Sexual Assault Prevention 1
RUNNING HEAD: An Improved Model of Sexual Assault Prevention
An Improved Model of Sexual Assault Prevention for College Campuses
William O’Donohue, Ph.D.
Andrew Lloyd, M.A.
Stephanie Spear, B.A.
David Hansen
The University of Nevada, Reno
Sexual Assault Prevention 2
Abstract
University sexual assault prevention programming is usually conducted without attempts to
measure its intended impact on the incidence of sexual assault or on other outcome variables.
Results from an evaluation of the sexual assault awareness week programming efforts at the
University of Nevada, Reno (UNR) during the 2002-2003 academic school year suggest that the
standard approach to sexual assault programming adopted by most institutions may not
satisfactorily impact incidence because events are not well attended, do not clearly impact
pathways to sexual assault, and may even have unintended negative outcomes. This paper offers
a new model for sexual assault program evaluation that is driven by the existing literature,
criteria for evaluation, and data from programmatic evaluations.
Sexual Assault Prevention 3
An improved model of sexual assault prevention for college campuses
Given that 29% of rape victims are 18-24 years old (U.S. Department of Justice, 1998),
placing college age women at high risk for being assaulted, many colleges and universities plan
sexual assault awareness weeks or months (O’Donohue & Bradley, in press). Events frequently
involve handing out buttons, brochures, and whistles, educational lectures, movie screenings,
educational tables, marches, and other putative awareness increasing activities. The intended
goals of these events include the reduction of the incidence of sexual assaults within the campus
population by increasing awareness. Generally, sexual assault prevention programming at most
universities is conducted without an attempt to measure its impact on the incidence of sexual
assault, or its impact on other related outcome indices (e.g., pathways to sexual assault such as
alcohol abuse). There are no published outcome data pertaining to the impact of these prevention
practices, despite the fact that these events have been conducted for over two decades in
hundreds of college campuses.
The sexual assault awareness week programming efforts at the University of Nevada, Reno
(UNR) were evaluated during the 2002-2003 academic school year. The programming activities
at UNR fell well within what could be described as the standard approach to sexual assault
prevention during the academic year (e.g., informative talks on such topics as safety, a “Take
Back the Night” march, clothesline project, ribbon project, etc…). Findings indicated that the
standard approach may not be even minimally effective (O’Donohue, Lloyd, & Drews, 2003).
The authors identified several problems. First, overall attendance was very poor. Less than one
half of 1% of the student population attended an event during the week. Of additional concern
was the low attendance by males, who constituted only 25% of the attendees. Second,
programming may lack a consistent focus on sexual assault. Some events include other
Sexual Assault Prevention 4
“women’s issues” such as domestic violence, eating disorders, and more general issues such as
anti-war protests and diversity issues rather than focusing entirely on sexual assault (see, e.g.,
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cwg/signature/month.html;
http://www.dailyillini.com/apr01/apr02/news/stories/news05.shtml; http://www.uiowa.edu/~rvap/saam.htm;
http://www.womenscenter.vt.edu/NewFiles/Oct2002calendar.pdf
for representative examples of the
standard approach). Finally, O’Donohue et al. (2003) discussed the potential for unforeseen
negative consequences of sexual assault week programming. Poor attendance may lead some
students to think that the prevention message is unimportant. In addition, males may not attend
activities due to the perception of an “anti-male” sentiment tied to events such as “Take Back the
Night,” even if this sentiment is unintended.
The time-limited context created may also inadvertently send the message that it is only
important to focus on sexual assault during the appointed awareness week or month. Finally,
sexual assault programming may not occur at the most beneficial time of year. Traditionally,
Sexual Assault Awareness Month is scheduled in April. By this time of the year, students may
have engaged in potentially high-risk behaviors such as drinking excessively at parties, and are
preparing to leave for the summer. The danger of the standard sexual assault awareness programs
is that they may produce complacency because something is being done about sexual assault,
therefore concluding that the problem is being adequately addressed. The argument of this paper
is that this is a false and possibly harmful belief.
