Peer Influence
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Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
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Friendship
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Play and Leisure
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Aging and the Social World
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Sociocultural Influences
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Peer Group Functions
Peers — individuals about the same age or maturity level
 Peer groups provide source of information and comparison about
world outside the family
 Peer influences and evaluations can be negative or positive
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 Early Childhood◦ Frequency of peer interaction increases
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Middle/Late Childhood◦ Children spend increasing time in peer interaction
Average time spent◦ 10% of time spent with peers at age 2
◦ 20% of time spent with peers at age 4
◦ 40% of time spent with peers during ages 7-11
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Social Cognition
◦ 5 steps in processing social information Decode social cues
 Interpret
 Search for response
 Select optimal response
 Enact
◦ Affects ability to get along with peers
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Peer Statuses
Popular
Average
Frequently nominated as a best
friend; rarely disliked by peers
Receive average number of positive
and negative nominations from
peers
Neglected
Infrequently nominated as a best
friend but not disliked by peers
Rejected
Infrequently nominated as a best
friend; actively disliked by peers
Controversial
Frequently nominated as someone's
best friend and as being disliked
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Neglected and Rejected Children
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Neglected children:
◦ Low rates of peer interaction
◦ Often described as shy
Rejected children:
◦ Have more serious adjustment problems
◦ Less likely to engage in classroom participation
◦ Show a desire to avoid school
◦ More likely to be lonely
Not all rejected children are aggressive
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Bullying
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Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent
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Significant numbers victimized◦ Boys and younger middle school students
◦ Victims of bullies reported more loneliness
and difficulty in making friends
◦ Those who did the bullying more likely
to have low grades, smoke and drink alcohol
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Gender and Peer Relations
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Gender composition
◦ From age 3, children prefer same-sex groups
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Group size
◦ From age 6, boys prefer larger groups
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Interaction in same-sex groups
◦ Boys: organized group games, rough-and-tumble
◦ Girls: collaborative discourse
Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence
Adolescent Peer Relations
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Peer pressure - peers play powerful roles
Cliques and crowds — to be liked and included
Peers play important role in individual development in all
cultures
Cross-cultural comparisons
Friendship
Cliques and Crowds
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Cliques
◦ Average 5 to 6 people
◦ Usually same sex, age
◦ Formed from shared
activities, friendship
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Crowds
◦ Larger than cliques
◦ Usually formed based
on reputation
◦ May not spend much
time together
Friendship
Friendship during Adolescence
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Girls more intimate with friends than boys, more open in selfdisclosures
More risk of delinquent behavior when friends are older, boys
focus on power and excitement
Early maturers more at risk for
delinquent behavior
Friendship
Adult Friendship
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Gender Differences◦ Women
 More close friends
 More intimate; talk more
◦ Men
 More competitive
 Engage in activities, especially outdoors
◦ More cross-gender friendships than childhood but still prefer
same-gender
Friendship
Friendship in Late Adulthood
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Important role; tend to narrow their social network
Choose close friends over new friends
Gender differences◦ Women: more depressed without a best friend; no change in desire
for friends
◦ Men: decreased desire for new and close friends in older adulthood
Play and Leisure
Childhood
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Functions of play◦ Health
◦ Affiliation with peers and constraints
◦ Cognitive development
◦ Exploration
◦ Tension release, master anxiety and conflict
Play and Leisure
Types of Play
Unoccupied
Solitary
Onlooker
Parallel
Child not engaging in play as commonly
understood; might stand in one spot
Child plays alone, independently of others
Child watches other children play
Child plays separately from others, but in
manner that mimics their play
Play that involves social interaction with
Associative
little or no organization
Play that involves social interaction in
Cooperative
group with sense of organized activity
Aging and the Social World
Stereotyping of Older Adults
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Ageism:
◦ Prejudice against other people because of age, especially
prejudice against older adults
Personal consequences of negative stereotyping can be serious
Sociocultural Influences
Individualism and Collectivism
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Individualism◦ Giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals;
emphasizing values that serve the self.
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Collectivism◦ Emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal
goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and
harmonious relationships.
Sociocultural Influences
Influences on Rites of Passage
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The media and culture◦ Reduced parents’ control of information
◦ Greatest influence in the U.S.
Television◦ greater impact on children
◦ Positive and negative effects
◦ Violence and aggression, video games
Computer and the internet◦ Highest risks to children and adolescents
◦ Effects on aging adults
Sociocultural Influences
What Is Socioeconomic Status?
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SES◦ Grouping of people with similar occupational,
educational, and economic characteristics
◦ Number depends on community’s size, complexity
◦ Low SES and middle SES
 Each could have many subcategories
 SES variations in neighborhoods, schools
◦ Each level views education differently
Sociocultural Influences
Family Socioeconomic Variations
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Higher SES parents:
• Lower SES parents:
– Stress conformity
◦ Stress ‘initiative’ and delayed
gratification
– Exercise authority
◦ Children are nearly equal
– Use physical punishment
participants in home rules,
– More directive, use less
etc.
conversation with children
◦ Less likely to use physical
punishment
◦ Less directive, more
conversational
Sociocultural Influences
Who is Poor?
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Women — feminization of poverty
◦ Over 1/3 of single mothers; 10% of single fathers
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Families and poverty
◦ Economic pressure linked with parenting
◦ Benefits to parents help children
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Poverty, aging, and ethnicity
◦ 10-12% overall, more among women and ethnic
minorities; more than 25% of older women
◦ Ethnic diversity continues to increase
Sociocultural Influences
Ethnicity
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Ethnicity and families◦ Families vary by size, structure, composition, levels of income and
education, kinship networks, and how family monitors/regulates
behaviors
◦ More single families in some groups
◦ Ethnic minority parents are less educated
◦ Children experience double disadvantage
 Do not escape prejudice and discrimination
 Stressful effects of poverty felt
Sociocultural Influences
Ethnicity and Aging
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Double jeopardy◦ Ageism and racism
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Health and wealth decrease faster for older ethnic minorities
than for elderly white Americans
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Coping mechanisms◦ Extended family networks
◦ Ethnic neighborhoods and groups
◦ Churches and organizations