl, and Catalano, 2010).
Risk Factors for Adolescent Dating Violence Perpetrators
In addition to understanding the risk factors found in victims of adolescent dating
violence, it is equally important for adults and adolescents to understand the risk factors
associated with perpetrators of the abuse.
Researchers have found the following risk factors to be associated with adolescents that
become perpetrators of dating violence include:
57
Gender
At all ages, males reported to be perpetrators of severe physical and sexual dating
violence more than females (Foshee et al., 2009).
Ethnic Background
When surveyed, minority populations including African American, Asian, American
Indian, and mixed race adolescents are reported to be perpetrators of moderate and severe
physical dating abuse more often than Caucasians, therefore, results from this study
indicate that ethnic minorities are at a greater risk of inflicting abuse upon their partner
(Foshee et al., 2009).
Familial Factors
Adolescents brought up in a single parent households reported more perpetration of
psychological and severe physical dating abuse than those from a two-parent household.
Additionally, teens that had parents with lower education levels (i.e., did not complete
high school) were at higher risk of perpetrating psychological and moderate physical
ADV than those who had parents with higher education levels (i.e., completion of high
school and/ or college; Foshee et al., 2009).
Addressing LGBTQ Students
Diverse student populations appear to be at a higher risk for adolescent dating violence.
Lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ) individuals/couples
experience dating violence at roughly the same, or even higher rates than heterosexual
couples (Love is Respect, 2012). Adolescents who identify with the LGBTQ community
are at an increased risk of being in an abusive relationship. It has been suggested that the
fear and anger from oppression and discrimination can be redirected towards a partner
and manifest into abuse (LiveStrong, 2012). LGBTQ adolescents may be less likely to
seek help due to their fear of further discrimination or being exposed as a LGBTQ
adolescent.
58
Warning Signs of Adolescent Dating Violence
59
Understanding of, and ability to recognize warning signs of adolescent dating abuse is
needed to target teens for prevention and intervention.
Definition of Warning Signs for Adolescent Dating Violence
Warning signs for dating violence are defined as behaviors or indicators that a person
may be involved in an abusive relationship (Eaton at el, 2007; Paludi, 2011).
Warning Signs for Victims of Adolescent Dating Violence
Warning signs adults and peers should look for if they suspect someone they know is in
an abusive relationship includes:

Physical signs of injury

Truancy at school

A decline in grades

Indecision

Changes in mood and/or personality

Use of drugs/alcohol

Emotional outburst

Isolation
Warning Signs for Perpetrators of Adolescent Dating Violence
Early warning signs that a partner may ultimately become violent include:

Alcohol and drug use

Explosive anger

Tendency to isolate partner and themselves from their family and friends

Emotionally distressed

Abusive behavior to past partners

The proclivity to become sexually active during or prior to 8th grade
60
Understanding the early warning signs of a partner that may eventually become abusive
is important so that adolescents can identify and prevent involvement in a relationship
that could lead to violence (Vagi et al., 2013).
61
Resources for Students, Educational Staff, Parents,
and Community Members
62
Educational staff, parents, and community members can work together to help prevent
dating violence in the schools. As described above, there are various types of abuse and
adolescents are at high risk for interpersonal violence, which can adversely affect an
adolescent’s health and safety. Statistics indicate that one in three teens experiences
some kind of abuse in his or her romantic relationship including verbal and emotional
abuse (Tucker Halpern, Oslak, Young, Martin, & Kupper, 2001). Furthermore, nearly 80
percent of girls who have been physically abused in their intimate relationships continue
to date their abuser (Claiborne, 2005). Thus, it is imperative that educational staff,
parents, and community members are not only cognizant of the risk factors and warning
signs that are linked to intimate partner violence, but are also knowledgeable of the
services, supports, and resources available.
Resources for Students
Online and Phone Hotlines
There are many national hotlines available that allow individuals to seek help and
guidance for domestic violence, teen dating abuse, sexual assault, and sexual violence.
These online and telephone hotlines for the aforementioned public health issues provide
individuals with accurate information, counseling, and referrals to community-based
services or resources. One of the positive points associated with hotlines is the
anonymity. Adolescents who experience abuse and violence may be reluctant to speak
out for help, therefore, the lack of face-to-face contact associated with hotlines may aid in
individuals feeling more safe and comfortable reaching out for guidance and advice.

The National Teen Dating Abuse Helpline. This hotline is the direct service
provider behind loveisrespect.org, operating the 24/7 phone, text and chat services
(Love is Respect, n.d.).
Phone number: 1-866-331-9474
Website: http://www.loveisrespect.org

The National Domestic Abuse Hotline. This hotline provides one-on-one
counseling for anyone experiencing domestic violence, seeking resources or
information, or questioning unhealthy aspects of their relationship (The National
Domestic Abuse Hotline, n.d.).
Phone Number: 1-800-799-7233
Website: http://www.thehotline.org

The National Sexual Assault Hotline. This hotline offers counseling,
information about community resources, emergency protocols, and legal advice
(RAINN: Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network, 2009)
Phone Number: 1-800-656-HOPE
Website: http://www.rainn.org/
63