The current paper proposes, and provides specific suggestions, for how to implement a
new approach to sexual assault prevention on college campuses. We begin by explicating
criteria used to evaluate prevention programming, and particularly in this case, a university
sexual assault prevention program. Our service delivery model is then described. We next
Sexual Assault Prevention 5
outline a model of the pathways to sexual assault most relevant to college-age individuals.
Finally, our prevention model is described in some detail. This model utilizes the proposed
service delivery model and is based on the proposed pathway model.
Criteria of Adequacy
Service providers are responsible for delivering services that are data-based and datagenerating (O’Donohue and Dyer, 1993). Services should be designed based on what the
existing literature indicated to be the most effective intervention possible. It is important for
outcomes to be measured in order to continuously evaluate the effectiveness of services
provided, as well as to solicit assessment input to improve the service. Information about the
population of consumers should be reported in order to make statements about the
generalizability of a program’s outcomes. Without adequate data generating procedures in place
it is impossible to adequately assess the impact that the programming may have on the incidence
of sexual assault on campus. Without data indicating the effectiveness of a program there is no
way to improve on the prevention effort. It is not clear the extent to which the goals of a
prevention effort are not being met if there is no way to measure outcomes and improve efficacy.
Evaluating the Standard Approach to Sexual Assault Prevention
The standard model to sexual assault prevention on college campuses does not meet the
criteria outlined above. The standard model is not feasible because it requires extracurricular
attendance on the part of busy college students, and it is not cost effective (O’Donohue, et. al., in
press). The standard model fails to meet ethical standards because the majority of programming
within this model is not directed at impacting potential pathways to sexual assault (with the
possible exception of increasing awareness), fails to deliver empirically valid information, and is
directed toward only a small portion of the student body. Generally programming within this
Sexual Assault Prevention 6
model does not actively seek to impact male students, commuter students, and students who are
not willing to attend extracurricular activities. Given the lack of outcome data on sexual assault
prevention programming, and the large number of colleges and universities that conduct such
programming, for many years the standard model fails with regard to responsible and effective
data collection. It has been used for many years and may be dangerous in that it promotes a
complacency that “something is being done” despite the fact that outcome data and effectiveness
data are lacking. There typically is no evidence that the incidence of sexual assaults has been
reduced on college campuses as a result of such programming.
The Improved Service Delivery Model
We address the shortcomings of the standard approach to service delivery by focusing on
a new service delivery model for sexual assault prevention. The service delivery model involves
six components:
1. Year-long programming. Programming events are conducted year round rather than
during only sexual assault awareness month.
2. Periodic high intensity programming. Such programming is used throughout the year
during high exposure events such as new student orientation, homecoming, sexual
assault awareness week, and football games.
3. Targeting captive audiences. In order to reach the maximum number of students
possible we target captive audiences when delivering our prevention program (e.g.,
classrooms, orientation meetings, athletic events, etc…).
4. Collaboration and networking with relevant university offices and individuals. We
involve relevant university offices and individuals (e.g., alcohol and substance abuse,
athletics, and women’s studies) in our year-long programming efforts by scheduling
Sexual Assault Prevention 7
annual steering committee meetings where collaborative efforts are planned and
discussed.
5. Data collection for assessment and quality improvement. All programming efforts are
accompanied by data collection in an effort to measure the impact of these efforts and
to make improvements for future efforts.
6. Empirically evaluated programming content. Our programming content is based on
the empirical literature from areas such as sexual assault, dating, and substance abuse.
The University of Nevada, Reno Sexual Assault Prevention and Counseling program
(hereafter “SAPAC”) meets all the criteria set forth for adequate prevention programming as
outlined above. SAPAC utilizes the proposed service delivery model when delivering its sexual
assault prevention programming. The proposed service delivery model is feasible. We reach
large audiences through presentations to classrooms, athletics, fraternities and sororities, and
incoming students. Our model stresses a “captive audience” approach whereby the prevention
message is delivered to classrooms, workshops, orientation meetings and other large university
gatherings. We tried enticing students to special events but these efforts consistently failed to
bring in significant numbers of students. The SAPAC program reached nearly 4,000 students in
the 2002-2003 academic year (over 25% of the total student body) and we set higher goals every
year. The captive audience approach targets all students, not just those students who may be
interested in attending our programming events. The captive audience approach also overcomes
another, less obvious, attendance problem: gender discrepancy.
