Two Basic Types of Thinking
Automatic Thinking (An analysis of our environment based on past
experience and knowledge we have accumulated)
•
•
Quick, effortless
Limited conscious deliberation of thoughts, perceptions, assumptions
Controlled Thinking
•
•
•
Effortful, deliberate
Thinking about ourselves and our environment
Carefully selecting the right course of action
Can We Think Too Much???
Rate variety of jams
Reasons given may be the:
Taste & rate
Consistent with expert
views on jam qualities
Taste, analyze their
reactions to the jams
(how they felt a certain
way), & rate
• Most clear and accessible
(the easiest to recall and
come to mind)
• Easiest to verbalize
These reasons may not be
the best to use and be
misleading
Cognitive Schemas:
Hypothetical cognitive structures that consist of
prior knowledge which affects how we categorize and interpret incoming
information.
• Can lead to very efficient processing of information (assist in organizing
information and analysis of situations)
• Can lead to stereotypes and bias
Types of Schemas:
a) Other people
b) Events (e.g., weddings,
funerals, date)
Effects how we --• Attend (notice), encode information
• Think
c) Role (CEO, President,
librarian, wait staff)
d) Ourselves
• Remember (Retrieve information)
Schemas and Forming Impressions of Others
“Hot” versus “Cold” Variables *
• Guest lecturer in class for 20 minutes
• Participants giver prior information on him (e.g., background teaching experience, age,
and personality)
• Two personality” versions given out:
1) “People who know him consider him to be a very warm person, industrious, critical,
practical, and determined.”
2) “People who know him consider him to be a rather cold person, industrious,
critical, practical, and determined.”
Results: Warm condition gave the lecturer high ratings, asked more questions,
participated more
One variation had the lecturer act a bit arrogant. Both warm and cold conditions
viewed him as equally arrogant (a clear, obvious trait). But, warm condition viewed
him as funnier (sense of humor a more ambiguous trait. Schemas used most in
ambiguous situation to “fill in the blanks.”
* Accessibility [degree to which schemas come to mind] &
Priming [recent experiences that increase accessibility]
Schemas and Memory
Occupational Labels As
Schemas (Job Title)
Description of
Librarian
Description of Waitress
Memory of facts
Schemas (job titles) given BEFORE reading descriptions
increased memory for facts
Washing Clothes
The procedure is really quite simple. First you arrange things
into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient
depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go
somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step;
otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo
things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too
many. In the short run this may not seem important, but
complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as
well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon,
however, it will become just facet of life. It is difficult to foresee
any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future but
then, once cam never tell. After the procedure is completed one
arranges the materials into different groups again (Bransford &
Johnson, 1972, p. 722)
Schemas and Perception
Priming via Leading Questions
Car accident
(shown on film)
34 mph
“Hit”
versus
“Smashed”
41 mph
Did you see a ...
versus
Did you see the ...
More likely to report seeing something
2x more likely to
indicate presence
of glass in the
accident (none
was present)
Priming/Leading Questions
Harris (1973):
How tall was the basketball layer?
79”
How short was the basketball player? 69”
How long was the movie? 130 min.
How short was the movie? 100 min.
Priming/Leading Questions
Loftus (unpublished studies)
How many other products have you tried: 1, 2, 3?
Avg. 3.3
How many other products have you tried: 1, 5, 10?
Avg. 5.2
Do you get headaches frequently, and , if so, how often?
2.2/week
Do you get headaches occasionally, and , if so, how often?
0.7/week
Priming/Leading Questions
[False presupposition of objects]
Accident film --- speed of a white sports car
A) How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the barn while
traveling along the country road?
17.5% reported seeing a barn
versus
B) How fast was the white sports car going while traveling along the
country road?
2.7% reported seeing a barn
One week later: Did you see a barn ? [No barn existed]
Priming/Leading Questions
Experimental Drug for Cancer Treatment
50% success rate
Significantly
more
people in this
group
recommend
the drug be
approved
50% failure rate
Priming and recent past experience: Medical training, focusing
on learning how to diagnose diseases
Coughing
Sneezing
Disease
diagnosis;
need for
certain
treatment
Priming Via Physical Sensations
• Nice smelling cleaning detergent --- more likely to help (donate to charity) and
trust stranger)
(Liljenquist et al., 2009) Association between cleanliness and positive traits
• Holding a hot cup of coffee versus iced coffee --- thought stranger was more
friendly (Williams & Bargh, 2008) Association between warm and friendly
• Sign survey on heavy versus light clipboard --- thought more “weight” given to
value of survey responses (Jostmann et al., 2009)
Association between heavy and value (“carries more weight”)
Schemas & Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
IQ
Points
Gained
80
70
Bloomers
60
Others
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 IQ Points
Gained
20 IQ Points
Gained
30 IQ Points
Gained
Rosenthal & Jacobson, (1968). Replicated many times since then.