The National Sexual Assault Hotline. This hotline used a secure and
anonymous instant-messaging type format and allows victims of sexual violence
to communicate directly with trained crisis support volunteers (RAINN: Rape,
Abuse & Incest National Network, 2009).
Website: http://www.rainn.org/get-help/national-sexual-assault-online-hotline.
Resources for Educational Staff, Parents, and Community Members
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) gives an educational overview on
intimate partner violence. This website offers definitions, data sources, risk and
protective factors, consequences, and prevention strategies. The CDC also provides
additional resources designed to help educators and others working with teens about
developing healthy, respectful relationships.
Dating Matters
Dating Matters (CDC, n.d.) is a free, online course available to educators, school
personnel, youth leaders, and parents to help improve the health of teens. This 60-minute,
interactive training helps an individual understand adolescent dating violence and its
consequences, identify factors that can place teens at risk for dating violence,
communicate with teens about the importance of healthy relationships, and learn about
resources to prevent dating violence. Also available is an extension of Dating Matters,
which aims to reduce dating violence and increase healthy relationships in high-risk
urban communities through a comprehensive and culturally competent preventative
approach.
Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence: Program Activities Guide
Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence: Program Activities Guide (CDC, n.d.)
is a resource that outlines four categories of activities which are essential to the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention work: tracking the problem, developing and
evaluating prevention strategies, supporting and enhancing prevention programs, and
providing prevention resources. The activities included in this preventative resource
emphasize primary prevention of violence perpetration, reduction of violence before it
occurs in adolescent relationships, and increasing the factors that protect teens from
becoming perpetrators of abuse.
FindYouthInfo.gov
FindYouthInfo.gov (n.d.) is an electronic database filled with resources from various
fields. Adolescent dating violence is a featured topic within this online resource that
provides information on characteristics of healthy/unhealthy relationships, prevalence,
electronic aggression, prevention, consequences, legal responses, resources for victims,
and public awareness for youth, families, schools, and community organizations.
64
Final Thoughts
In closing, some teens will not tell anyone they are experiencing interpersonal abuse and
violence. If they do choose to tell someone, odds are the first person will be a trusted
peer, rather than a parent or teacher. Adolescents in abusive relationships face a variety of
obstacles when asking for help that may range from fear of social consequences and
embarrassment, to loss of independence and distrust of adults. Therefore, adults must be
willing to take the first step of reaching out to teens they suspect are experiencing abuse,
and be able to provide resources for them when they ask for help. Preventing adolescent
dating violence requires a collaborative effort between federal agencies, state and local
health departments, nonprofit organizations, and schools.
65
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69
APPENDIX B
Behind the Illusion: Addressing Adolescent Dating Violence
A School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence
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Behind the Illusion:
Addressing Adolescent Dating
Violence
A School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent
Dating Violence
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Program Overview .............................................................................................................72
Session 1: Defining Adolescent Dating Violence ..............................................................73
Session 2: Risk Factors and Warning Signs ......................................................................76
Session 3: Vignettes ...........................................................................................................78
Session 4: What Would You Do? ......................................................................................81
Session 5: Resources and Questions ..................................................................................84
Appendices to a School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence
Appendix A: Passive Permission Letter for Parents and Guardians ..................................87
Appendix B: FACT or FICTION Pre- & Post-Test ...........................................................89
Appendix C: Definition of Terms ......................................................................................93
Appendix D: Characteristics of Unhealthy versus Healthy Relationships ........................94
Appendix E: Risk Factors and Warning Signs ..................................................................95
Appendix F: Case Vignettes ..............................................................................................96
Appendix G: What Would You Do? ..................................................................................98
Appendix H: You Have the Power to Help .......................................................................99
Appendix I: List of Resources .........................................................................................100
References for A School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence...101
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Program Overview
This program is designed for middle school administrators and teachers as an
introduction to the prevalence and implications of adolescent dating violence on school
campuses. It is intended to foster healthy relationships among middle school teens
through a school-wide intervention curriculum. It is crucial to educate students regarding
what constitutes adolescent dating violence. However, it is equally important to help
them learn and understand the elements of a healthy relationship so they can strive to
foster healthy relationships for themselves. A healthy relationship consists of mutual
respect, honesty, emotional support, respected boundaries, communication,
encouragement, and safety (Love is Respect, 2012). Ideally, if adolescents are
knowledgeable of what comprises healthy and unhealthy relationships, they will be more
likely to seek those that are healthy. In addition to being less likely to seek or find
themselves in unhealthy relationships, awareness of ADV amongst adolescents will help
them to recognize when their peers are in abusive relationships and help encourage them
to get help (Love is Respect, 2012).
Universal Approach
In order to prevent, intervene, and provide post-treatment to those who experience
ADV, it is important to be clear as to what truly constitutes adolescent dating violence.
Not only do adults need to be educated about adolescent dating violence, but adolescents
themselves must also understand the psychological and behavioral aspects that comprise
adolescent dating violence.
The Curriculum
The Behind the Illusion curriculum will be implemented in teacher’s home rooms
during the week of Valentine’s Day in February. Two online resources, Break the Cycle
(2012) and Love is Respect (2012), have pronounced the month of February as National
Teen Dating Violence Awareness month. In light of this, our hope is that this program
will be implemented during February to honor this national campaign. The program
consists of 5 60-minute sessions, which include 3 vignettes and activities for teachers to
implement in the classroom. The lectures and activities all have a focus on student
involvement and whole-group discussion to combat adolescent dating violence.
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Session 1: Defining Adolescent Dating Violence
Goal
Help the students understand the different forms of ADV. Identify different types of
abuse. Forming a solid foundation of what constitutes a healthy versus unhealthy
relationship.
Rationale
Adolescents themselves need to be cognizant of what constitutes dating abuse, as well as
the different forms associated with dating violence so they can identify and prevent
involvement in a relationship that could lead to violence. Ideally, if adolescents
understand dating abuse and what comprises unhealthy versus unhealthy relationships,
they will be more likely to seek those that are healthy. Further, awareness of adolescent
dating violence amongst adolescents will help them to recognize when their peers are in
abusive relationships and help encourage them to get help.
Materials
 Copies of pre-test (Appendix B)
 Copies of definitions page (Appendix C)
 Copies of characteristics of unhealthy versus healthy relationships (Appendix D)
 Old shoebox (for comments/question)
 100-Pack of 3x4 inch index cards for opening/closing ritual.
Opening Ritual
Pass out index cards to one student and have him/her distribute two to four cards per
student in the class, depending on class size. Say, These index cards are for you to
anonymously write down any comments or questions that you have regarding each
lesson. You do not have to write a question or comment, but if you are curious about
something or need clarification and do not feel comfortable speaking in front of the class,
then these cards give you the opportunity to ask those questions. 10-15 minutes before the
end of the session I will pass around a shoe box for you to put your cards and with the
remaining time, I will read the questions and try to answer them as best as I can for you.
Any questions?
Activity
1. For the first activity, we’ll be doing a short quiz. Give your best and most honest
answers. Give out the Fact or Fiction pre-test. Allow 10 minutes to complete
quiz. Once students have completed the quiz, pass out the answer sheet so
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students can learn from their responses. Collect quiz when class is done. Allow
students to keep the answer sheet.
2. Share with the class the types of ADV, with subsequent examples of each type.
There are five main types of dating violence. The most recognizable is the
physical violence, because it leaves visible marks on a person’s body. But there
are other, more covert types that are equally as destructive. The five are:
a. Physical: The intent of physical force to cause injury, such as hitting,
kicking, slapping, pinching, shoving, strangling, or using a weapon.
b. Verbal/Emotional: The intent of harming one’s self-worth to cause nonphysical emotional injury. This includes threats, insults, name-calling,
bullying, humiliation, intimidation, or isolation.
c. Sexual: The intent of harming a partner in a sexual manner, such as
forcing sexual acts without consent, controlling sexual activity, or the
circumstances in which sexual activity occurs.
d. Stalking: This refers to unsolicited, persistent actions by a perpetrator,
including being harassed, followed, or watched.
e. Technological/Social: The intent of bullying, stalking, harassing, or
intimidating a partner through the use of technology, such as texting,
social media, and social networking.
[Listen for and validate students experiences with ADV or domestic
violence in their family; a lack of understanding surrounding the
definitions.]
3. Discussion with class about their views, thoughts about these different types of
ADV.
4. Initiate discussion of the idea of a healthy relationship by asking students to
participate in sharing traits and qualities they believe constitute a healthy dating
relationship. This will be facilitated via popcorn-style discussion to better
understand the students’ views of what a healthy relationship means. “Popcornstyle” refers to a form of discussion in which students have the opportunity to
offer ideas and when one student is done sharing, the next person volunteers. The
idea is that the next person can “pop up” and offer their idea, which will
hopefully set off many thoughts “popping” one after the other.
5. Initiate discussion of the idea of a unhealthy relationship by asking students to
participate in sharing traits and qualities they believe constitute a unhealthy
dating relationship. This will be facilitated via popcorn-style discussion to better
understand the students’ views of what a unhealthy relationship looks like.
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6. Dispel stereotypes about relationships, gender roles, etc. You may believe or have
heard of some relationship or gender role stereotypes. This is an opportunity to
discuss some of those stereotypes and decide if they are fact or fiction. How are
they fact? How are they fiction? Here are some examples:
a. Having sex with someone proves you love him/her. Fact or fiction?
b. Boys aren’t victims of dating violence. Fact or fiction?
c. Most sexual assaults are committed by strangers. Fact or fiction?
d. If a girl says “no” she really means “yes.” Fact or fiction?
e. A partner can be controlling of his/her partner if he/she is just being
protective. Fact or fiction?
What other stereotypes have you heard? Do you think they are fact or fiction?
Closing Ritual
10-15 minutes before the end of the session, pass around the shoebox for students to
place their index cards. Collect shoebox. Read the questions and/or comments aloud.
Answer as many of the questions as possible. Refer to the supplemental guide for further
explanations, if needed. If students have serious questions or comments that need
immediate attention, refer students to the school psychologist or counselor or accompany
them to the office for further debriefing.
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Session 2: Risk Factors and Warning Signs
Goal
Help students identify common risk factors and warning signs associated with ADV.
Rationale
Awareness of the factors that increase the risk of adolescents becoming involved in a
violent relationship and the ability to recognize the early warning signs of dating violence
is critical to preventing and intervening upon potential and existing abusive relationships.
Materials
 Copies of “Risk Factors and Warning Signs” handout (Appendix E).
 Index cards
 Comment/question box
Opening Ritual
Pass out index cards to one student and have him/her distribute two to four cards per
student in the class, depending on class size. Say, These index cards are for you to
anonymously write down any comments or questions that you have regarding each
lesson. You do not have to write a question or comment, but if you are curious about
something or need clarification and do not feel comfortable speaking in front of the class,
then these cards give you the opportunity to ask those questions. 10-15 minutes before the
end of the session I will pass around a shoe box for you to put your cards and with the
remaining time, I will read the questions and try to answer them as best as I can for you.
Activity
1. Prompt the class: What do you think are possible risk factors for ADV? What
might they look like? Lead a discussion regarding their thoughts and ideas of risk
factors.
2. Inform students of risk factors. (Pass out handout)
Victims
Prior Experiences
Exposure to Violence
Peer Influence
Interpersonal Variables (selfesteem, social skills)
Substance Abuse
Perpetrators
Gender
Familial factors
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3. Prompt class: What do you think might be warning signs for ADV? What might
they look like? Lead discussion regarding their thoughts and ideas of warning
signs.
[Listen for and validate responses such as the following: Students coming
to school with bruises on their body or face; Acting scared around their
partner; Being absent from school often; Acting jealous around their
partner; Being very controlling of their partner.]
4. Inform students of warning signs (Pass out handout)
Victims
Physical signs (bruising, broken bones,
etc.)
Truancy
Decline in grades
Indecision
Change in mood and/or personality
Use of drugs and alcohol
Emotional outburst
Isolation
Perpetrators
Extreme jealousy
Controlling behavior
Unpredictable behavior
Alcohol and drug use
Explosive anger
Tendency to isolate partner from
friends and family
Blaming others for their problems
Abusive behavior to past partners
Threats of violence
Closing Ritual
10-15 minutes before the end of the session, pass around the shoebox for students to
place their index cards. Collect shoebox. Read the questions and/or comments aloud.
Answer as many of the questions as possible. Refer to the supplemental guide for further
explanations, if needed. If students have serious questions or comments that need
immediate attention, refer students to the school psychologist or counselor or accompany
them to the office for further debriefing.
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Session 3: Vignettes
Goal
Decide if vignettes constitute as ADV/unhealthy relationships or healthy relationships.
Rationale
Dating violence vignettes can be utilized as a learning structure that allows the students to
immediately apply and generalize previously learned content. This provides students to
see the content in a relevant, real-world context, as well as receive immediate feedback
from the instructor.
Materials Needed
 Print out copies of vignettes (Appendix F).
 Index cards
 Comment/question box
Opening Ritual
Pass out index cards to one student and have him/her distribute two to four cards per
student in the class, depending on class size. Say, These index cards are for you to
anonymously write down any comments or questions that you have regarding each
lesson. You do not have to write a question or comment, but if you are curious about
something or need clarification and do not feel comfortable speaking in front of the class,
then these cards give you the opportunity to ask those questions. 10-15 minutes before the
end of the session I will pass around a shoe box for you to put your cards and with the
remaining time, I will read the questions and try to answer them as best as I can for you.
Activity
1. Choose one student to read aloud the first vignette.
Case of Maggie:
Maggie thought her relationship with her boyfriend Lucas was no different
from most relationships. The occasional “put-downs” and “slaps” were a normal
part of being in a relationship, especially as a teenager. Maggie, a 12-year-old 7th
grader, had been dating Lucas, a 13-year-old 8th grader, for five months. Although
Lucas had a “bad” temper, Maggie looked forward to spending time with him.
She had strong feelings for him and believed he felt the same for her. From time
to time, Lucas would call Maggie names such as “idiot,” “fat head,” and “dumb
blond.” He also told her that she would “never amount to anything” and that “no
one liked” her. At times, he would push her and slap her on the back. Maggie
believed this was a natural part of being in a relationship. She felt that this was
“okay” and Lucas only did those things when he was angry. Maggie’s friend,
Jessica, agreed with Maggie. She told her “it was no big deal” and Lucas did
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those things because he “loved her and did not know how to express it.” Maggie
thought, “If my friend thinks it is okay and I’m not physically hurt then my
relationship isn’t violent.”
2. Discussion Questions:
a. What warning signs are evident in this case?
b. As a friend or over-seeing peer, how could you address the physical and
emotional violence occurring in Maggie and Lucas’ relationship?
c. What factors might prevent Maggie from disclosing the violence to an
adult or friend?
[Listen for and validate responses such as: Lucas’s bad temper; Name calling;
Threats/acts of violence. Listen for and validate responses such as: Name calling,
putdowns, pushing, and slapping are all serious forms of abuse and should not be
tolerated; Acknowledgement that Maggie’s friend or peers should encourage her to seek
help. Listen for and validate responses such as: Maggie’s feelings for Lucas are
preventing her from losing him as her boyfriend; Embarrassment in seeking help; Maggie
doesn’t realize she is in an abusive relationship, especially since her friend is telling her
that Lucas’s behaviors are acceptable.]
3. Choose one student to read aloud the second vignette.
Case of Stephanie
Stephanie is a 14-year-old girl just finishing her freshman year in high
school. She has always felt awkward around the other students, never really fitting
in with any particular group. She is constantly concerned about being accepted
and liked by others, and so she decided to try out for the cheerleading squad at the
start of her school year and made the team. She noticed all of the other girls on the
team had boyfriends, so she felt it was important to have one as well. Soon,
Stephanie met Matt, a 16-year-old sophomore. He seemed to be very interested in
her, always complimented her, and they began dating. However, about three
weeks into their relationship, Matt began to dictate which friends Stephanie could
spend time with and he insisted on going out with her to any social events she was
invited to. If she spoke to any other boys, he would become angry and
occasionally hit her. Additionally, Matt demanded access to Stephanie’s
Facebook and Instagram accounts, and began monitoring her social media
accounts. Stephanie thought that this behavior was typical for boys that really
cared about and loved the person they were with. She felt that he never meant to
hurt her and that when he got angry, and it was her fault for not doing as he asked
of her. Matt always took her out and bought her gifts when he would hit her, so
Stephanie thought that he truly never meant any harm and that, deep down, he
was a good person that loved her.
4. Discussion Questions:
a. What risk factors are evidenced in this case?
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b. What are the warning signs evidenced by Stephanie and Matt behaviors?
c. What advice/suggestions would you offer Stephanie?
[Listen for and validate responses such as the following: Risk factors include Stephanie’s
low self-esteem and peer influence; Warning signs include Matt’s possessive and
controlling behavior; Advice including controlling behavior is a form of dating violence
and she should seek help and that she doesn’t need to have a boyfriend to be a part of a
group.]
Closing Ritual
10-15 minutes before the end of the session, pass around the shoebox for students to