Reported incidence data on sexual assault are valid measures of the impact of a sexual
assault prevention program. Yet due to extremely low reporting on the part of victims, SAPAC
prevention efforts are designed to target the putative pathways to sexual assault. It has been
Sexual Assault Prevention 8
found that rape is the least reported violent crimes in America (U.S. Department of Justice,
1999). We measure the following variables, a) client outcomes, b) attendance at events, and c)
satisfaction with our presentations.
Pathways to Sexual Assault
While sexual assaults may occur for a number of reasons, it is possible to identify
common pathways appropriately addressed by prevention efforts. The SAPAC program has
attempted to identify common pathways based on the sexual assault literature.
Sexual Assault Prevention 9
Lack of
Victim
Empathy
Poor Sexual
Communication Skills
Acceptance
of Rape
Myths
Sexual
Assault
Poor
Understanding of
Consent
Alcohol and
Drugs
Unrealistic
Outcome
expectancies
Poor
Understanding of
Available
Services
Poor Understanding of Consent
The SAPAC program begins by providing several definitions of sexual assault such as
state statutes, the university’s policy regarding consent, and the SAPAC program’s definition of
consent. Perhaps one of the most misunderstood areas involved in sexual assault is how to
determine whether consent was given by one or both parties (Archard, 1998; Haag, 1999). For
example, laws in the State of Nevada preclude the possibility that consent was given if the
“consenting” individual is legally intoxicated (.08 blood alcohol content) or under the influence
Sexual Assault Prevention 10
of illegal drugs such as cocaine or ecstasy. The topic of consent can be ambiguous as well. Does
a woman need to verbalize her consent (e.g., “I want to have sex with you right now”) in order
for consent to be present, or is body language alone sufficient to communicate consent? We
emphasize more effective communication regarding consent in sexual situations. Rather than
assuming consent has been given due to non-verbal cues, or silence, we recommend that consent
be sought through overt means such as directly asking the individual.
Poor Understanding of Available Services
An essential component of our program is providing information about the services we
offer, the treatment options that are made available to victims of sexual assault, and the services
available throughout the university community. It is important to tailor treatments to meet the
needs of each client. For example, one client may request that we serve as the liaison to her
professor if she is having difficulties meeting academic requirements. Other clients ask for
assistance with contacting and interacting with police if they are interested in pursuing
prosecution. Because of the sensitive nature of these cases, we highlight the confidential nature
of the services provided by our program and obtain consent from the client before working with
outside parties. Students are informed of other services provided by the university’s counseling
center and escort service, city police, and crisis call center. SAPAC flyers are placed throughout
campus, including the student health center, and are periodically updated and replaced.
Lack of Victim Empathy
One of the goals of sexual assault prevention efforts is to increase levels of empathy for
victims of sexual assault. The literature suggests that rapists have poor victim empathy
(Malamuth, Sockloskie, Koss, Tanaka, 1991). Moreover, Schewe and O’Donohue (1993) found
that interventions focused on increasing victim empathy in males were both credible and helpful.
Sexual Assault Prevention 11
Victim empathy with regard to sexual assault includes teaching males the skills to understand
how females think and feel about the sexual assault, and how sexual assault affects the life of
women. Awareness of and concern for the feelings of others can help reduce victimizing
behaviors and future crimes. The majority of such efforts are targeted towards males. It is
important for males to be able to take the perspective of females and to understand the fear and
trauma that women experience as a result of sexual assault (Berg, Lonsway, & Fitzgerald, 1999).
Victim empathy is addressed in the SAPAC talk given to various classes and organizations on
campus as well as to all incoming students at new student orientation. Our program includes
showing videos of victims of sexual assault telling their stories and describing how much the
assault affected their lives. Students are also asked to consider the emotional reaction they may
have if their mother was to be raped.
