By Loren Miller
THE BUTT OF JOKES
•
It could probably be shown by facts and
figures that there is no distinctly native
American criminal class except
Congress. . . . Mark Twain
•
Reader assume you are an idiot and a
member of Congress, but I repeat
myself. . . . Mark Twain
THE BUTT OF JOKES
•
With Congress—every time they make a
joke it’s a law. And every time they make
a law it’s a joke . . . . Will Rogers
• Congress meets tomorrow morning. Let
us all pray to the Lord to give us strength
to bear that which is about to be inflicted
upon us. . . . Will Rogers
THE BUTT OF JOKES
•
We could certainly slow the aging
process down if it had to work its way
through Congress . . . . Will Rogers
THE BUTT OF JOKES
I have come to the conclusion that one
useless man is called a disgrace, that
two are called a law firm and that three
or more become a congress . . . .
opening lines of the play 1776.
Congress is so strange. A man gets up
to speak and says nothing. Nobody
listens—and then everyone disagrees .
. . . Senator Wiley quoting a Russian
observer (1947).
Criticisms of Congress
•
•
•
•
•
Inefficient
Too responsive to organized interests
Unethical
Lacks collective responsibility
Delegates too much to the Executive Branch
Big Money Interests
Herb Block, May 18, 2000
Criminal Class??
Randy Cunningham, R – Calif: serving 8 years for accepting 2.4 million
in bribes.
Mark Foley, R – Fl: resigned from the House when his steamy emails
to 16 year old pages were made public.
Sen. Larry Craig, R – Ida: plead guilty to soliciting sex in a men’s
bathroom in the Minneapolis airport.
Anthony Weiner, D – NY: resigned after sending lewd pictures of
himself on Twitter.
Sen. John Ensign, R – Nev: had an affair with the wife of his
administrative assistant.
William Jefferson, D – La: found guilty of accepting bribes.
Citizens’ Love-Hate
Relationship
with
Congress
80
70
Respondent's
Representative
60
50
Congress as a
Whole
40
30
20
10
0
2010
Citizens’ Love-Hate
Relationship with Congress
70
60
50
SC Justices
40
Members of
Congress
President
30
20
10
0
Angry at
Disgusted
by
Proud of
2005
90
80
Who Do You Trust?
President
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Congress
Supreme Court
WHO DO YOU TRUST?
1.
Nurses
82%
11. Lawyers
20%
2.
Pharmacists
70%
12. TV Reporters
20%
3.
Medical Doctors
69%
13. State Officeholders
14%
4.
Police Officers
54%
14. Used Car Salesman
9%
5.
Clergy
47%
15. Members of Congress
8%
6.
Judges
45%
16. Lobbyists
6%
7.
Auto Mechanics
29%
8.
Bankers
27%
9.
Business Exec.
22%
10.
Journalists
21%
2014
Why do we dislike
Congress as an
institution but continue to
elect the same people to
Congress?
Individual Members
•
•
•
•
•
Serve constituents
Run against Congress
Emphasize personal style and outreach to
constituents
Reported in positive terms by local media
Highlight personal goals and
accomplishments
Congress
•
•
•
•
•
Resolve national issues only with difficulty
or not at all
Has few defenders
Often reported negatively by the national
media
Moves slowly; cumbersome procedures
Has many voices but none can speak
clearly for the Congress as a whole
In 2013, Congress set the all time
record for fewest bills passed
% of Incumbents Who Lost
25
20
15
10
5
0
1994
2014
Senate
House
House Incumbents Win
Why Incumbents Win
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Better name recognition
Free mailings to home or state districts
Raise campaign money easier than
challenger
The Candidate
Greater access to the media
Campaign experience
Large staffs
Take credit for federal monies given to their
regions
Contact with House Members
60
50
40
30
Incumbent
20
10
0
Challenger
Texas 3rd District
2011-2012
Name
Receipts
Individual
PAC
Candidate
Joshua Caesar
$7,919
$4,330
$0
Sam Johnson
$1,059,817
$432,841
$626,710
John Lingenfelder $5,091
Harry Pierce
$11,801
$1,115
$0
$3,589
$0
$548
$3,428
$0
$11,801
Who’s the Incumbent?