place their index cards. Collect shoebox. Read the questions and/or comments aloud.
Answer as many of the questions as possible. Refer to the supplemental guide for further
explanations, if needed. If students have serious questions or comments that need
immediate attention, refer students to the school psychologist or counselor or accompany
them to the office for further debriefing.
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Session 4: What Would You Do?
(adapted from the Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, 2005)
Goal
Analyze the scenarios in which someone you know is experiencing ADV. Decide best
options and actions.
Rationale
Analyzing practical dating abuse scenarios can help students determine and generate
appropriate proceeding choices and actions for the characters. In return, this activity can
better aid students with improved decision making skills in alike, real-world
circumstances.
Materials
 Copies of scenarios (Appendix G)
 Tips on how to help the abused victim and the abuser (Appendix H)
 Index cards
 Comment/question box
Opening Ritual
Pass out index cards to one student and have him/her distribute two to four cards per
student in the class, depending on class size. Say, These index cards are for you to
anonymously write down any comments or questions that you have regarding each
lesson. You do not have to write a question or comment, but if you are curious about
something or need clarification and do not feel comfortable speaking in front of the class,
then these cards give you the opportunity to ask those questions. 10-15 minutes before the
end of the session I will pass around a shoe box for you to put your cards and with the
remaining time, I will read the questions and try to answer them as best as I can for you.
Activity
1. Choose one person to read the first scenario aloud to the class.
Dating Scenario 1: Your best friend has been spending all of her time with her
new boyfriend, who has isolated her from all her old friends. You have noticed
that she seems to have lost her self-confidence.
2. Discussion Questions:
a. How could you go about addressing this issue with your friend?
b. In what ways can you express your support, as well as concerns for your
friend?
c. What about this task would be challenging?
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[Listen for and validate responses such as the following: Talk to your friend, focus on
how you are feeling, suggest a time to hang-out together; Tell your friend that you are
happy for her, but that you are concerned she isn’t spending time with her friends;
Challenging aspects about this task might be defensiveness and a lack of
understanding regarding the abuse.]
3. Choose one person to read the second scenario aloud to the class.
Dating Scenario 2: Your male friend’s girlfriend scratches and throws objects at
him when she gets angry. He states that it is not violence because he could fight
back.
4. Discussion Questions:
a. What can you say to help him discuss the violence in his relationship?
b. Do you think it is a stereotype that only men can be abusers?
[Listen for and validate responses such as: Suggesting that the girlfriend is still
violent even if he is not fighting back; Concern for his safety; Questions regarding
what it is like for him to experience that aggression. Listen for and validate responses
such as that it is a stereotype (both men and women can be abusers and victims) or
how it might not be a stereotype (statistics suggestive that majority of abusers are
men).
5. Choose one person to read the third scenario aloud to the class
Dating Scenario 3: Amy and Paul are at a restaurant looking at a menu. Paul
asks Amy what she’s going to order and Amy says she’d like the jumbo platter.
Paul gets upset with Amy and tells her that she can’t afford to gain more weight.
He resorts to name-calling. Amy begins to cry.
6. Discussion Questions:
a. Does this scenario represent dating violence? Why or why not.
b. How can you address Paul’s behaviors and actions?
c. In what ways could you console Amy?
[Listen for and validate responses such as: Acknowledgement that scenario represents
emotional abuse (saying hurtful things, lowering self-worth); Explaining that putting
someone down/lowering someone’s self-worth is dating abuse and that making
someone feel bad about themselves is not justifiable; Planning an activity that might
help raise Amy’s self-worth (something that she is good at and enjoys).]
7. Choose one person to read the third scenario aloud to the class
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Dating Scenario 4: One day Russ stops by Jennifer’s house unannounced. She
tells him that she didn’t know he was coming over and has arranged to play tennis
with her friends. Russ loses control and threatens her with a tennis racquet. He
then breaks the racquet over his knees, but later apologizes.
8. Discussion Questions:
a. In what ways is Russ’ behavior appropriate or inappropriate?
b. If you were Jennifer, what would you do next?
c. What do you think Russ’ intentions were by breaking the racquet?
[Listen for and validate responses such as the following: Lack of appropriate
communication; unrealistic expectations; controlling and aggressive behavior;
destruction of property. Listen for and validate responses such as telling Russ to leave
and that his behaviors were unacceptable; Ask for help. Listen for and validate
responses such as fear mongering, controlling the situation, actions, and Jennifer.]
Closing Ritual
10-15 minutes before the end of the session, pass around the shoebox for students to
place their index cards. Collect shoebox. Read the questions and/or comments aloud.
Answer as many of the questions as possible. Refer to the supplemental guide for further
explanations, if needed. If students have serious questions or comments that need
immediate attention, refer students to the school psychologist or counselor or accompany
them to the office for further debriefing.
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Session 5: Resources and Questions
Goal
Test student’s knowledge of ADV through post-test and class trivia game.
Rationale
Providing students with a list of local and federal resources, supports, and services can
help facilitate those experiencing adolescent dating violence to seek help and guidance.
Emphasis of community and school-based supports can better yield preventative and
intervention efforts to combating teen dating abuse.
Materials
 Copies of Fact of Fiction Post-test (Appendix B)
 One copy of Fact or Fiction Answers (Appendix B) for teacher during trivia
game.
 Large bag of candy to pass out to students once they have completed the trivia
game.
 Resources page for students (Appendix I)
Opening Ritual
Pass out index cards to one student and have him/her distribute two to four cards per
student in the class, depending on class size. Say, These index cards are for you to
anonymously write down any comments or questions that you have regarding each
lesson. You do not have to write a question or comment, but if you are curious about
something or need clarification and do not feel comfortable speaking in front of the class,
then these cards give you the opportunity to ask those questions. 10-15 minutes before the
end of the session I will pass around a shoe box for you to put your cards and with the
remaining time, I will read the questions and try to answer them as best as I can for you.
Activity
1. Pass out the post-test to each student. Allow 10 minutes to complete quiz. Collect
quiz.
2. Prepare class for whole class trivia.
a. Break class into two teams and write team names on the board.
b. Ask questions from the Pre- Post-Test to students in random order. First
team to raise a quiet hand will provide an answer to receive a point.
Provide answers from the answer sheet.
c. The team with the most points will be the first to receive candy from the
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candy bag.
d. Congratulate students on their knowledge!
3. Pass out resources page for students. Discuss resources, hotlines, and
organizations students can contact if they need additional people to talk to, or if
they have friends who need someone to talk to about their situation. If possible,
use a classroom projector to visit the websites listed on the resource page to guide
students through the sites.
Final Ritual
10-15 minutes before the end of the session, pass around the shoebox for students to
place their index cards. Collect shoebox. Read the questions and/or comments aloud.
Answer as many of the questions as possible. Refer to the supplemental guide for further
explanations, if needed. If students have serious questions or comments that need
immediate attention, refer students to the school psychologist or counselor or accompany
them to the office for further debriefing.
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Appendices to a School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence
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Appendix A: Passive Permission Letter for Parents and Guardians
Our school is taking part in the Behind the Illusion: Middle School Curriculum
that addresses adolescent dating violence prevention. The one hour curriculum will be
administered for five consecutive days in the month of February by your student’s
homeroom teacher and all students, grades 6th through 8th, will participate. The
curriculum will cover topics including what adolescent dating violence (ADV) is,
warning signs, risk factors, and prevalence rates of ADV. The curriculum will also
include vignettes, or stories, about students who have been involved with unhealthy
and/or violent relationships. The class is expected to participate in discussions regarding
what type of violence the characters are experience and what they might do if they found
themselves in similar situations. Further, students will be given a list of resources and
community connections to address ADV should they experience it and if they need
assistance.
The purpose of this curriculum is to provide awareness to the students, staff, and
parents regarding the importance and prevalence of ADV, in order to prevent ADV in
middle and high school and foster healthy relationships throughout students’ lives.
Potential risks that may come up would be if students found certain questions or topics
sensitive or if a student is currently in a violent relationship and is coming to terms with
that fact. Teachers will never ask students to reveal any personal details about situations
if they arise and will be in touch with the school counselor or school psychologist if a
student needs a confidential place to speak about his/her situation. It is our hope that
students will have a lot to take away from this curriculum and encourage healthy
relationships among their peer groups.
This curriculum is voluntary, but we would like all students to participate. No
action will be taken if you do not want your student to participate in the curriculum.
Further, any student is able to stop participating at any point, if necessary. If you have
questions, please contact your school psychologist.
Please read the section below: Please return this slip to your student’s homeroom
teacher if you DO NOT want your child to participate in the Behind the Illusion Middle
School curriculum. Signing and returning this form will dismiss your child from
participating in the curriculum. If you have no objection to your child taking part in the
survey, you should do nothing with this form. Thank you.
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--Detach and return to the office-Child’s name: __________________________________________ Grade: ___________
I have read this form and know what the survey is about.
[ ] My child may not take part in this survey.
Parent’s signature: ___________________________________
Date:_________________
Phone number:___________________________
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Appendix B
FACT or FICTION Pre- & Post-test
(Adapted from Atlantic County Women’s Center, 2010)
Test your dating violence knowledge by answering the true/false questions and the
multiple choice questions below.
TRUE/FALSE
_____ 1. Dating violence is rare among high school students, college students and other
educated people.
_____ 2. When someone leaves an abusive relationship, the abuse usually ends.
_____ 3. Drug and/or alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence incidents.
_____ 4. The best way to get a friend to leave an abusive relationship is to "cut ties" with
them.
_____ 5. If violence occurs once in a dating relationship, it is likely to happen again.
_____ 6. Police hardly ever make arrests in dating violence situations.
MULTIPLE CHOICE (Can have more than one correct answer)
7. What kind of behavior could be considered a sign of relationship abuse?
a. your partner takes a nap while you're talking to him or her about something
important.
b. your partner tells you that you're fat and ugly.
c. your partner lets you know that he/she doesn't like it when you "flirt" with other
people.
d. you're a vegetarian, and your partner makes you eat at a restaurant with no
veggie menu.
8. What's a good way to help a friend who's in an abusive relationship?
a. offer to beat up your friend's partner.
b. offer to burn down your friend's partner's house.
c. listen when your friend wants to talk about the relationship.
d. remind your friend that he/she is beautiful, smart, and fun to be around.
9. True love is...
a. never having to say, "I’m sorry."
b. feeling that your partner's needs are just as important as your own.
c. when your partner is jealous and possessive--that's how you know he/she loves
you.
d. when you and your partner love spending all your time together.
10. Why do people abuse their partners?
a because the partner makes the abuser so angry.
c. because the abuse is trying to control the partner.
d. because they don't have much money and this causes stress in the relationship.
11. Which of the following behaviors could be considered a sign of dating violence?
a. when you try to end the relationship, your partner says he/she can't live without
you and threatens suicide.
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c. you have an argument about what to do on a Friday night, so you decide to
spend the evening alone and don't speak until the next day.
d. after you go out on a Friday night with your friends, your partner falsely
accuses you of cheating.
12. Which of the following may be a reason a person would have a difficult time leaving
an abusive relationship?
a. the victim likes the abuse--it spices up their sex life.
b. the victim still loves his/her partner.
c. the victim has been lying to you, and the abuse isn't really happening.
13. Which of the following is an important part of a healthy, loving relationship?
a. spending all your time together.
b. valuing each other's opinions and ideas.
c. having sex every day.
d. your partner is totally hot.
14. How do you keep safe in a dating relationship?
a. communicate with your partner about your expectations.
b. just don't date--it's the only way to stay safe.
d. get to know yourself and your beliefs before jumping into relationships.
Scoring
All Correct Congratulations! You’re a genius when it comes to knowing about dating
violence. Proceed to your healthy relationship!
12 or more correct Good Job! You’re pretty good when it comes to knowing about
dating violence. Knowing lots of information increases your chances of staying away
from abusive relationships and shows that you can be a good friend to someone who is
experiencing abuse. You scored a Green on the Healthy Relationship-o-meter.
11-10 correct Not Bad! You’re doing okay, but you could still do better on the Healthy
Relationship-o-meter. The more you know, the better chance you have of staying safe
and building a strong, healthy relationship. Yellow for you on the Healthy Relationshipo-meter.
9 or less correct Uh-oh! You need to head back to remedial dating violence school. You
scored a red on the Healthy Relationship-o-meter.
Red Light – Uh Oh! Head back to remedial relationship school!
Yellow Light – Not Bad! You’re doing okay, but you could do better!
Green Light – Good Job! You’re on the right track for success!
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FACT or FICTION Pre- & Post-test – ANSWERS
Test your dating violence knowledge by answering the true/false questions and the
multiple choice questions below.
TRUE/FALSE
1. FALSE Dating violence is rare among high school students, college students and other
educated people.
Dating and domestic violence is common among all people – rich, poor, black, white,
Asian, Latino, etc.
2. FALSE When someone leaves an abusive relationship, the abuse usually ends.
Unfortunately, a time when a victim is most at risk is when leaving the relationship.
This is called separation violence, and safety planning needs to be put in place for
this whenever possible.
3. TRUE Drug and/or alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence incidents.
Although drug and alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence, it is not a cause
or an “excuse.” Both victims and perpetrators of violence are much more likely to
use drugs and alcohol than people who are not in abusive relationships.
4. FALSE The best way to get a friend to leave an abusive relationship is to "cut ties"
with them. This may actually have the opposite effect. Someone who is being abused
in a relationship needs outside help and support and is very unlikely to leave that
relationship without the support and help of families and friends.
5. TRUE If violence occurs once in a dating relationship, it is likely to happen again. It is
rare for someone to hit or otherwise abuse their partner once and never do it again.
6. FALSE Police hardly ever make arrests in dating violence situations. This once was
the case when the victim had to agree to press charges before the police would make
an arrest. However, it is now mandatory in our state to make an arrest if there is
any physical evidence of abuse, even if the victim does not press charges.
MULTIPLE CHOICE (Can have more than one correct answer)
7. What kind of behavior could be considered a sign of relationship abuse?
b. your partner tells you that you're fat and ugly.
c. your partner lets you know that he/she doesn't like it when you "flirt" with other
people.
d. you're a vegetarian, and your partner makes you eat at a restaurant with no
veggie menu.
Abuse comes in many different forms – verbal, physical, mental, emotional
and sexual. The point of all abuse is power and control. As for falling asleep
when you’re talking about something important – well that’s just rude.
8. What's a good way to help a friend who's in an abusive relationship?
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c. listen when your friend wants to talk about the relationship.
d. remind your friend that he/she is beautiful, smart, and fun to be around.
It is best to listen to your friend and let him or her know that there are many
resources available for people experiencing dating violence – they’re not the
only one to go through with this, and they don’t deserved to be treated that
way.
9. True love is...
b. feeling that your partner's needs are just as important as your own.
The most productive relationships are one’s that are equal partnerships –
both partner’s needs are identified and goals are built around them.
10. Why do people abuse their partners?
c. because the abuse is trying to control the partner.
The violent partner is trying to control and have power over the victimized
partner. They may not have experienced much empowerment in their lives,
or witnessed dominating relationships.
11. Which of the following behaviors could be considered a sign of dating violence?
a. when you try to end the relationship, your partner says he/she can't live without
you and threatens suicide.
d. after you go out on a Friday night with your friends, your partner falsely
accuses you of cheating.
All of these are examples of emotional and mental abuse, as is stalking,
jealousy and isolating the victim from his or her friends.
12. Which of the following may be a reason a person would have a difficult time leaving
an abusive relationship?
b. the victim still loves his/her partner.
The victim may believe what the abuser tells him or her – that’s he or she is
nothing without that person.
13. Which of the following is an important part of a healthy, loving relationship?
b. valuing each other's opinions and ideas.
A healthy relationship includes respecting each other’s time, resources, needs
and goals.
14. How do you keep safe in a dating relationship?
a. communicate with your partner about your expectations.
d. get to know yourself and your beliefs before jumping into relationships.
Knowing yourself is always a good thing – it will benefit you in life as well as
relationships.
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Appendix C
Definition of Terms
Abuse via technology: Any type of harassment, including teasing,
telling lies, bullying, monitoring or controlling partner, making rude or
mean comments, spreading rumors that occurs through e-mail, a chat
room, instant messaging, a website, or text messaging (David-Ferdon &
Hertz, 2007).
Cyber abuse: Abuse that is conducted through the Internet. The abuser
uses social media networks to perpetrate abuse. This type of abuse
often co-occurs with emotional abuse, sexual coercion, and physical
abuse (Zweig et al., 2013).
Dating Violence: A type of intimate partner violence that occurs
between two people in a close relationship. The nature of dating
violence can be physical, emotional, or sexual (CDC, 2012).
Emotional dating violence: A type of abuse in which one partner
threatens the other or harms his/her self-worth such as name calling,
bullying, embarrassing on purpose, and/or keeping him/her away from
family and friends (CDC, 2012).
Risk factors for dating violence: “Attributes or characteristics that are
associated with an increased probability of ADV reception and/or
expression” (O’Keefe, 2005, p. 3).
Sexual dating violence: Occurs when one partner forces the other
partner to engage in a sexual act without his or her consent (CDC,
2012).
Stalking: A type of dating violence that refers to repeated harassing
and/or threatening methods used by a perpetrator that is unwanted and
causes the victim to fear the perpetrator (CDC, 2012).
Warning signs: Various behaviors that adults and peers should look for
if they suspect someone they know is in an abusive relationship
(Alabama Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 2012).
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Appendix D
Characteristics of Unhealthy versus Healthy Relationships
Healthy