Unrealistic Perception or Lack of Knowledge about Outcome Expectancies
The literature on sexual assault suggests that rapists do not accurately consider or
understand the outcome expectancies associated with sexual assault (O'Donohue, McKay, &
Schewe, 1996; Schewe, and O'Donohue, 1996; Abbey, McAuslan, & Ross,1998). In one study
(Malamuth, 1989) 35% of men reported that they would commit rape if they knew that they
would not be caught. The SAPAC program addresses the likely outcomes occurring to the
perpetrator after he commits a sexual assault. It is important that men be able to predict the
possibilities that may occur when charges are pressed. The topic of male on male prison rape is
also covered in a video describing such encounters. It is particularly important for college men to
be aware that if they sexually assault someone on campus or at a university-affiliated event, that
he is likely to be prosecuted at the university level as well as the state level which have differing
outcomes such as being expelled and/or jailed. Other outcomes include developing a bad
Sexual Assault Prevention 12
reputation, incurring financial problems, experiencing problems obtaining employment,
destroying the quality of familial relationships, experiencing strong emotions such as shame
associated with hurting others, and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. In order to
provide accurate information to our audiences we work closely with the campus and city police.
In addition, we display posters around campus that depict males facing the consequences
associated with perpetrating sexual assaults mentioned above. We also incorporate a video
interview with an assistant district attorney describing the length of sentences associated with
sexual assault offenses, and his motivation to prosecute offenders.
Acceptance of Rape Myths
Rape myths are beliefs that support negative attitudes toward women and faulty reasoning
about sexual situations such as “When a woman says ‘no’ she really means yes” (Morokoff,
1983; Walker & Browne, 1985). Unfortunately, rape myths are endorsed by women (Morokoff,
et. al., 1983) as well as men (Weis & Borges, 1973; Margolin, 1990). Studies conducted on
college campuses reveal that college students endorse a variety of rape myths (Mahoney, 1983;
Fischer, 1986). Adhering to these statements is potentially dangerous. For women, it may lead
them to put themselves in dangerous situations and second-guess their reactions to such
situations or persons. One of the primary beliefs held by women is that they are more likely to
be assaulted by a stranger than an acquaintance. The data suggest that this belief is highly
inaccurate given that 70-90% (U.S. Department of Justice, 2001) to sexual assaults are date or
acquaintance rapes. If women adhere to this belief, they make not take precautions that will
increase the chances of their safety. Women may also be less likely to protect themselves if they
feel when compared to other females that they are less attractive and thus less likely to be
assaulted.
Sexual Assault Prevention 13
Poor Sexual Communication Skills
Another focus of the SAPAC talk is to highlight the importance of effectively
communicating about sexual activity. We stress the importance of the use of communication to
reduce the likelihood that one or more parties will draw false assumptions about what the other
wants because the research suggests that males may misperceive female sexual intent (Abbey,
1982). Moreover, Scully and Marolla (1984) found that some rapists justify their behavior by
appealing to ambiguous sexual communication on the part of the female. SAPAC program
highlights the importance of effectively communicating about sexual activity. We also stress the
importance of the use of communication to reduce the likelihood that one or more parties will
draw false assumptions about what the other wants and reduce miscommunications that may lead
to a sexual assault.
An important aspect of advocating for clearer communication includes discussion of the
dangers of engaging in “token resistance” or the “no, no, no, yes” scenario where a party
originally rejects sexual advances but later consents to engaging in sexual activity (Marx, Gross,
& Juergens, 1997). This type of behavior is not necessarily dangerous in a well-communicating
couple but can be dangerous for couples who do not communicate clearly and do not have
clearly established boundaries (Muehlenhard and Hollabaugh, 1988).
Poor Safety Skills
SAPAC prevention efforts also focus on improving safety skills by advocating for the use
of the campus escort system, locking doors, and closing apartment windows. Students are
encouraged to gather information about their surroundings and to safely walk and live in these
areas. SAPAC has also been involved in campus “walkthroughs,” events designed to identify and
address potential safety issues such as poor outdoor lighting, concealing vegetation, and the
Sexual Assault Prevention 14
placement of emergency phones. The campus police offer a self-defense program (RAD) that is
highlighted by our program.
Alcohol and Drug Abuse
A large portion of sexual activity among college age individuals occurs under the
influence of alcohol. Alcohol and drug use has been identified as the primary risk factor for
sexual assault (Abbey, 1991; LeBeau, 1999). Students are reminded several times throughout the
program about the lack of legal consent by individuals who are over the legal blood alcohol
level. Students are often quite surprised to learn about this element of the Nevada state statute.