Cost of Beating a House Incumbent
In Thousands
Money and Incumbency
Senate:
Incumbent
Challenger
Open Seat
$11,847,000
1,360,000
1,900,000
House:
Incumbent
Challenger
Open Seat
$ 1,606,000
267,000
300,000
2012
The Job of a Member
Scale 0 - 1
Balancing the Budget??
A Senator’s Advantage??
•
Senators have long terms in which to
ingratiate themselves with their publics
•
Senators have large staffs
•
Senators have greater access to the media
Why Do Fewer Senators Return?
•
More senators die
• A lower percentage of incumbent
senators seek reelection
• A higher percentage of senators lose in
both primaries and general elections
Why Senators are more apt
to Lose
•
•
•
•
Senate challengers tend to have high
name recognition
Senate challengers have the ability to
raise large amounts of campaign funds * *
Senate challengers’ campaigns are
managed by professionals
Senators do not have control over their
political environment
Spending in House Elections
Thousands of Dollars
Spending in Senate Elections
Millions of Dollars
Where Does the Money Come
From?
80
70
60
50
Individuals
PACs
Other
40
30
20
10
0
1974
2000
2010
Dramatic Increase in PACs
Who Gets the PAC Money?
In Millions of Dollars
Who Gives?
2014
“I don’t give my people’s
money to those I think are
going to lose.”
George Gould, PAC Manager
“There are two things that matter
in politics. The first is money. I
can’t remember the second.”
Mark Hanna, McKinley’s Campaign Manager
“There are only so many hours
in a day, and when you’re trying
to figure out who to fit into your
day, you obviously pay attention
to the people who helped put
you in.”
John Bryant,
Former member of Congress
How “Representative” is
Congress?
•
Do they look like us?
•
Does it make any difference that
Congress is not a descriptively
representative institution?
A Comparison of Two
Congresses
1st Congress
H: 43
S: 46
1
Age
114th Congress
H: 57
S: 62
1st Congress
114th Congress
Race
H: 100% white
H: 80% white,
20% minority
S: 100% white
S: 94% white
6% minority
H: 100% male
S: 100% male
Gender
H: 79% male
S: 80% male
1st Congress
114th Congress
Selective
Occupations
H: 38%
S: 38%
H: 0%
S: 0%
Lawyers
Politics
H:
S:
H:
S:
36%
61%
42%
42%
114th Congress
Religion
% in House
% in Senate
% USA
Protestant
57%
52%
48%
Catholic
31%
27%
22%
Jewish
5%
2%
2%
11% Democratic
Steering
7% Committee
Mormon
Buddhist
1.2%
1% Democratic
1%
Muslim
.5%
Policy
-- Committee
1%
Hindu
.2%
--
< 1%
Unitarian
.2%
--
< 1%
2%
Women Legislators in U.S.A
(%)
2015
Women Legislators in U.S.A
(%)
2013
% of Women in Legislatures
2010
Women and Minorities in
the 114th Congress
Candidate Self-Test
•
Do I want it? A question of motivation.
•
Can I do it? A question of resources.
•
Do they want me? A question of
opportunity.
Length of Stay in the House
# of
Terms
1
17891901
44.0
19011995
23.3
19952005
13.6
20052006
8.5
2-6
53.4
49.7
56.4
52.2
7+
2.6
27.0
30.1
39.3
Mean #
of Terms
2.1
4.8
5.3
6.2
Length of Stay in the Senate
# of
Terms
1
17891901
65.6
19011995
45.6
19952005
33.8
20052006
31.0
2
23.4
22.4
27.4
26.0
3+
11.0
32.0
38.8
43.0
Mean #
of Terms
1.5
2.2
2.6
3.0
Presidential Coattails??
Why does the President’s
Party Lose in Off-Years??