Mutual Respect
Trust
Honesty
Support
Compromise
Individuality
Equality
Negotiation and fairness
Good communication
Unhealthy








Using intimidation
Using coercion and threats
Isolation and control
Harassment
Hostility
Dependence
Destruction of property
Abuse:
o Emotional
o Verbal
o Physical
o Sexual
o Psychological
o Technological
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APPENDIX E
Risk Factors and Warning Signs
Risks of having
unhealthy
relationships
increase for teens
who:
Warning Signs





Use alcohol or drugs
Hang out with violent peers
Difficulty with managing anger and frustration
Are depressed or anxious
Believe it’s okay to use threats or violence to get their
way or to express frustration or anger
 Witness violence at home or in the community
 Have a history of aggressive behavior or bullying









Physical signs of injury
Avoids friends/isolating behaviors
Dating partner monitors calls/emails
Dating partner makes frequent accusations in regards
to relationship
Excessive jealousy and control
Use of insults and intimidation
Owns or uses weapons
Refusal to end relationship
Threats t harm self and/or others
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APPENDIX F
Case Vignettes
Case of Maggie:
Maggie thought her relationship with her boyfriend Lucas was no different from
most relationships. The occasional “put-downs” and “slaps” were a normal part of being
in a relationship, especially as a teenager. Maggie, a 12-year-old 7th grader, had been
dating Lucas, a 13-year-old 8th grader, for five months. Although Lucas had a “bad”
temper, Maggie looked forward to spending time with him. She had strong feelings for
him and believed he felt the same for her. From time to time, Lucas would call Maggie
names such as “idiot,” “fat head,” and “dumb blond.” He also told her that she would
“never amount to anything” and that “no one liked” her. At times, he would push her and
slap her on the back. Maggie believed this was a natural part of being in a relationship.
She felt that this was “okay” and Lucas only did those things when he was angry.
Maggie’s friend, Jessica, agreed with Maggie. She told her “it was no big deal” and
Lucas did those things because he “loved her and did not know how to express it.”
Maggie thought, “If my friend thinks it is okay and I’m not physically hurt then my
relationship isn’t violent.”
Discussion Questions:
d. What warning signs are evident in this case?
e. What definitions of dating and dating violence is Maggie using?
f. As a friend or over-seeing peer, how could you address the physical and
emotional violence occurring in Maggie and Lucas’ relationship?
g. What factors might prevent Maggie from disclosing the violence to an
adult or friend?
Case of Stephanie:
Stephanie is a 14-year-old girl just finishing her freshman year in high school. She
has always felt awkward around the other students, never really fitting in with any
particular group. She is constantly concerned about being accepted and liked by others,
and so she decided to try out for the cheerleading squad at the start of her school year and
made the team. She noticed all of the other girls on the team had boyfriends, so she felt it
was important to have one as well. Soon, Stephanie met Matt, a 16-year-old
sophomore. He seemed to be very interested in her, always complimented her, and they
began dating. However, about three weeks into their relationship, Matt began to dictate
which friends Stephanie could spend time with and he insisted on going out with her to
any social events she was invited to. If she spoke to any other boys, he would become
angry and occasionally hit her. Additionally, Matt demanded access to Stephanie’s
Facebook and Instagram accounts, and began monitoring her social media accounts.
Stephanie thought that this behavior was typical for boys that really cared about and
loved the person they were with. She felt that he never meant to hurt her and that when he
got angry, and it was her fault for not doing as he asked of her. Matt always took her out
and bought her gifts when he would hit her, so Stephanie thought that he truly never
meant any harm and that, deep down, he was a good person that loved her.
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Discussion Questions:
a. What risk factors are evidenced in this case?
b. What are the warning signs evidenced by Stephanie and Matt
behaviors?
c. What advice/suggestions would you offer Stephanie?
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APPENDIX G
What Would You Do?
(adapted from the Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, 2005)
Scenario 1:
Your best friend has been spending all of her time with her new boyfriend, who has
isolated her from all her old friends. You have noticed that she seems to have lost her
self-confidence. You decide to talk to her about it.
Scenario 2:
Your male friend’s girlfriend scratches and throws objects at him when she gets angry.
He states that it is not violence because he could fight back. What can you say to help
him discuss the violence in his relationship?
Scenario 3:
Amy and Paul are at a restaurant looking at a menu. Paul asks Amy what she’s going to
order and Amy says she’d like the jumbo platter. Paul gets upset with Amy and tells her
that she can’t afford to gain more weight. He resorts to name-calling. Amy begins to cry.
Scenario 4:
One day Russ stops by Jennifer’s house unannounced. She tells him that she didn’t know
he was coming over and has arranged to play tennis with her friends. Russ loses control
and threatens her with a tennis racquet. He then breaks the racquet over his knees, but
later apologizes.
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APPENDIX H
You Have The Power To Help
(adapted from the Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, 2005)
It’s so easy to stand outside an abusive relationship and offer simplistic advice like, “If
you’d just do this and this, then your problems would be over!” Relationships are a
complicated web of needs and perceptions and personalities. Don’t fall into a judgmental
mode. Instead prepare yourself to really help a teen, in an abusive relationship, by getting
into a correct mindset of empathy, patience, and understanding. Try to adhere to the
following helping guidelines:





How to Help an Abused Victim
Listen, believe, and validate the victim
Avoid blaming questions. Victims are not responsible for someone else’s
choices or violence
Do not assume that the victim wants to leave the relationship or that you know
what is best for them
Become a comfort zone for the victim. Assure the victim that their
conversation to you will not be revealed to the abuser
Offer to go with the abused victim for help