Students may come to college with little to no experience using drugs and alcohol and may
become intoxicated without intending to. College students use drugs and alcohol for many
reasons. There is social pressure to do so and quite possibly reduces anxiety about socializing
with new people. Cues are likely to be unclearly presented and misinterpreted. In addition,
decision-making skills are negatively affected when under the influence of alcohol and drugs,
and individuals are more likely to make poor decisions even when they report knowing that the
decision was bad (MacDonald, Zanna, & Fong, 1995).. Few students who meet criteria for
substance abuse (APA, 1994) seek treatment because frequent use is viewed as “normal” during
undergraduate years. For this reason, students are given information about receiving substance
abuse treatment at the university Counseling Services Department.
Implementing the model
The proposed model to sexual assault prevention on college and university
campuses is warranted given the findings of the program evaluation discussed above and the
failure of the standard approach at other schools (e.g., poor attendance, gender discrepancies,
lack of adequate data collection, and lack of evidence regarding the impact in the incidence of
Sexual Assault Prevention 15
sexual assaults on campuses). Implementing the new model may require some effort and time as
new collaborative efforts are envisioned and enacted between campus organizations. We outline
the steps below, along with observations regarding the implementation process as it was carried
out at the University of Nevada, Reno. The iterative prevention process has been divided into
four stages:
Assessing
Preparation
Sexual
Assault
Prevention
Model
Implementing
Steering
Committee
The steps outlined in the diagram are proposed as a “best practices” model rather than a
hard and fast formula for all sexual assault prevention efforts at all universities and colleges.
Programs may find it more useful to focus on certain elements of the model to address
programmatic goals. For example, a sexual assault prevention program interested in continuing
Sexual Assault Prevention 16
to provide standard programming events such as rallies, informational talks, high intensity one
week only efforts, and so on may decide to add assessment procedures to these events.
Preparation
It is essential to prepare potential prevention programming material prior to meeting with
the steering committee. Review past prevention efforts at your university as well as those of
others’, assess their impact, and create a handout that can be given out to the members of the
steering committee. If data are available, this information should be made available during the
steering committee meeting. If no data are available, then consider ways in which to measure
outcomes.
Assess the degree to which your prevention efforts incorporate empirically based
information that is disseminated during talks or events. If such information exists it should be
made available to potential steering committee members. If empirically based information has
not been used to drive your prevention efforts, consulting the sexual assault literature and
creating a fact sheet may be useful. Programming possibilities should be discussed prior to the
steering committee meeting in order to have agenda items for discussion, and so that committee
attendees can better understand the general philosophy, resources, and scope of the intended
prevention effort.
Steering Committee
The steering committee should be composed of other university and community
individuals interested in addressing the problem of sexual assault. By incorporating these
individuals, a program can identify both high visible events for programming and possible
collaboration. Identify the services, offices, and individuals at your university or college which
may be interested in collaborating. The most straightforward way to accomplish this is to
Sexual Assault Prevention 17
identify those individuals who are currently working in the areas of sexual assault prevention
and/or treatment. University counseling centers, psychology programs, university police,
women’s centers, along with administrators responsible for student discipline and conduct often
serve as appropriate choices. Individual faculty members may have an interest in the prevention
effort due to their existing study of violence against women, substance abuse problems, and
trauma. It is useful to inquire about their interest and, more importantly, ask if they can put you
in contact with other individuals whom you have not identified that may be interested in
attending such a meeting.
Student body members should be contacted as well, including the student body president,
Greek organization leadership, and residence hall advisors. Community leaders involved in
similar work should be considered as well, including a representative from the district attorney’s
office, a representative from any women’s coalition, and others who may work in the area of
sexual assault prevention. Peer education may serve as a useful tool in university settings.
Steering committee meetings should be scheduled far in advance of anticipated
programming efforts so that committee members’ comments and suggestions can be considered
and, if possible, implemented. Actively involve committee members in brainstorming
programming ideas. Providing members with handouts and information regarding past efforts
and associated changes with newly proposed efforts is important.