•
•
•
•
Referendum -- an evaluation of the
president’s job performance
Surge & Decline -- the impact of
presidential coattails
Presidential Punishment -- voters focus
their negatives on the president’s party
Candidate Quality -- Congress is
focused on candidate-centered
campaigns
The House of
Representatives
• 1789
65 Members
• 1920
435 Members
Winners and Losers
1970 & 1980
•
1970
California +13
Florida
+7
Texas
+2
Arizona +2
Pennsylvania
New York
Massachusetts
Arkansas
-5
-4
-2
-2
•
1980
Florida
+4
Texas
+3
California +2
New York
Illinois
Ohio
Pennsylvania
-5
-2
-2
-2
Winners and Losers
1990 & 2000
•
1990
California
Florida
Texas
+7
+4
+3
•
2000
Arizona
Florida
Georgia
Texas
+2
+2
+2
+2
New York
-3
Pennsylvania -2
Illinois
-2
Ohio
-2
Michigan
-2
New York
-2
Pennsylvania -2
Winners and Losers
2010
•
2010
Texas
Florida
+4
+2
New York
Ohio
-2
-2
Reapportionment
1970-2010
California +23
New York
-16
Florida
+19
Pennsylvania
-11
Texas
+14
Political Clout is Changing
POPULATION GROWTH
2000-2010
•
Most Growth:
Nevada
+35%
Arizona
+25%
Utah
+24%
Idaho
+21%
Texas
+21%
•
Least Growth:
Michigan
Rhode Island
Louisiana
Ohio
New York
-1%
+0%
+1%
+2%
+2%
Regional Shifts:
West +14%
South +14%
Midwest +4
Northeast +3%
POPULATION GROWTH
2010-2013
•
Most Growth:
North Dakota
Texas
Utah
Colorado
Florida
•
+7.5%
+5.2%
+4.9%
+4.8%
+4.0%
Least Growth:
Rhode Island
Maine
West Virginia
Michigan
Vermont
-.1%
-.04%
+.07%
+.12%
+.14%
Regional Shifts:
West +3.21%
South +3.34%
Midwest +0.93%
Northeast +1.13%
Winners and Losers
2010
Percentage Distribution of Seats in the
U.S. House by Region
(1910-2010)
Reapportionment
•
•
•
Done by the Bureau of the Census
every ten years
A mathematical process (as opposed
to a political process)
Each state is guaranteed one
member of the House of
Representatives
Reapportionment:
The Process
•
•
•
•
We know that the total number of
House members is frozen at 435
We know the population of the
United States
We know the population of each
state
Let’s solve for one unknown
Texas: 2010
•
The United States Population:
308,750,000
• The Population of Texas
25,500,000
•
•
25,500,000
308,750,000
X = 35.927125
=
X
435
Wyoming: 2010
•
The United States Population:
308,745,538
• The Population of Wyoming
583,626
•
•
583,626
308,745,538
X = 0.82286
=
X
435
Reapportionment:
Questions
•
Can a state that
gains in population
from one census
to the next, lose
representation??
•
A
What
does a state
have to do to gain
representation?
Yes
state must gain
population at a
higher rate than the
national average
Reapportionment
Redistricting
The people do not select their
representatives; the
representatives select their
people.
Redistricting
•
Done by each state legislature usually every
ten years, but legally this can be done more
often than every ten years (LULAC v. Perry,
2006)
• A political process
• Each state has the responsibility to draw the
number of districts that the Bureau of the
Census determined that they are entitled to
Battles of the 1960s
•
State legislatures, dominated by rural
interests, but whose states were
predominantly urban, were challenged
in a series of Supreme Court cases
beginning in 1960.
Supreme Court
Requirements
•
•
•
Within each state, the population of
each district should be as equal
as possible [(Baker v. Carr, 1960)
Silent Gerrymander]
The districts must be contiguous
Districts must not be drawn to
discriminate against minorities
One Person, One Vote
• Baker v. Carr (1960) – lower house,
state legislature
• Wesberry v. Sanders (1964) – U.S.
House of Representatives
• Reynolds v. Sims (1964) – upper
house, state legislature
Avery v. Midland Co. (1968)
City of
Midland
98% of
County’s
Population
Texas 1971
Fort Worth
Dallas
Voting Rights Act of 1965
• Districts can not be drawn to discriminate
on the basis of race or color.