How to Help an Abuser
Tell the abuser that violent behavior is not okay and that it is a sign that a
person has a problem and needs help
Offer to talk with the abuser about an alternative to violence (i.e., support
groups, counseling, talking with a trusted adult about the problem)
Don’t reinforce abusive behavior by laughing, minimizing, or ignoring an
act of violence or a threat of violence
Be a role model for healthy relationships
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APPENDIX I
List of Resources
Hotlines:
National Dating Abuse Helpline, call 1-866-331-9474
o Direct service provider behind loveisrespect.org
o Operating 24/7 phone, text, and chat services
National Domestic Violence Hotline, call 1-800-799-SAFE
o Available 24 hours a day and assistance offered in numerous languages
o Provides crisis intervention, safety planning, information, and referrals
o Operating 24/7 phone, text, and chat services
Organizations:
Break the Cycle
o Provides tools and materials for teens, parents, and educators
o http://www.breakthecycle.org/
National Resource Center for Teen Dating Violence Awareness Month
o Resource center is a collaborative effort to promote teen dating awareness month
and all other related activities
o http://teendvmonth.org/
National Organization for Victim Assistance, call 800-TRY-NOVA
o Provides information and referrals
o Operating 24/7 phone line
o http://trynova.org/
Community United Against Violence
o Offers direct assistance, education and outreach within the LGBTQQ
communities
o (415) 333-HELP (4357) (San Francisco, CA/Bay Area)
o http://cuav.org/
National Center for Victims of Crime
o Online center offering fact sheets, articles, posters, and information regarding
teens experiencing violence.
o http://www.ncvc.org/tvp/Main.aspx
National Online Resource Center on Violence against Women
o offers information for teens, parents, educators, health care professionals, and
domestic and sexual violence service providers
o http://VAWnet.org
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References for A School-Wide Approach to Preventing Adolescent Dating Violence
California Education Code, Section 200-201. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=edc&group=0000101000&file=200-201.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Teen dating violence. Retrieved from
www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence.
Crime and Violence Prevention Center at California Attorney General’s Office. (2008). A
guide to addressing teen dating and sexual violence in a school setting. Retrieved
from http://www.ocjs.ohio.gov/TDVMonth/AssessingTDViolence.pdf.
David-Ferdon, C., & Hertz, M. F. (2007). Electronic media, violence, and adolescents:
An emerging public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S1–S5.
doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.020
Eccles, J.S., Midgley, C.W., Allan, B., Miller, C., Rueman, D., Flanagan, C.M., Mac
Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stageenvironment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families.
American Psychologist, 48, 90-101. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.90
Education Task Force. (2005). Teen Dating Violence Toolbox. Salt Lake Area Domestic
Violence Coalition. Retrieved from
http://www.health.utah.gov/vipp/pdf/DatingViolence/Toolbox.pdf.
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Khubchandani, J., Telljohann, S., Price, J., Drake, J., & Hendershot, C. (2013). Providing
assistance to the victims of adolescent dating violence: A national assessment of
school nurses’ practices. Journal of School Health, 83, 127-136. doi:
10.1111/josh.12008
Love Is Respect. (2012). Dating basics: Is my relationship healthy? Retrieved from
http://www.loveisrespect.org/dating-basics/dating-basics
Martsolf, D. S., Draucker, C., & Brandau, M. (2013). Breaking up is hard to do: How
teens end violent dating relationships. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses
Association, 19, 71-77. doi: 10.1177/1078390313484801
The Women’s Center. (2010). Atlantic City Women’s Center. Retrieved from
http://www.ncdsv.org/images/dating%20violence%20quiz.pdf
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APPENDIX C
Behind the Illusion: Addressing Adolescent Dating Violence
A Small-Group Curriculum for High School Students
104
Behind the Illusion:
Addressing Adolescent Dating
Violence
A Small-Group Curriculum for High School Students
Marisa C. Acosta
Brynn E. Balcom
Caitlin A. Conheim
105
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Program Overview ...........................................................................................................107
Session 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................108
Session 2: Goal Setting ....................................................................................................112
Session 3: Hidden Strengths in Me ..................................................................................116
Session 4: Self-Esteem Game ..........................................................................................118
Session 5: Stereotypes......................................................................................................120
Session 6: Compliments...................................................................................................123
Session 7: Practice What You Preach ..............................................................................126
Session 8: Difficult Situations .........................................................................................128
Session 9: Building Healthy Relationships ......................................................................132
Appendices to a Small-Group Curriculum for High School Students
Appendix A: Teacher Referral Form ...............................................................................135
Appendix B: Permission Letter for Parents and Guardians for Group Counseling .........137
Appendix C: Student Pre- & Post-Evaluation Form ........................................................139
Appendix D: Group Evaluation Form..............................................................................140
Appendix E: Teen Dating Violence Bill of Rights ..........................................................142
Appendix F: Goal Setting ................................................................................................143
Appendix G: Fact or Fiction Pre- & Post-Test ................................................................144
Appendix H: Definition of Terms ....................................................................................150
106
Appendix I: Positive Attributes .......................................................................................151
Appendix J: “At My Best” ...............................................................................................152
Appendix K: Stereotype Activity.....................................................................................153
Appendix L: Emotional Abuse Checklist ........................................................................154
Appendix M: Difficult Situations ....................................................................................155
Appendix N: Safety Plans ................................................................................................156
Appendix O: “Advice Please” .........................................................................................157
Appendix P: Qualities of a Healthy Relationship ............................................................158
Appendix Q: Building Blocks ..........................................................................................159
Appendix R: Resources for Students ...............................................................................160
References for A Small-Group Curriculum for High School Students ...........................161
107
Program Overview
This program is designed for high school psychologists and counselors as an introduction
to the prevalence and implications of adolescent dating violence on school campuses. It is
intended to address teens’ views of relationships and foster healthy relationships among
high school teens through a small group intervention curriculum. It is crucial to educate
students regarding what constitutes adolescent dating violence. However, it is equally
important to help them learn and understand the elements of a healthy relationship so
they can strive to foster healthy relationships for themselves. A healthy relationship
consists of mutual respect, honesty, emotional support, respected boundaries,
communication, encouragement, and safety (Love is Respect, 2012). Ideally, if
adolescents are knowledgeable of what comprises healthy and unhealthy relationships,
they will be more likely to seek those that are healthy. In addition to being less likely to
seek or find themselves in unhealthy relationships, awareness of ADV amongst
adolescents will help them to recognize when their peers are in abusive relationships and
help encourage them to get help (Love is Respect, 2012).
Small Group Approach
In order to prevent, intervene, and provide post-treatment to those who experience ADV,
it is important to be clear as to what truly constitutes adolescent dating violence. High
school students have likely begun relationships with other students, some more intimate
than others, without understanding that a relationship can be positive or negative.
Adolescents themselves must also understand the psychological and behavioral aspects
that comprise adolescent dating violence in order to foster positive and healthy
relationships.
The Curriculum
School psychologists or counselors in the high school setting should implement the
Behind the Illusion curriculum. The program consists of 9 45-minute sessions, which
include vignettes, dating scenarios, and activities. The lectures and activities all have a
focus on student involvement and whole-group discussion to combat adolescent dating
violence.
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Session 1: Introduction
Goal
Learn about the group and the purpose of the group.
Opening statement
I have invited you into the group because I wanted us to focus on how to create and
maintain positive relationships. Each of you knows something about challenging or
negative relationships and it is my hope that we will all have ideas on how to help each
other achieve more positive relationships with others. These meetings are an
opportunity to get to know others in similar situations as your own, which we will do in
approximately nine sessions. My hope is that we can all learn something about
ourselves, each other, and learn some ways other teens have managed to engage in
healthy relationships, even after experiencing unhealthy or abusive relationships.
Name game
(adapted from Cooley, 2009)
Goal
Get to know other group members.
Rationale
Knowing one another’s names is important in creating a sense of group trust,
cohesiveness, and community. Learning each others’ names is the first step towards
being able to identify and make connections with each other.
Materials
List of positive descriptors if students need help figuring out what word to use
(Appendix I)
Activity
1. Say, But to start, we will learn each others’ names. To make it a little more fun,
how about we add a descriptor to our names. I’ll go first. (example, my name is
Ms. Balcom and I am benevolent) Let’s go around the room and say your name
and a word to describe you.
2. Each person says her/his name and a describing word. If a student is having
trouble coming up with a word, provide a list of adjectives for each letter.
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3. Once each student has gone around, say, Now we’ll amp it up a little bit more.
Who thinks they can remember two names and descriptors? Pick a volunteer to
state a couple of names. Admire volunteers listening skills. Ask if one or two
more students can remember more or if they just want to try. Again, admire
volunteers’ listening skills.
Discussion
1. Did you find out anything surprising about anyone in the group?
2. How was it attaching an adjective or descriptor to a person’s name? to your own
name?
3. Did it help you remember?
[Listen for and validate positive and negative traits and attributes.]
Establishing rules
(adapted from Cooley, 2009)
Goal
To establish rules and protocols that will be used to guide each group session.
Rationale
Guidelines must be established as a collective group so all input is valued and respected.
Materials
 Chalk or whiteboard
 Writing utensil for brainstorming
 A piece of paper to record the guidelines once there is agreement.
Activity
1. Group leader will write down group members’ ideas and suggestions for the
group guidelines and rules.
2. Group leaders should say, What guidelines or rules would be helpful in ensuring
that everyone has a chance to share and be heard in our sessions together?
3. Group leader will help students to phrase the guidelines and rules in positive
terms (i.e. the behaviors that they want to see). For example, Instead of “do not
interrupt each other,” say “raise your hand if you want to speak.”
110
4. Group members will come up with 3-5 guidelines.
5. If not done by the students, the leader will facilitate confidentiality as a guideline
to follow. This is especially important with this group of students, as this is a
sensitive subject. Say Because this may be a sensitive subject for some members
of this group, it’s important that we make a pledge to keep everything that we say
in this group confidential. What we say in group stays in group to protect
everyone and to make sure everyone is heard without fear of anyone outside of
the group knowing. However, if anyone expresses that she/he is hurting
her/himself, someone is hurting her/him, or anyone is planning to hurt someone
else, then those would be times when we would need to speak to someone outside
of the group. Does anyone have any questions about that?
6. Group leader will copy all of the rules onto a sheet of paper. The group members
and leader will all sign the sheet if they are all in agreement with the guidelines
created.
7. Group leader will photocopy the group guidelines and bring a copy for each group
member to refer to during the remaining meetings.
Closing Activity/Ritual: Teen Dating Bill of Rights
(adapted from the Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, n.d.)
Goal
Develop a closing ritual using the Bill of Rights for teen dating violence as a way to
foster self-reliance and self-worth in relationships.
Rationale
All people should feel safe and secure in relationships without feeling forced to do things
that make them uncomfortable or be someone they are not.
Materials
 Teen Dating Violence Bill of Rights (Appendix E)
Activity
1. Hand each student a copy of the Teen Dating Violence Bill of Rights.
111
2. Group leader will read each “right” aloud to the group, then ask the students to
pick one that particularly resonates with them.
3. Once students have chosen a “right,” create a new list with the 5-8 “rights” that
the students have chosen.
4. This new list will be the pledge the group members will recite at the end of each
session as their closing activity.
5. The class can either read the new list together aloud, or each student can recite
one.
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Session 2: Goal Setting
(adapted from In the Future, I... Taylor & Trice-Black, 2007)
Goal
For each student to write down meaningful and attainable goals regarding their
current/future relationships
Rationale
Goal setting is a helpful way for teens to break up daunting tasks into smaller chunks.
Accomplishing small goals on one's way to reaching a large goal is empowering and
motivating because self-confidence is fostered as smaller goals are achieved.
Materials
 A “Goals Sheet” handout (Appendix F)
 A pen or pencil for each student
Activity
1. As a group, discuss how individual goals are beneficial and related to the students’
futures.
2. Explain to the students that today they will be setting short term goals. Explain
that sometimes we must set and accomplish small goals in order to reach our
larger goals. The leader should clarify the difference between short-term and longterm goals.
3. Give each student a copy of the Goals Sheet handout and a pencil or pen.
4. The leader should give the students a few examples of good short-term goals
while encouraging them to think about what they want and need. For example, “I
will value my own feelings and acknowledge if something does not feel right,” or
“I will find someone who I feel comfortable talking with about my relationship if
I need help.”
5. Next, students will write down their individual goals on their goals sheets.
6. After the students have finished, the leader should pair the students up allowing
them to share the goals that they wrote on their piece of paper. The students may
also share why these goals are important to them.
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7. Leader should emphasize how these goals, if worked toward and reached, will
help benefit the students’ futures.
Discussion
1. Ask if anyone would like to share one of her individual goals with the group.
2. What do you think could be different about your life if you accomplished the
goals you wrote? What could be different about your relationship?
2. How do the goals you have chosen affect more than one aspect of your life?
[Listen for and validate responses such as: wanting better grades, more positive
relationships, and higher self-confidence.]
Fact or Fiction?
(adapted from Atlantic County Women’s Center, 2010)
Goals
Determine group members’ knowledge about ADV and develop an acceptance of the
problem
Rationale
Students should be able to test their knowledge on ADV, then challenge their viewpoints
when discussing the answers.
Materials
 Fact or Fiction quiz (Appendix G)
Activity
1. Group leader will pass out the Fact or Fiction quiz about ADV. Students will be
given 10-15 minutes to complete the quiz. Once completed, group leader will
invite the group members discuss their thoughts about the quiz, their answers, etc.