Implementation
Implementing the programming and assessment strategies derived from program
evaluation, research, and collaboration efforts requires time and the creative use of resources.
Because the variety of potential programming ideas is too large to reasonably discuss in this
paper, we outline the steps taken at the University of Nevada, Reno to implement our prevention
Sexual Assault Prevention 18
program. We begin by discussing SAPAC, and its available resources, and close with a
description of recent efforts to implement the new program.
SAPAC
SAPAC is a collaborative effort consisting of two graduate assistants who each work 20
hours per week from the clinical psychology program under the administrative supervision of the
Department of Student Success Services and receive clinical supervision from a professor in the
Department of Clinical Psychology. SAPAC is a primary prevention program that additionally
provides secondary prevention in the form of counseling and therapy to the victims of sexual
assault as well as the perpetrators of sexual assault. Academic liaison services are also provided
for students experiencing academic difficulties resulting from a sexual assault.
SAPAC Programming at UNR
Given earlier arguments, we discuss SAPAC’s programming and its goals to influence
what the research suggests to be common pathways to sexual assault. A large part of SAPAC’s
efforts are spent in year-long programming consistent with the model proposed earlier in the
paper.
Captive audiences are used to deliver the prevention message. Each year, about 30
presentations are given in classrooms and to various campus organizations. At the beginning of
each semester a campus-wide email is delivered to all faculty members describing our prevention
talk. We emphasize the importance of the prevention mission, the fact that we are available
during all scheduled class times, ways that this service can fit into the course objectives such as
constructing an assignment around the information, and how the service can help faculty
members who may want to schedule a presentation during a class that would otherwise be
cancelled due to conference attendance or other appointments. Students enrolled in Psychology
Sexual Assault Prevention 19
101 are also required to complete a module educating and quizzing them about our program. We
are able to access approximately 1,500 students through the psychology 101 classes.
Collaboration at all levels is utilized in developing and delivering the prevention
programming. Steering committees involve important university offices and individuals. In order
to maximize the impact of the prevention effort at the University of Nevada, Reno a peer
educator model is also utilized. Interested undergraduate students are able to enroll in field
experience credits in order to learn about the existing literature on sexual assault, be trained to
deliver the prevention presentations, and assist with updating presentations by incorporating
current statistics and empirical findings. Peer educators gain valuable hands-on experience in
prevention while, at the same time, increasing the flexibility and availability of our classroom
presentations. Residence hall advisors, Greek organization leaders, and club presidents represent
other student leaders who can be trained to provide the prevention materials contained within our
presentation. This approach offers the benefits from delivering the prevention message to groups
consisting of a smaller number of individuals, as well as by a respected peer. Faculty and staff
can be trained in a similar fashion.
SAPAC provides mixed gender and gender specific informative programming
presentations to classes and groups throughout the year. SAPAC presentations are empirically
sound presentations consisting of information about the proposed pathways to sexual assault
described earlier in this paper. Information pertaining to consent, the role of alcohol and drugs in
sexual assault, token resistance, rape myths, outcome expectancies, victim empathy, effective
sexual communication, safety enhancing behaviors, risky behaviors, and available resources are
covered in these presentations. High quality video vignettes specifically targeting victim
empathy and outcome expectancies are also shown if time permits.
Sexual Assault Prevention 20
Gender specific programming is delivered whenever possible. Although these different
messages can be combined into a mixed-gender presentation (as we do in our mixed-gender
presentations), the ability to present more detailed gender specific information to male only and
female only audiences can be an effective prevention tool. Gender specific presentations may be
more likely to have an impact for several reasons. First, a mixed gender audience may not be
conducive to an open exchange because either the males or the females in the audience may feel
intimidated, or otherwise anxious, about voicing their questions and concerns. A gender-specific
setting may attenuate such issues. Second, the impact of the information presented in gender
specific settings may be maximized because more time is allotted to important topics, e.g.,
outcome expectancies for male only audiences. Females in mixed gender audiences, for example,
may benefit less from a discussion of outcome expectancies.