• It’s very difficult to prove discriminatory
intent or purpose (Voting Rights Act of
1965). In 1982 Congress outlawed any
arrangement that had the effect of
weakening minority voting power
(intended or not).
Voting Rights Act of 1965
• Areas with a history of discrimination,
such as Texas, had to submit redistricting
plans to the U.S. Department of Justice for
approval before they can go into effect.
• This is no longer the case as the Supreme
Court ruled that “preclearance” is no
longer required.
– Shelby County v. Holder (2013)
Creating Minority Districts
• Increasing representation to one group
almost always means decreasing the
political influence of another.
• Blacks v. Hispanics in almost any large
urban area
• Districts can be created to protect
incumbents
– Davis v. Bandemer, 1986
Gerry-mander
Named after Elbridge Gerry, one of
our founding fathers.
Gerrymander
•
•
•
A term used to describe a district
that has been drawn in an unusual
shape for political reasons
“Gerrymander” has a negative
connotation
One person’s “gerrymander” is
another’s “creatively drawn” district
Gerrymander
•
The key concept to grasp is that
there are no neutral lines for
legislative districts.
•
Gerrymandering is somewhat like
pornography—you know it when you
see it, but it’s awful difficult to define.
Rep. Abner Mikva
Types of Gerrymander
•
Cracking
•
Packing
•
Pairing
Gerrymander: Type I
•
Cracking
Gerrymander: Type I
•
Cracking
Gerrymander: Type I
•
Cracking
Gerrymander: Type II
•
Packing
•
What would you consider to be a comfortable
margin of victory for “your side”?
•
Then your goal in drawing districts is to
create as many districts as possible with this
comfortable victory margin for “your side.”
Gerrymander: Type II
• District 1
• District 2
• Democrat 42% • Democrat
Republican 58%
Republican
Who Drew These Districts??
Democrats or Republicans
73%
27%
Gerrymander: Type II
•
In 1992, of Texas’ 30 representatives,
there were 18 Democrats and 12
Republicans.
•
The average margin of victory for the
18 Democrats was 58%.
The average margin of victory for the
12 Republicans was 76%.
Then federal judges ordered the
redrawing of several districts.
•
•
Gerrymander: Type II
•
In 1996, of Texas’ 30 representatives,
there were 17 Democrats and 13
Republicans.
•
The average margin of victory for the
17 Democrats was 59%.
The average margin of victory for the
13 Republicans was 66%.
•
Gerrymander: Type III
• Pairing
• District 1
District 2
Liberal
Democrat
Conservative
Democrat
Gerrymander: Type III
• Pairing
New District 1
New District 2
Liberal
Democrat
Conservative
Democrat
Gerrymander: Type III
• Pairing
• District 1
District 2
Liberal
Democrat
Liberal
Democrat
Gerrymander: Type III
• Pairing
New District 1
New District 2
Liberal
Democrat
Liberal
Democrat
Ohio
Ohio lost two House seats so Republicans paired two Democrats who live over
120 miles apart
Maryland
Create a majority Democratic district that encompasses the major media
markets in the state so that the representative becomes well known enough to
run for the Senate.
Ohio
Cracking Franklin County (Urban/Liberal) to create a majority Republican district
North Carolina
College towns (Democratic) are packed.
Illinois
Packing to create a majority Hispanic district and also save two Black
representatives
Utah
Cracking Salt Lake City to create a majority Republican district
Texas
Cracking of Travis County in to Five Districts
Gerrymandering in Action
Mostly
Mostly
Democratic
Republican
Voters
Voters
Gerrymandering in Action
Republican Plan
2 Democrats
1 Republican
Mostly
Mostly
Democratic
Republican
Voters
Voters
Gerrymandering in Action
Democratic Plan
3 Democrats
0 Republicans
Mostly
Mostly
Democratic
Republican
Voters
Voters
Gerrymandering in Action
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Gerrymandering in Action
Democratic Plan
3 Democratic
0 Republican
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Gerrymandering in Action
Republican Plan
1 Democratic
2 Republican
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
AN AVERAGE DAY . . . .
Uncle Jay
Total Hours in Session
Judicial Function of
Congress
•
•
•
•
Q: When does Congress act like a
court?