Schemas & Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Phone conversation
with males
Low
Physical attractiveness
of female varied (photos
shown – previously rated
as unattractive and
attractive)
High
Females did not know how
they were described to males
Females behavior was warmer and more friendly when they
were described to the male as being “attractive” (as judged
by those listening to tape of female part of conversation)
Males were
warmer, more
friendly, and used
more humor when
talking to the
“attractive”
female
* Heuristics: Cognitive shortcuts (May not have ready-made
schemas, or too many schemas)
Availability heuristic: What information is most available (seen,
noticed); what to comes to mind quickly (media influence)
Examples: Death by plane crashes, shark attacks …
Substituting ease of access for data on frequency of occurrence
Factors that increase availability:
Emotionality of events
Recency of events
Ease of visualization
Imagining events
Vividness of events or testimonials
Example:
9/11 Attack
Top 10 Causes of Death (2013)
From: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm
Availability and Perceived Assertiveness
Six examples
7.0
Self-rated
Assertiveness
Twelve examples
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
Assertive Acts
Schwarz et al., 1991)
Unassertive
Acts
Availability and Assessment of
Quality
• Think of 2 versus 10 ways a course could be improved (Fox, 2006)
Who rated the course higher/better?
Those who were asked to list 10 ways the course could be improved
Had a difficult time thinking of 10 ways to improve course = higher ratings
Heuristics (cont.) *
Representative heuristic: Classifying things (objects, people) based on how
similar it is to a typical (average) member of a group (e.g., meet someone at
state university in NY who has blond hair, is mellow, tanned, and likes the
beach– which state is he/she from? If you guessed CA or FL, you’d be using
representative heuristic) See example on page 69 of text [Barnum Effect]
Base rate information: Data about the frequency of occurrence of
something in the population (often underutilized). At state university in FL
have no information about a person, asked to guess which state they are from.
If you use base rate information (more in-state people are in state
universities, you’d guess FL. Usage: Choosing a left handed pitcher to pitch
to a left-handed batter.
Fallacies/Biases
• Gambler’s fallacy --- 9 heads in a row
What are the odds that tails will be next?
• False Consensus Effect:
The tendency to overestimate the degree of agreement between one’s own
beliefs, behaviors, and characteristics (especially if they are negative)
(“Everyone does it”)
• False Uniqueness Effect (Better Than Average Effect)
More likely regarding positive behaviors (e.g., exercise regularly, eat a
healthy diet)
• Illusion of control: The concept that people are in control over chance
events (e.g., choice to throw dice oneself; throw the dice harder …)
Psychological Accounting
• You are on vacation and want to go to the theater. Do you spend
$30 on a theater ticket if you
– Discover that you lost the $30 ticket you purchased earlier in
the day?
– Discover that you lost $30 from your wallet while touring
earlier in the day?
Psychological Accounting (cont.)
• You are going to buy a jacket and a calculator. The jacket costs $125 and
the calculator costs $15 at the store. You learn that you can buy the
calculator at a different store (20 minute drive away) for $10. Do you
drive to the other store to get the calculator?
• You are going to buy a jacket and a calculator. The jacket costs $125 and
the calculator costs $15 at the store. You learn that you can buy the
jacket at a different store (20 minute drive away) for $120. Do you drive
to the other store to get the jacket?
Sensitivity to the ratio of costs
• Size of the ratio of the high cost to the lower cost influences
the decision more than the absolute size of the savings
• Calculator example
$15/$10 – ratio is 1.5 (drive seems worthwhile!)
• Jacket example
$125/$120 – ratio is 1.04 (prices seem nearly identical)
Counterfactual Thinking (what might have
been; what could I have done different?)
Negative Event
Imagine doing something different
(“better”)
• Enhances positive mood
• May allow for the development of new
strategies for future use
Counterfactual Thinking (cont.)
Gold Medal
Upward counterfactual thinking
(dissatisfaction)
Silver Medal
Bronze Medal
Downward counterfactual thinking
(satisfaction)
Other Factors:
Expectations: Bronze medalists who were not expecting a medal appeared happier than silver medalists
expecting the gold; Silver medalists were elated, unless they expected the gold
Close Calls: Silver medalist loses to gold medalist by several seconds but beats bronze medalist by 1/100
second (likely to make downward CFT)
Pulling a muscle after the 1st 10 meters of 100 meter dash vs. winning but has injury in last few meters
Being the 999th customer when # 1000 gets a prize; Failing to renew flood insurance a few days before flood
vs. 6 months before; Survive plane crash but die 2 miles from safety vs. 100 yards (greater damage award)
Counterfactual Thinking (cont.)
Test
Score
Grades
A
Upward counterfactual thinking
(dissatisfaction)
B
Lowered counterfactual thinking
(satisfaction)
Counterfactual Thinking (cont.)
Inaction Inertia *
75% Off
Sale
Stock is selling
for $5.00/share
Plan or think
about buying an
item but don’t do
so
25% Off Sale
Plan or think
about buying the
stock but don’t do
so
Unlikely to buy
the item now
even though it
may still be a
good deal
Stock rises to
$10.00/share
Unlikely to buy
the stock now
even though it
may still be a
good purchase
~ Magical Thinking ~
1) Law of contagion: Things which were once in physical contact maintain a
connection even after physical contact has been broken; the essence of things
(good/bad) spreads by contact (e.g., sweater owned by someone with a disease) or
proximity (sell a house across from a cemetery or built on top of a previous one)
2) Law of similarity: If things resemble each other (look alike) they are alike.”
(e.g., refusing to eat a piece of cake that looks like a roach)
3) Thoughts and actions can influence physical world outside oneself (sitting
the same way and in the same seat will bring you good luck; watching a team play
will cause them to lose; celebrating winning a bet before the game is officially
over can cause one to lose the bet)