2. Questions:
a. How was that quiz for you?
b. Did you learn anything about yourself, a friend, a relationship you
were/are in?
c. Were some of the questions easy for you to answer? Difficult?
d. Can you think of other questions that came to mind while you were
completing the quiz?
3. The group leader will read the questions aloud and ask for volunteers to give their
114
answers. This may be a risky activity for some students, so if they are not
comfortable, the group leader can read the answers aloud and try to generate
conversation/discussion about each answer. The group leader should read from
the Fact or Fiction? Answer sheet.
Discussion
1. Now that you have the answers, did anything change?
2. Do you feel the same or different after knowing what the answers are?
3. Does your opinion on ADV change or remain the same?
4. Are you able to reflect on your relationship and determine whether or not it is
healthy?
[Listen for and validate responses that indicate that a student is in an unhealthy
relationship, or whose opinions and perceptions have not changed. Listen for and validate
responses that indicate positive changes in perceptions and growth.]
Definition of Terms
Goal
Teach students the definitions of different types of dating violence.
Rationale
There are many different types of dating violence that affect relationships. Students
should be aware of each type and how it may look in their relationships.
Materials
 Definition of terms handout (Appendix H)
Activity
1. Share with the class the types of ADV, with subsequent examples of each type.
a. Physical: The intent of physical force to cause injury, such as hitting,
kicking, slapping, pinching, shoving, strangling, or using a weapon.
b. Verbal/Emotional: The intent of harming one’s self-worth to cause nonphysical emotional injury. This includes threats, insults, name-calling,
bullying, humiliation, intimidation, or isolation.
c. Sexual: The intent of harming a partner in a sexual manner, such as
forcing sexual acts without consent, controlling sexual activity, or the
circumstances in which sexual activity occurs.
d. Stalking: This refers to unsolicited, persistent actions by a perpetrator,
including being harassed, followed, or watched.
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e. Technological/Social: The intent of bullying, stalking, harassing, or
intimidating a partner through the use of technology, such as texting,
social media, and social networking.
Discussion
1. How do your views on ADV change?
2. Are there any types of abuse that you did not understand before?
3. Do you think any of these are affecting or have affected your relationship?
[Listen for and validate what types of abuse students are willing to share from personal
experiences, if any. Listen for and validate honest and courageous responses.]
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 3: Hidden Strengths in Me
(Adapted from Cooley, 2011)
Goal
To help student discover hidden positive attributes about themselves.
Rationale
Sometimes it is easier for one to recognize positive attributes in others than it is to see
them within one's self. This activity is designed to help students identify their own
positive attributes by finding them in others first, and coming to realize that a person can
only see attributes in other people that they themselves have as well.
Materials
 A piece of paper as well as a pen or pencil for each student
 The list of pre-written positive attributes (Appendix I)
Activity
1. Leader will pass out a pencil or pen and a piece of paper to each group member.
2. Explain that each group member is to think of five people they admire the most,
and that their five people can be anyone in the world, living or deceased. Assure
the students that they will have the option to share out loud later, but it will not be
required. Then tell students to write each person's name on the piece of paper
provided. The order in which they write the names does not matter.
3. While students are brainstorming and writing down their five people, the leader
can refer to the pre-written positive attribute list and quickly transfer the list
contents onto a whiteboard or a large piece of poster paper hanging up in the room
for student reference.
4. Once students have written down the five names, leader will instruct students to
go back through each person on the list, and write down all of the attributes that
they admire about each person they have on their list. Tell students that if they
need help thinking of positive attributes, there is a list (on the whiteboard or on a
poster hanging up in the room) to assist them.
5. When students have finished writing down the attributes for each person, have
students go back through the current list and circle the five attributes that are
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repeated the most throughout all five people listed.
6. Lastly, have students make a new list (either at the bottom of their paper or on the
backside of their paper) in which they write down the five attributes that they
circled the most.
7. At this point, the leader will instruct the group members to silently read over the
final list of the most common positive attributes identified.
8. Leader will then inform the students that the positive attributes they just listed the
most about the five people they admire are, in fact, the attributes that they
themselves have as well. The leader will explain to the group members that a
person can only recognize positive attributes in other people when they
themselves have those attributes.
Discussion
1. What do you think about this final list? Are you able to recognize any of these
positive attributes in yourself?
2. What surprised you about the positive attributes on your final list?
3. What is it like for you to know that you embody the same attributes you admire
about others?
[Listen for and validate an ability to find positive traits about themselves.]
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 4: Self-Esteem Game
(Toilet Paper Game from National Healthy Marriage Center, 2011)
Goal
To provide group cohesion and build self-esteem.
Rationale
This is intended to be a low risk activity, which facilitates students’ learning about
others and increase self-worth.
Materials
 Roll of toilet paper (1)
Activity
1. Have the group of students form a circle and be seated.
2. Pass out the roll of toilet paper and ask each member of the group to tear off
as many sheets of toilet paper as they think they need. This is the only
instruction given to the students.
3. Once every student has completed the task, the leader will inform students
that for each sheet torn off they have to share a positive trait and/or strength
about themselves to the group.
Discussion
1. Did you find it risky tearing off pieces of paper without knowing what you were
going to be asked to do?
2. How was it for you to say positive qualities about yourself aloud verses writing
those positive qualities down on the paper?
[Listen for and validate responses such as validation, self-appreciation, but also
challenging, awkward.]
“At My Best”
(from StrengthsQuest, 2008)
Goal
To appreciate talents and positive qualities. Recognize talents and positive qualities in
relationships.
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Rationale
This activity allows students to reflect on their personal strengths, talents, and attributes.
Materials
 An “At My Best” (Appendix J) handout and a pen or pencil for each student.
Activity
1. Give each student a copy of “At My Best” handout and a pen or pencil.
2. Instruct students to fill out each of the listed areas. Inform students that the
qualities they list should be a self-evaluation regarding their own life. The
leader will give examples in order to inspire students own ideas. After everyone
has completed the activity, encourage each person to share with the group.
Discussion
1. What was it like for you to do this activity?
2. Sometimes people see their faults before they can really see all of their talents.
What happens to you if you are asked to list your talents?
3. Do you think you are “at your best” in relationships?
4. Do you recognize your own talents in relationships? Does your significant other
recognize your talents? Do you recognize your significant other’s talents? Do
you and/or your significant other focus on faults over talents?
5. While doing this activity did you recognize areas that you wished to improve? If
you did, how would you start in taking the steps towards improving yourself?
6. Do you feel like your relationship allows you to improve in some areas? Are
you forced to improve?
[Listen for and validate students’ ability to recognize their own positive talents and
relationship qualities in themselves, as well as their partners. Listen for and validate
responses that indicate relationships that are unbalanced or authoritative.]
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 5: Stereotypes
(adapted from Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, 2005)
Goal
Allows people to express their views on ADV, as well as learn about other members of
the group. This is a way for the group to dispel myths about ADV.
Rationale
This activity can provide an opportunity for students to talk about their thoughts,
understanding, and views on ADV.
Materials
 Stereotype Activity sheet (Appendix K), with boxes cut out
 A bowl or hat to put pieces of paper in.
Activity
1. Have each student pick a stereotype out of the hat and tell you if it is true or
abusively false.
2. Have students go through with each stereotype and discuss what they thought
it might be true or false.
3. Once the group has gone through each of the stereotypes, say, We need to all
look at our own stereotypes and perspectives about men and women and how
we learned to treat others based on what we were taught in our past. We need
to keep an open mind that some of these attitudes are not healthy or correct
and will be damaging in our male-female relationships.
4. Acknowledge that the students have their own way of viewing ADV, but state
that all of the stereotypes that the group went through are in fact FALSE. Each
are a form of abuse in relationships and none should be considered a healthy
or normal part of a relationship.
Discussion
1. What did you discover about yourself while doing this activity?
2. Did this activity change your views on ADV? Why or why not?
3. Do you think certain stereotypes influence your behaviors in relationships?
4. Think of the images in the media regarding violence against women. What are
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common stereotypes that are present in movies, TV shows, reality television?
Are the same stereotypes against women used against men?
[Listen for and validate views that have not changed and those that have changed and
grown. Listen for and validate responses such as: what students believe are stereotypes of
relationship and/or dating violence, indications that students are experiencing violence in
their relationships.]
Emotional Abuse Checklist
Goal
Identify the ideas that the group members have about emotional abuse and whether they
are experiencing emotional abuse in their relationships.
Rationale
Students should learn to identify whether they are experiencing emotional abuse in their
relationships.
Materials
 Emotional Abuse Checklist (Appendix L)
Activity
1. Pass out the Emotional Abuse Checklist to group members.
2. Have students mark whether the phrases are often, sometimes, rarely, or never
true.
3. Once the students have completed the checklist, discuss their answers, if
comfortable.
4. Explain to the students that the more “never” boxes they have checked is
indicative of a healthy relationship.
Discussion
1. How was this activity for you?
2. What did you find out about yourself while doing this activity?
3. Did you have more “often” boxes checked or “never” boxes checked?
4. Does this make you think about your relationship in a different way? The same?
5. Is there anything you would change about your current relationship? Past
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relationships?
[Listen for and validate responses that indicate prosocial/positive behaviors to have with
a partner. Listen for and validate responses that indicate a lack of awareness of an
unhealthy relationship and/or an unwillingness or inability to change negative behaviors
in their relationships.]
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 6: Compliments
(from Jones, 1998)
Goal
Students will give and receive positive compliments as a way to improve self-esteem.
Rationale
Students who have low self-esteem can benefit from hearing and giving positive
compliments about themselves.
Materials
 One envelope per person
 3x5 index cards
 Pens or pencils.
Activity
1. Split students into two equal groups. Pass out an envelope and a pen or pencil
to each student. Every student should also receive four to five 3x5 index cards
(enough for the student to write a compliment about each of their group
members on the other team; i.e. if there are 4 group members on one team
they need 4 cards each). Have students put their name on the front of the
envelope, as well as in the top right corner of each 3 X 5 index card.
2. After the students have written their name on their envelope and 3x5 index
cards, explain to students that they will be writing a compliment about each of
their peers in the opposite group. The leader should give students some
examples of compliments. Make sure leader informs the students that the
compliments they write will be read out loud during a later part of the activity.
3. Once students have completed name labeling noted above, leader will collect
students’ envelopes from group 1 and give them to group 2 and vice versa.
Each student should have one envelope for each peer from the other group.
Tell students that they should write down an attribute that they admire about
the person whose envelope they have on one of their 3x5 index cards and
placed their compliment into that member’s envelope. When finished they
should pass it to their own group member to their right.
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4. Repeat this process and continue passing the envelopes to the right until
everyone in their group has written down a comment for everyone in the other
group. When students are done, the leader should collect all the envelopes
(keep them in separate piles, i.e. group 1 and group 2).
5. The leader then reveals that this is actually a challenge and that groups are
going to be competing against each other for points. The objective is to be
the team with the most points by the end. Explain that you, the leader, will be
reading a compliment out loud from a selected envelope to group member
whose name is on the front of the envelope. The student, who the compliment
was about, will then guess which group member on the other team wrote that
compliment about her. They can work with their team members to come up
with a guess. If that student guesses correctly, that team receives a point.
6. The leader then selects one of the envelopes from the first team and pulls out
one of the index cards. The leader will read the compliment out loud to that
student, without reading the name of the student who wrote it. The student
will guess who wrote the comment. If they guess correctly, give them a point.
7. After the student on team 1 guesses, the leader will select an envelope for a
student on team 2. The leader will switch off from one team to the other, and
read a comment from each student’s envelope before starting over with the
first person again. Continue in this process until all comments have been read
from each student’s envelope. At the end, congratulate the team who earned
the most points and thank both groups for participating. Then give the
students their envelopes back. Tell them they are welcome to keep their
envelope as a reminder of all their good qualities.
Discussion
1. What was it like for you to hear all those positive things about yourself?
2. Were you surprised about anything that was said about you?
3. What was it like for you to guess who said the compliment about you?
4. How does it affect you to hear positive things from others outside of this group?
5. Do you think it is important to hear positive things from your significant other?
6. Do you think giving compliments to and receiving compliments from your
significant other hurts or helps a relationship?
7. Should compliments or positive things only be said by one person in the
relationship or both people?
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[Listen for and validate responses such as: willingness to accept compliments or positive
remarks, feelings (positive and/or negative) when receiving compliments, and awareness
of the language that occurs in each relationship and how it affects their emotional
wellbeing.]
If a student brings up the fact that sometimes it is hard to accept compliments from others
or that they often deflect the compliment by saying “Oh, no I’m not” instead of “Thank
you,” use the following questions to further the discussion.
1. What is different when you do accept a compliment?
2. What difference would it make if you embraced the compliment?
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 7: Practice What You Preach
(adapted from Taylor and Trice-Black, 2007)
Goal
This activity is intended to have students practice making solution-focused good
relationship decisions.
Rationale
Learning how to make good decisions about the relationship one is can be hard,
especially during adolescence. Making a decision that is in our best interest is not
always easy. This activity will help students to think about issues they and their group
members have faced in past romantic relationships, and appropriate ways to deal with
these issues.
Materials
 “Advice Please Template” (Appendix M)
 Pencils or pens.
*Please note the names, genders and sexual orientation of the people in the “Advice
Please” handout can be modified for male students in unhealthy relationships as well as
homosexual males or females in unhealthy relationships.
Activity
1. Pass out a copy of “Advice Please” handout to each student. Read the “Advice