A: Impeachment
The House impeaches (brings
charges)
The Senate determines the verdict
Judicial Function of
Congress
•
•
•
•
Q: Who can be impeached?
A: The President, the Vice President
and all civil officers
Q: What can they be impeached for?
A: Treason, bribery and other high
crimes and misdemeanors
Impeachment
•
Federal Judges
– 15 Impeached
– 8 Convicted
•
President
– 2 Impeached
– 0 Convicted
Cabinet Member
1 Impeached
0 Convicted
Senator
1 Impeached
No Jurisdiction
Executive Function of
Congress
•
Mainly controlled by the Senate
•
The Senate must give their “advice
and consent” to a treaty
The Senate must confirm presidential
appointments
•
Treaties and Executive Agreements
Period
# of Treaties
# of Ex. Agreements
Johnson, 64-68
67
1,083
Nixon, 69-74
93
1,317
Ford, 75-76
26
666
Carter, 77-80
79
1,476
Reagan, 81-88
125
2,840
Bush, 89-92
67
1,350
Clinton, 93-00
209
2,048
Bush, 01-08
147
1,990
Obama, 09-11
11
611
Time of Confirmation
(In Months)
Investigative Function of
Congress
•
Congress may investigate any area
in which they have acted upon in the
past or may act upon in the near
future
•
Congressional Oversight
Representative Function
of Congress
•
Members of Congress believe that
this is one of their most difficult roles
•
How does a member of the House
represent around 711,000
constituents?
Representative Function
of Congress
•
What role would you assume?
•
The Instructed Delegate
–
•
The Trustee
–
•
Votes the way their constituents would want
them to, regardless of their own opinions
Listens to constituent’s opinions and then use
their best judgment to make final decisions
The Politico
–
Acts as trustee or delegate , depending upon the
issue
Electoral Function of
Congress
•
“Each house shall be the judge of
the elections, returns, and
qualifications of its own members.”
•
Can an elected member be excluded if they met
the legal qualifications for the position?
–
–
•
Those who supported secession during the Civil War
Those who were charged with crimes or misconduct
No, since 1969 (Powell v. McCormack)
Electoral Function of
Congress
•
Each house of Congress regulates the
conduct of their own members
•
“Each House may . . . punish its Members
for disorderly Behavior . . . .”
•
•
•
Reprimand
Censure
Expel (2/3’s vote)
Once begin the dance of
legislation, and you must struggle
through its mazes to the breathless
end—if any end there be.
Woodrow Wilson, 1885
114th Congress--House
188 Democrats
247 Republicans
114th Congress--Senate
54 Republicans
44 Democrats
2 Independents
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
•
The only requirement for a bill to
become a law is for the bill to be
passed by the House and the Senate
in identical fashion and then signed
by the President, or if vetoed,
overridden by a 2/3’s majority vote in
each house.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
• Power is decentralized in Committee
and Sub-Committee Chairs and in
individual rank-and-file members.
• Power is mostly NEGATIVE
(conservative)
– It is very hard to pass legislation, but
easy to kill legislation
– Power in Congress favors the status
quo
How a Bill Becomes a
Law: Short Version
How a Bill Becomes a Law:
Long Version
How a Bill Becomes a Law:
Long Version
Rock
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
•
The first step in the process is the
drafting of a bill. Who drafts most
bills?
•
•
•
•
Lobbyists
Executive Branch
Members of Congress
Constituents
–
“By Request”
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
• To get a bill written, Members of
Congress will usually see a nonpartisan office called the House or
Senate Legislative Counsel’s.
• The bill is then “shopped around”
(shown to interested parties)
• Members line up “co-sponsors”.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
• A bill gets introduced when the
Member puts their signature on the
bill and puts it in the “hopper”.
• The bill is printed and then sent to a
committee or two.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
•
Each house of Congress uses
“subject matter” committees and
subcommittees
•
If there is a jurisdictional question as
to which committee a bill should be
sent, the presiding officer makes the
final decision
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Committee Stage
•
Committees take up a bill only when someone,
either from the Committee or their party’s
leadership, want them to.