Other year-long efforts include posting high quality informational posters around campus
with our contact information. These posters target the sexual assault pathways specified by our
model (e.g., acceptance of rape myths, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies). We also
purchase and hand out small items such as whistles, business card holders, and “stop rape”
buttons at events. Many of these items display our contact information and are highly visibility in
order to increase awareness. A large banner was also designed and is displayed at prominent
events such as homecoming, football games, and other more specialized programming events.
Opportunities to be featured in the student newspaper have also been pursued with success.
Periodic intensive programming is also utilized to supplement year-long programming.
In order to adequately attend to addressing pathways to sexual assault, it is valuable to identify
and consequently target optimal times and locations for periodic intensive programming
throughout the year prior to conducting the steering committee meeting. Events such as
Sexual Assault Prevention 21
homecoming, football games, national weeks and months pertinent to women’s issues, and
special events are ideal programming opportunities because they are well attended by students.
Other times of interest for such high intensity efforts may include holidays such as Valentine’s
Day and Halloween, and academically-based times such as the week before winter and spring
breaks. National sexual assault awareness month (April) is also an ideal time for such
programming, but should not be viewed as the only appropriate time for high intensity efforts.
Sexual assault is a problem that should be addressed year-round.
We have also found it useful to schedule high intensity programming events earlier in
academic year and at high profile times of the year. For example, we regularly participate in
new student orientation because all incoming students are required to attend this event. This is a
two-day event scheduled prior to the start of the Fall semester. We have talks scheduled
throughout both days of orientation where we deliver our prevention message and answer
common questions about dating while in college. This method allows our program to impact a
large amount of the student body in a short amount of time. Moreover, early programming has
the added advantage of being prior to many high-risk situations typical on college campuses such
as parties, and homecoming events. Banners are hung for the duration, efforts are made to
increase the number of classroom and organization talks, and special events are considered
during these times.
Assessment
Sexual assault prevention programming is iterative in nature. That is, when programming
efforts have ceased for the year (e.g., over the summer), an evaluation of their effectiveness and
continued feasibility should be conducted. SAPAC collects raw attendance data in an attempt to
keep track of the number of students who were directly exposed (e.g., not including those who
Sexual Assault Prevention 22
merely see posters, buttons, etc…) to our prevention programming. Surveys can be given to
students, committee members, faculty, and staff about satisfaction with the program.
Assessment devices can be given to students before and after informational presentations to
determine the degree to which they learned about sexual assault, are better able to identify risky
situations, understand the nature and requirements of consent, and are able to identify rape
myths. Each year over one thousand students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology complete an
online sexual assault prevention module created by SAPAC followed by a quiz assessing their
knowledge of these items. Other measures can be created to assess the program’s impact on
reducing behaviors associated with pathways to sexual assault (e.g., alcohol consumption).
Incidence data for sexual assault on campus should also be reviewed.
Conclusion
We have argued that standard approaches to sexual assault prevention on university and
college campuses have failed to adequately measure their impact on the incidence of sexual
assault. No outcome studies currently exist on the impact of the standard approach. The failure of
the standard approach derives, in part, from the manner in which programming is carried out. In
the standard approach programming decisions are made without considering outcome
measurement, events are planned that reach only a minority of students, and programming is not
carried out throughout the year. Standard sexual assault prevention programming is
predominantly focused on increasing awareness, ignoring putative pathways to sexual assault.
Increasing awareness alone may not be effective and the empirical literature on this approach is
absent. Moreover, the standard approach to sexual assault prevention programming often
involves a focus on other causes that, although important to address, may take away from the
important sexual assault prevention message.
Sexual Assault Prevention 23
The SAPAC program at the University of Nevada, Reno represents a new approach to
sexual assault prevention programming that improves on the shortcomings of the standard
approach. The new approach to sexual assault prevention programming stresses the importance
of a) year round prevention programming, b) collaboration, c) utilization of captive audiences in
order to reach a greater number of students (as well as students who are not typically reached by
the standard approach), d) periodic high intensity programming and e) data collection to facilitate
the constant assessment and improvement of programming efforts. The proposed approach also
satisfies the criteria for adequate prevention programming set forth in this paper by adhering to
appropriate ethical standards, basing prevention content on empirical literature and findings, and
being feasible.
Sexual Assault Prevention 24
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