Please” handout with students.
2. Ask the students what kind of advice they would give this person based on their
past experiences. Ask them if they asked for advice from anyone when they
were in their unhealthy relationships. If they did, ask them if and how it helped.
If they did not, ask them if they wish they had and why. Discuss why they think
people might ask for advice as well as what the benefits to receiving advice
from others might be.
3. Explain that each student will be creating their own “Advice Please” situationby asking his or her own questions and then answering someone else's.
4. Distribute an “Advice Please” template with a writing instrument to each
student.
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5. Have the student write a letter asking for advice about a real or imagined
unhealthy/abusive relationship situation. After they have finished, collect all
templates and redistribute in a different order.
6. Have the students answer the letter that they receive and give helpful advice that
emphasizes solutions to the writer’s problems. Remind them that the way to
provide solution-focused advice is to give suggestions of actions that the person
can take, as opposed to telling them what they should not do.
7. After everyone completes the response, group members may share the advice
they offered.
Discussion
1. Was it easy or hard to give advice? Why?
2. What did you think about getting advice?
3. What was it like to give advice to someone who has experienced being in an
unhealthy relationship similar to you?
4. How do you think that giving good advice can help you in making your own
decisions?
5. It is easy or hard to follow your own advice? Why?
[Listen for and validate the individuals what are unable or unwilling to accept advice
from others, and decision-making skills. Listen for and validate advice from an individual
to another individual in the same situation. Validate ability to provide solutions from a
strength-based perspective and an awareness for students to apply their own advice to
their personal situation.]
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 8: Difficult Situations
(adapted from Vernon, 2006)
Goal
For students to understand the relationship between how they think about themselves
and the risks associated with engaging in an abusive relationship.
Rationale
Students in high school are affected when engaged in unhealthy and abusive
relationships. Some students are susceptible to staying in relationships that are not
healthy or may often change their actions to match what partner sees as acceptable.
Materials
 A “Difficult Situation” handout (Appendix N)
 A pencil or pen for each student
 A handout with resources (Appendix R) to share with the students that they can
take at the end of the session.
Activity
The leader should start a discussion by asking students if they have ever wanted to do
something their partner didn’t want them to do, or thought about ending an unhealthy
relationship, but did not know if it was the right thing to do. If no students volunteer an
example, then begin by passing out a copy of the “Difficult Situation” worksheet to each
student and the resources handout. Leader will read the following situations out loud and
ask the students to finish each scenario.
*Please note the names, genders and sexual orientation of the people in these
situations can be modified for male students in unhealthy relationships as well as
homosexual males or females in unhealthy relationships.
1. On Friday night, Chelsea wants to go see a movie with her friends, but her
boyfriend doesn’t want her spending time with her friends. He says he wants
her to spend all of her free time with him so that he knows where and who she
is with at all times. Chelsea wants to tell him she is going, but she is afraid if
she does he might…
2. Samantha just discovered that her boyfriend figured out her personal passwords
without asking her, and has been looking at her text messages and call log on
her phone, as well as searching through her Facebook profile and email account
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without telling her. She wants to confront him, but doesn’t know what to say.
One way she might approach this is…
3. Lindsey really loves her boyfriend Dan, and he can be so sweet to her.
However, when Dan gets angry with Lindsey he tells her she is stupid and
worthless. Sometimes he calls her even worse names. He has never physically
hurt her so she continues to date him. If Lindsey continues to stay with him she
may…
4. Taylor’s boyfriend is physically abusive. It began with him losing his temper
and pushing her down to the ground, but the last time he got angry with her he
hit her across the face and gave her a black eye. At this point she is worried
that if she breaks up with him, he will physically hurt her even worse that he has
in the past. She is scared and doesn’t know where to seek help. Who and where
can Taylor access different types of help so that she can safely end this abusive
relationship?
5. The leader will then ask if any student will be willing to share their responses to
any of the prompts.
Discussion
1. What advice would you give to these girls in the above situations?
2. How did you come up this idea?
3. Can anyone think of an alternate way to respond to any of these situations?
4. Is anyone willing to share a similar or abusive experience they have had with a
past partner? How did you handle the situation? Is there anything you would
have done differently? If you had a friend that was in your same situation, what
is the advice you would give them?
[Listen for and validate the individuals what are unable or unwilling to accept advice
from others, but that are also able to give and receive advice freely. Listen for and
validate responses such as: an understanding of the lessons and an ability to learn and
grow from the provided lessons, and their strength and willingness to share personal
experiences with the group.]
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Creating a Safety Plan
(adapted from Salt Lake Area Domestic Violence Coalition, 2005)
Goal
For students to become aware of safety precautions to minimize risk of being involved
in a violent incident.
Rationale
There are times when no matter what is done, a violent incident will occur in a dating
relationship. Students can become knowledgeable of different safety plans to increase
promotion of ways to stay protected. These safety plans will also help students know
what to do if they become victimized in a violent relationship.
Materials
 “Safety Plans” handout (Appendix O)
Activity
1. The leader should start a discussion by asking students if they have ever felt they
have been in a dangerous and unsafe situation with a dating partner. Leader will
then ask those students how they handled the situation. Leader will pass out the
“Safety Plans” handout to further elicit group discussion.
Discussion
1. After reviewing the Safety Plans, is there anything you would do differently?
2. Are there other ways you can think of to minimize the risk of being involved in
a violent incident?
[Listen for and validate responses that indicate that a student does not believe they have a
safe place. Provide support, solutions, and alternative plans, if needed.]
Closure
Thank the students for being open and sharing today. Acknowledge that this is difficult to
talk about, but you are grateful they have. Remind them that the resources handout is
something for them to keep and use in the future should they need to do so. Additionally,
remind them that the resources on the handout can be used even if they are no longer in
an abusive relationship, but are still having a difficult time coping with their past abusive
relationship.
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Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Session 9: Building Healthy Relationships
(adapted from Santabarbara, Erbe, & Cooper, 2009)
Goal
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to do the following:
 Identify and describe the qualities of a healthy relationship after creating their
own version of a healthy relationship.
 Explore the influence their own personal values and beliefs have within an
intimate relationship.
Rationale
Adolescent students become interested in the opposite sex, and as a result, begin to
develop intimate relationships. If students learn how to build healthy and strong
connections with their partner, they will be able to develop lasting intimate bonds and
avoid becoming involved in unhealthy/abusive relationships.
Materials
 “Qualities of a Healthy Relationship” handout (Appendix P)
 “Relationship Building Blocks” graphic organizer (Appendix Q)
 Pencils or pens.
Activity
1. With the group leader’s guidance, students are asked to define a romantic/intimate
relationship. Leader will elicit student answers and discussion.
2. Leader will distribute the “Qualities of a Healthy Relationship” handout and the
“Relationship Building Blocks” graphic organizer. Leader will ask students to
‘Construct their healthiest relationship’ while working in pairs, by placing the
relationship attributes listed on the “Qualities of a Healthy Relationship” handout
into their graphic organizers following the procedure below.
3. Students will select qualities that illustrate the five MOST important qualities of a
healthy relationship. These five qualities will represent the foundation of a
healthy relationship. They will write in these five choices in the five boxes that
are at the bottom of all of the boxes in the graphic organizer. The process will be
continued by working upward (one less quality/box in each successive row)
throughout the creation of a healthy relationship structure. Each successive row
will consist of the next most important qualities in a healthy relationship with the
least most important quality being written into the top, single box.
4. Leader will then have students answer the questions in the five boxes outside of
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the graphic organizer, and the box below. This will allow students to analyze their
healthy relationship structures by answering the questions.
5. Leader will then ask each pair to share their “healthy relationship.”
6. Leader will then facilitate a discussion in which “healthy relationships” created by
students are compared, and similarities and differences are addressed.
7. The leader will then ask the students why qualities such as love, trust, honesty,
and companionship must be built and focused upon first in order for a healthy
relationship to be built. Discuss with students.
8. The leader will then ask the students how these characteristics (love, trust, honesty,
and companionship) can be developed into a relationship. Discuss with students.
Discussion
For this activity, discussion in embedded in and throughout the entire activity.
[Listen for and validate their ability to identify and prioritize qualities that they believe
make up a healthy relationship, and for those students who prioritize qualities that
suggest an unhealthy relationship. Show appreciation and input in their overall
involvement in the group.]
Closure
Leader will thank everyone for participating and remind students that the next time they
are entering a relationship, they can use the information they have learned here today to
ensure they are entering and building a healthy relationship. Lastly, the leader will
remind the students that no one should tolerate a unhealthy/abusive relationship.
Everyone deserves to be in a healthy relationship including them.
Closing Ritual
Recite the Teen Dating Pledge.
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Appendices to a Small-Group Curriculum for High School Students
135
APPENDIX A: Teacher Referral Form
Teacher:
Date:
Student:
Grade:
1. Why do you think this student will benefit from partaking in this group?
____________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. Please describe this student’s overall temperament and behavior in your
class.
____________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
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_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________________________
3. Please describe the student’s peer interaction (in and/or outside) the
classroom.
____________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
____________________________________________
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APPENDIX B: Permission Letter for Parents and Guardians for Group Counseling
Counseling Department
Name of Student:
Date:
Homeroom
Teacher:
Grade:
Dear Parents/Guardians,
The mission of the counseling department this high school is to provide guidance and
support for students in developing the skills that they need to be self-directed, successful
students, and members of society. To assist in the development of these skills, we offer a
variety of small counseling groups throughout the school year.
Your student, ___________________, has been carefully selected to participate in a
small group experience, which is intended to foster empowerment and healthy relationship
skills. We have selected your student because it is our belief that she/he will be able to make
many positive relationship decisions, as well as have a unique opportunity to gain from the
genuine interactions with others. Some of the topics that will be addressed during group
sessions are: (1) self-confidence, (2) self-discovery, and (3) decision making in relationships.
The group will begin on __________ and will meet every _______ for nine sessions.
Each session will be 45 minutes and meet directly after lunch. Students will be responsible for
any schoolwork missed during the group sessions, but teachers have agreed to work with
students to ensure they are able to make up their work in a timely manner.
Participation in the group is voluntary and confidential. The student/counselor
relationship is one based on trust and confidentially. Our goal is to ensure a safe and positive
experience that benefits the students and those around them. Information disclosed by the
group will not be shared with anyone, except in limited situations. These situations include:
Threatening behaviors of harm by the student to herself or others, revelations of abuse, and
illegal activities that jeopardize the safety of the group or others.
Feel free to contact us if you have any questions or concerns, or would like further
information. We may be reached at the counseling department. 8am to 3pm at (555) 555-4475.
Please return the attached permission slip by _______________.
Sincerely,
School Psychologist
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Permission Letter for Parents and Guardians for Group Counseling
Please return this slip to your student’s homeroom teacher
Yes! I give permission for my student, ___________________, to participate in this
group.
No I do not permission give my student, ___________________, to participate in this
group.
I would like more information. Please contact me at (
) ______-___________
___________________________________
Parent/Guardian Name (please print)
__________________________________
______________________
Parent/Guardian Signature
Date
___________________________________
______________________
Student Signature
Date
139
APPENDIX C: Student Pre- & Post-Evaluation Form
Name of Student:
Date:
Please fill out the following form. This form will assist us in monitoring the effectiveness of
our group. This form will be kept confidential. Think about your answers and be honest with
your answer.
Check off only one answer….
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
1. I am comfortable being single.
2. I practice good decision-making skills.
3. I don’t feel pressured to do things I don’t want to.
4. I am happy with the way my body looks.
5. I deserve to be treated with respect and care.
6. I can talk openly with friend and family about my
feelings.
7. I can identify whether or not I am in a healthy
relationship.
8. I understand how my actions might affect others.
9. I know other people have trouble with the same
issues as me.
10. I am confident, secure, and an important part of
this world.
11. I ask my partner to stop if they are doing
something that upsets or hurts me.
Please fill out and return no later than _________________ to the counseling department
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APPENDIX D: Group Evaluation Form
Student: __________________
Date:______________________
1.What did you learn from being part of Behind the
Illusion?
2.What was the most helpful part of the group?
3.What was the least helpful part of the group?
4. Did you feel comfortable sharing personal information
about yourself and your relationship with the group?
5. Why or why not?
Yes
No
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6. I was given the opportunity and encouraged to speak up throughout the group.
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Often
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APPENDIX E: Teen Dating Violence Bill of Rights
1. I have the right to be treated with respect and not criticized.
2. I have the right to have a partner who values me for me, encourages me, and wants
the best for me.
3. I have the right to be safe.
4. I have the right to maintain my own body, feelings, property, opinions, boundaries,
and privacy.
5. I have the right to be listened to seriously.
6. I have the right to disagree, assert myself respectfully, and say “no” without feeling
guilty.
7. I have the right to not be abused: physically, emotionally, sexually.
8. I have the right to keep my relationships with friends and family.
9. I have the right to have my needs be as important as my partner’s needs and not be
my partner’s property or servant.
10. I have the right to have a partner who gives as much to me as I give to him/her.
11. I have the right to decide how much time I want to spend with my partner.
12. I have the right to pay my own way.
13. I have the right to not take responsibility for my partner’s behavior, choices,
mistakes, and any acts of violence.
14. I have the right to set my own priorities, make my own decisions, and grow
uniquely as an individual.