•
It is totally up to the Chair, as the Chair sets the
agenda for the Committee.
•
Discharge Petition: requires 218 signatures
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Committee Stage
•
Agency Review
–
•
When the committee asks the executive
agencies that will administer the law for written
comments
Hearings (staged and scripted)
–
When the committee gathers information and
views from experts
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Committee Stage
•
Markup
–
•
When the committee “marks up” the bill with
suggested language changes and
amendments
Report
–
After agreeing on the wording of the bill, the
committee issues a report to the full chamber
explaining the bill and its intent
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Committee Stage
Bill From
House Floor
Livestock, Dairy &
Poultry
18 Members
Conservation, Energy
& Research
Agriculture
30 Members
44 Members
Farm Commodities
Horticulture and Organic
18 Members
10 Members
Department Operations
10 Members
Rural Development
10 Members
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
• For a bill to come to the floor of the
House or the Senate, it has to have
“privilege.”
– The majority leadership—the Speaker or
Majority Leader in the House or the
Majority Leader of the Senate—has to
agree to put it on the floor
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Committees to Floor
Agriculture
Interior
Commerce
Rules
Committee of the Whole
Veterans
Affairs
Controlled by the
Speaker
House Floor
Changing Image of Senators
1950s: A courtly older gentleman with white hair clad in a white
linen suit working in committee behind closed doors.
1970s: A policy entrepreneur pursuing his cause singly or with a
few allies on the Senate floor, aggressively using nongermane
amendments and extended debate as his weapons.
1990s +: A partisan warrior, acting as a member of a party team,
dueling with his opposing party counterparts in the public
arena and on the floor, using all the procedural and PR tools
available.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Senate
•
Role of Standing Committees
•
Unanimous Consent
–
–
Motions that are adopted as long as no member objects to them
Many requests deal with routine business
•
–
–
For example: “Madam President, I ask unanimous consent to dispense with the reading of the
journal.”
Other unanimous consent agreements are worked out in advance by the
majority and minority leaders to set the details of how it will consider the bill,
how long it will debate each amendment, whether all amendments must be
germane, and when the final vote will be taken.
Unanimous consent agreements help the leadership move noncontroversial
matters quickly through the Senate. However, a single senator’s objection can
stop a unanimous consent agreement giving the minority another chance to
stop or delay the majority from acting.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Senate
•
Hold
–
A “hold” is shorthand for a promise to obstruct all further
consideration of a particular piece of Senate business.
–
The Senate generally uses unanimous consent agreements
to set the rules for a bill or a nomination. A hold, in its
simplest form, is a promise to object to unanimous consent.
–
A hold can be overruled by a 3/5’s vote (60 votes)
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Senate
•
Amendments
–
Non-germane Amendments: an amendment not related to
the subject matter (allowed in the Senate but not the House)
–
Killer Amendment: an amendment designed to make a
measure so unattractive that it will lack enough support to
pass
•
Opponents of term limitations offered an amendment that would count
time already served in the calculation. If passed, many members of
Congress would have voted themselves out of office.
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Senate
•
Floor Debate
–
Filibuster (Rule XXII)
•
Senate Record: 24hrs and 18 minutes
• Filibuster Announcement
–
Cloture (Requires 60 votes)
•
Passage limits future debate to 1 hour
per Senator
NUMBER OF FILIBUSTERS
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Cloture Votes
U.S. Senate
“You’ve got to work things
out in the cloakroom and
when you’ve got them
worked out you can debate
a little before you vote.”
Lyndon Johnson
Where Major Measures
Fail (2000-2008)
Passed by neither House nor Senate
26%
Passed by House but not by Senate
43%
Passed by Senate but not by House
3%
Passed by House and Senate
28%
Total # of Failed Measures
127 of 298
Percentage of total measures that failed
43%
Success Rates for Bills
(%)
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
•
•
Voting--a simple majority vote is
required for passage in either
house.