15. I have the right to fall out of love or leave any relationship.
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APPENDIX F: Goal Setting
Goal Tracker
My Goal:
________________________________________________________________________
Weekly Rating (Circle the number that tells where you are with your goals for each week.)
Week 2
Week 3
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Thoughts?
Thoughts?
Week 4
Week 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Thoughts?
Thoughts?
Week 6
Week 7
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Thoughts?
Thoughts?
Thoughts?
Week 8
Week 9
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Thoughts?
144
APPENDIX G: Fact or Fiction Pre- & Post-Test
(Adapted from Atlantic County Women’s Center, 2010)
Test your dating violence knowledge by answering the true/false questions and the multiple
choice questions below.
TRUE/FALSE
_____ 1. Dating violence is rare among high school students, college students and other
educated people.
_____ 2. When someone leaves an abusive relationship, the abuse usually ends.
_____ 3. Drug and/or alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence incidents.
_____ 4. The best way to get a friend to leave an abusive relationship is to "cut ties" with
them.
_____ 5. If violence occurs once in a dating relationship, it is likely to happen again.
_____ 6. Police hardly ever make arrests in dating violence situations.
MULTIPLE CHOICE (Can have more than one correct answer)
7. What kind of behavior could be considered a sign of relationship abuse?
a. your partner takes a nap while you're talking to him or her about something
important.
b. your partner tells you that you're fat and ugly.
c. your partner lets you know that he/she doesn't like it when you "flirt" with other
people.
d. you're a vegetarian, and your partner makes you eat at a restaurant with no
veggie menu.
8. What's a good way to help a friend who's in an abusive relationship?
a. offer to beat up your friend's partner.
b. offer to burn down your friend's partner's house.
145
c. listen when your friend wants to talk about the relationship.
d. remind your friend that he/she is beautiful, smart, and fun to be around.
9. True love is...
a. never having to say, "I’m sorry."
b. feeling that your partner's needs are just as important as your own.
c. when your partner is jealous and possessive--that's how you know he/she loves
you.
d. when you and your partner love spending all your time together.
10. Why do people abuse their partners?
a because the partner makes the abuser so angry.
c. because the abuse is trying to control the partner.
d. because they don't have much money and this causes stress in the relationship.
11. Which of the following behaviors could be considered a sign of dating violence?
a. when you try to end the relationship, your partner says he/she can't live without
you and threatens suicide.
c. you have an argument about what to do on a Friday night, so you decide to spend
the evening alone and don't speak until the next day.
d. after you go out on a Friday night with your friends, your partner falsely accuses
you of cheating.
12. Which of the following may be a reason a person would have a difficult time leaving an
abusive relationship?
a. the victim likes the abuse--it spices up their sex life.
b. the victim still loves his/her partner.
c. the victim has been lying to you, and the abuse isn't really happening.
13. Which of the following is an important part of a healthy, loving relationship?
a. spending all your time together.
b. valuing each other's opinions and ideas.
146
c. having sex every day.
d. your partner is totally hot.
14. How do you keep safe in a dating relationship?
a. communicate with your partner about your expectations.
b. just don't date--it's the only way to stay safe.
d. get to know yourself and your beliefs before jumping into relationships.
Scoring
All Correct Congratulations! You’re a genius when it comes to knowing about dating
violence. Proceed to your healthy relationship!
12 or more correct Good Job! You’re pretty good when it comes to knowing about dating
violence. Knowing lots of information increases your chances of staying away from abusive
relationships and shows that you can be a good friend to someone who is experiencing
abuse. You scored a Green on the Healthy Relationship-o-meter.
11-10 correct Not Bad! You’re doing okay, but you could still do better on the Healthy
Relationship-o-meter. The more you know, the better chance you have of staying safe and
building a strong, healthy relationship. Yellow for you on the Healthy Relationship-o-meter.
9 or less correct Uh-oh! You need to head back to remedial dating violence school. You
scored a red on the Healthy Relationship-o-meter.
Red Light – Uh Oh! Head back to remedial relationship school!
Yellow Light – Not Bad! You’re doing okay, but you could do better!
Green Light – Good Job! You’re on the right track for success!
147
Fact or Fiction Pre- & Post-test –
ANSWERS
Test your dating violence knowledge by answering the true/false questions and the multiple choice
questions below.
TRUE/FALSE
1. FALSE Dating violence is rare among high school students, college students and other
educated people.
Dating and domestic violence is common among all people – rich, poor, black, white,
Asian, Latino, etc.
2. FALSE When someone leaves an abusive relationship, the abuse usually ends.
Unfortunately, a time when a victim is most at risk is when leaving the relationship.
This is called separation violence, and safety planning needs to be put in place for this
whenever possible.
3. TRUE Drug and/or alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence incidents. Although
drug and alcohol abuse is often a factor in dating violence, it is not a cause or an
“excuse.” Both victims and perpetrators of violence are much more likely to use drugs
and alcohol than people who are not in abusive relationships.
4. FALSE The best way to get a friend to leave an abusive relationship is to "cut ties" with
them. This may actually have the opposite effect. Someone who is being abused in a
relationship needs outside help and support and is very unlikely to leave that
relationship without the support and help of families and friends.
5. TRUE If violence occurs once in a dating relationship, it is likely to happen again. It is
rare for someone to hit or otherwise abuse their partner once and never do it again.
6. FALSE Police hardly ever make arrests in dating violence situations. This once was the
case when the victim had to agree to press charges before the police would make an
148
arrest. However, it is now mandatory in our state to make an arrest if there is any
physical evidence of abuse, even if the victim does not press charges.
MULTIPLE CHOICE (Can have more than one correct answer)
7. What kind of behavior could be considered a sign of relationship abuse?
b. your partner tells you that you're fat and ugly.
c. your partner lets you know that he/she doesn't like it when you "flirt" with other
people.
d. you're a vegetarian, and your partner makes you eat at a restaurant with no
veggie menu.
Abuse comes in many different forms – verbal, physical, mental, emotional
and sexual. The point of all abuse is power and control. As for falling asleep
when you’re talking about something important – well that’s just rude.
8. What's a good way to help a friend who's in an abusive relationship?
c. listen when your friend wants to talk about the relationship.
d. remind your friend that he/she is beautiful, smart, and fun to be around.
It is best to listen to your friend and let him or her know that there are many
resources available for people experiencing dating violence – they’re not the
only one to go through with this, and they don’t deserved to be treated that
way.
9. True love is...
b. feeling that your partner's needs are just as important as your own.
The most productive relationships are one’s that are equal partnerships –
both partner’s needs are identified and goals are built around them.
10. Why do people abuse their partners?
c. because the abuse is trying to control the partner.
The violent partner is trying to control and have power over the victimized
partner. They may not have experienced much empowerment in their lives, or
witnessed dominating relationships.
149
11. Which of the following behaviors could be considered a sign of dating violence?
a. when you try to end the relationship, your partner says he/she can't live without
you and threatens suicide.
d. after you go out on a Friday night with your friends, your partner falsely accuses
you of cheating.
All of these are examples of emotional and mental abuse, as is stalking,
jealousy and isolating the victim from his or her friends.
12. Which of the following may be a reason a person would have a difficult time leaving an
abusive relationship?
b. the victim still loves his/her partner.
The victim may believe what the abuser tells him or her – that’s he or she is
nothing without that person.
13. Which of the following is an important part of a healthy, loving relationship?
b. valuing each other's opinions and ideas.
A healthy relationship includes respecting each other’s time, resources, needs
and goals.
14. How do you keep safe in a dating relationship?
a. communicate with your partner about your expectations.
d. get to know yourself and your beliefs before jumping into relationships.
Knowing yourself is always a good thing – it will benefit you in life as well as
relationships.
150
APPENDIX H: Definition of Terms
Abuse via technology: Any type of harassment, including teasing, telling lies,
bullying, monitoring or controlling partner, making rude or mean comments,
spreading rumors that occurs through e-mail, a chat room, instant messaging, a
website, or text messaging (David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007).
Cyber abuse: Abuse that is conducted through the Internet. The abuser uses social
media networks to perpetrate abuse. This type of abuse often co-occurs with
emotional abuse, sexual coercion, and physical abuse (Zweig et al., 2013).
Dating Violence: A type of intimate partner violence that occurs between two
people in a close relationship. The nature of dating violence can be physical,
emotional, or sexual (CDC, 2012).
Emotional dating violence: A type of abuse in which one partner threatens the
other or harms his/her self-worth such as name calling, bullying, embarrassing on
purpose, and/or keeping him/her away from family and friends (CDC, 2012).
Risk factors for dating violence: “Attributes or characteristics that are associated
with an increased probability of ADV reception and/or expression” (O’Keefe,
2005, p. 3).
Sexual dating violence: Occurs when one partner forces the other partner to engage
in a sexual act without his or her consent (CDC, 2012).
Stalking: A type of dating violence that refers to repeated harassing and/or
threatening methods used by a perpetrator that is unwanted and causes the victim to
fear the perpetrator (CDC, 2012).
Warning signs: Various behaviors that adults and peers should look for if they
suspect someone they know is in an abusive relationship (Alabama Coalition
Against Domestic Violence, 2012).
151
APPENDIX I: Positive Attributes
Amused
Awesome
Adorable
Accepting
Brave
Bright
Bold
Balanced
Confident
Courageous
Cheerful
Courteous
Creative
Delightful
Determined
Dependable
Down-to-Earth
Energetic
Excited
Excellent
Enthusiastic
Fair
Fantastic
Funny
Friendly
Flexible
Generous
Gentle
Good
Goofy
Grateful
Helpful
Happy
Hilarious
Hardworking
Honest
Innovative
Incredible
Ingenious
Independent
Insightful
Jolly
Joyous
Juicy
Kind
Kind-Hearted
Knowledgeable
Memorable
Magical
Mellow
Mature
Motivated
Nice
Neat
Noble
Nurturing
Observant
Outstanding
Open-Minded
Optimistic
Peaceful
Patient
Proud
Productive
Positive
Quiet
Quick
Quirky
Responsible
Reflective
Reliable
Resilient
Respectful
Silly
Successful
Smart
Self-Directed
Strong
Talented
Thoughtful
Talkative
Trusting
Tolerant
Warm
Wild
Wise
eXcellent
eXtra fun
eXtreme
Upbeat
Unusual
Ultimate
Unique
Valuable
Vibrant
Vocal
Youthful
Yummy
Yahoo!
Zany
Zippy
Zesty
Likeable
Loving
Light-hearted
Loyal
Listener
152
APPENDIX J: “At My Best”
1. A time when I was at my best was….
2. The best thing about me is…
3. What I enjoy doing the most is...
4. The things I like about myself are…
153
APPENDIX K: Stereotype Activity
Girls like guys to always be aggressive and in control. If a girl has already had sex, she
cannot be raped.
Girls say “no” but really mean “yes”.
If a girl is dressed provocatively, she’s asking for sex.
Relationships are supposed to escalate from attraction to sex. Relationship building isn’t
that important.
Boys aren’t victims of dating violence.
Once a boy is turned on, he has to have sex.
Most sexual assaults are committed by strangers.
A guy gets to make the final decision.
If a boy pays for a date, he deserves sex.
If a girl is alone in a boy’s house, she is consenting to sex.
A guy gets to control the money.
Having sex with someone proves you love them.
A partner can be controlling of his partner if he is just being protective.
154
APPENDIX L: Emotional Abuse Checklist
Check the answer that best fits your
relationship:
1. Are you expected to drop what you’re
doing to meet their needs?
2. Do they insist that everything is your
fault?
3. Do they use violence or threats during
an argument?
4. Do they go through your personal
things?
5. Do they humiliate you in public
6. Do they tell you no one else would ever
want you?
7. Do they make rules about what you can
and cannot do?
8. Do they put you down about the way
you look or dress?
9. Does your partner make you feel
obligated to be sexual in order to make
them feel loved?
10. Are you fearful is you’re late for an
activity together?
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
155
APPENDIX M: Difficult Situations
1.
On Friday night, Chelsea wants to go see a movie with her friends, but her boyfriend
doesn’t want her spending time with her friends. He says he wants her to spend all of her free
time with him so that he knows where and who she is with at all times. Chelsea wants to tell
him she is going, but she is afraid if she does he might…
2.
Samantha just discovered that her boyfriend figured out her personal passwords
without asking her, and has been looking at her text messages and call log on her phone, as well
as searching through her Facebook profile and email account without telling her. She wants to
confront him, but doesn’t know what to say. One way she might approach this is…
3.
Lindsey really loves her boyfriend Dan, and he can be so sweet to her. However, when
Dan gets angry with Lindsey he tells her she is stupid and worthless. Sometimes he calls her
even worse names. He has never physically hurt her so she continues to date him. If Lindsey
continues to stay with him she may…
4.
Taylor’s boyfriend is physically abusive. It began with him losing his temper and pushing
her down to the ground, but the last time he got angry with her he hit her across the face and
gave her a black eye. At this point she is worried that if she breaks up with him, he will physically
hurt her even worse that he has in the past. She is scared and doesn’t know where to seek help.
Who and where can Taylor access different types of help so that she can safely end this abusive
relationship?
156
APPENDIX N: Safety Plans
Ways to Avoid Potentially Abusive Situations:
 Arrange to travel with someone to and from school or work. Walk
with friends between classes and after-school activities. Try not to
be alone in a school building.
 Stay in public places
 Stay in familiar neighborhoods and surroundings
 Be alert to the locations of phones and exits wherever you are
 Develop previously arranged code word to alert friends or family
members that you are in a dangerous situation or need immediate
help
Safety Issues If You Have Encountered Abuse:
 After the relationship is terminated, your safety depend on not
having contact with the offender, which includes not talk to or
meeting with the offender. Stay busy with positive interactions and
goals. Implement calming hobbies.
 Use your instincts. If you find yourself in a dangerous situation,
placate abuser if possible to keep them calm, then call the police.
 Remember to still follow the safety ideas listed above
 Keep emergency phone numbers in a convenient and safe location.
157
APPENDIX O: “Advice Please”
Dear _____________________:
I am having a difficult time because
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What do you think I should do? Do you have any advice for me?
Sincerely, ____________________________________
Dear _____________________:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(Your Name)
158
APPENDIX P: Qualities of a Healthy Relationship
Trust
Religion/Spirituality
Support
Companionship
Sex
Fun
Love
Understanding
Gifts
Acceptance
Appearance
Common Interests
Humor
Honesty
Communication
Respect
159
160
APPENDIX Q: Building Blocks
161
APPENDIX R: Resources for Students
The National Teen Dating Abuse Helpline. This hotline is the direct service provider
behind loveisrespect.org, operating the 24/7 phone, text and chat services.
Phone number: 1-866-331-9474
Website: http://www.loveisrespect.org
The National Domestic Abuse Hotline. This hotline provides one-on-one counseling
for anyone experiencing domestic violence, seeking resources or information, or
questioning unhealthy aspects of their relationship.
Phone Number: 1-800-799-7233
Website: http://www.thehotline.org
The National Sexual Assault Hotline. This hotline offers counseling, information
about community resources, emergency protocols, and legal advise.
Phone Number: 1-800-656-HOPE
Website: http://www.rainn.org/
The National Sexual Assault Hotline. This hotline used a secure and anonymous
instant-messaging type format and allows victims of sexual violence to
communicate directly with trained crisis support volunteers.
Website: http://www.rainn.org/get-help/national-sexual-assault-onlinehotline
162
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National Healthy Marriage Center. (2011). Toilet paper game. Retrieved from
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163
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