Taking Cues
–
Political Party
– The President
– Lobbyists
– Other Members of Congress
•
•
Reciprocity
Logrolling
UNANIMOUS PARTY LINE
VOTES
(in %)
40
35
30
25
Republicans
20
15
Democrats
10
5
0
Parties Voted Unanimously
PARTY LINE VOTES
(in %)
100
90
80
70
60
50
Republicans
40
30
Democrats
20
10
0
Majority of Democrats vs. Majority of Republicans
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Eisenhower
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
89%
78%
76%
69%
67%
75%
52%
64%
Republican
President/Democratic
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Kennedy
– 1961
– 1962
– 1963
80%
85%
86%
• Johnson
–
–
–
–
–
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
90%
91%
76%
78%
75%
Democratic
President/Democratic
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Nixon
–
–
–
–
–
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
75%
77%
75%
62%
50%
• Ford
– 1974
– 1975
– 1976
56%
57%
53%
Republican
President/Democratic
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Carter
–
–
–
–
1977
1978
1979
1980
75%
77%
76%
75%
Democratic
President/Democratic
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Reagan
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
82%
72%
67%
66%
60%
56%
44%
47%
Republican
President/Democratic
House/Republican
Senate
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Bush
–
–
–
–
1989
1990
1991
1992
62%
47%
54%
43%
Republican
President/Democratic
then Republican
House/Republican
Senate
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Clinton
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
86%
86%
37%
54%
53%
53%
44%
55%
Democratic
President/Republican
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Bush
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
87%
87%
78%
70%
73%
80%
39%
47%
Republican
President/Republican
House/Democratic
then Republican
Senate/Democratic
Congress
PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESS
• Obama
–
–
–
–
–
–
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
97%
85%
57%
59%
50%
Democratic
President/Democratic
Congress/Republican
Congress
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Conference Committee
House Bill
Senate Bill
Conference
Committee
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
A New Bill
Conference
Committee
Report
(New Bill)
No Amendments
House
President
Senate
Polarization
1952
2012
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Types of Committees
Standing
Appropriations, Ways and Means, Rules (H)
Appropriations, Finance, Judiciary (S)
Select
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Committee Assignment
•
Each political party has a
“Committee on Committees” whose
membership is dominated by party
leaders
•
Members want to get on a “good”
committee to begin earning seniority
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
What’s a Good Committee?
•
•
•
•
Pork (earmarks)
– Armed Services
Impact on large campaign contributors
– Energy and Commerce
Policy responsibilities
– Education; Judiciary
Power and influence with the chamber
– Budget; Appropriations; Ways and Means
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Norm of Seniority
•
Seniority -- the number of
consecutive years spent on the
same committee
•
Seniority is becoming less important
and is being replaced by “party
loyalty.”
Who is the Chair??
Agriculture Committee
44 Members
Democrats
1. 28 years
2. 20 years
.
.
20. 0 years
Republicans
1. 22 years
2. 21 years
.
.
24. 0 years
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Arguments in Favor of Seniority
•
•
•
•
•
•
Assures experienced leadership
Eliminates interest group influence
Best opportunity for a minority group member to
become chair
Avoids competition among members
Stabilizes committee membership
There is no workable alternative
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Arguments Against Seniority
•
•
•
•
•
Fragments and diffuses power in Congress
Could maintain the same individual in power too
long (3 term max in House)
Could result in the selection of mediocre, senile,
or otherwise incompetent chairs
Permits committees to become personal
fiefdoms of strong chairs
Denies competent younger members an
opportunity to lead when they are best able to
lead
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Congressional Leadership-House
•
Speaker of the House--a constitutional
position
• Majority Leader & Majority Whips
• Minority Leader & Minority Whips
U.S. House of Representatives
Speaker
Majority
Leader
Minority
Leader
Republican
Policy
Committee
Majority
Whip
Republican Caucus
Democratic
Steering
Committee
Committee
On Rules
Democratic
Policy Minority
CommitteeWhip
Democratic Caucus
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
Congressional Leadership-House
Democratic
Caucus
Speaker
Republican
Caucus
House Votes
Loser Becomes
Minority Leader
Winner Becomes
Speaker
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Speaker of the House
•
Prior to 1910:
–
appointed members to all standing
committees
– appointed chairs of all standing
committees
– self-appointed as chair of the Rules
Committee
– complete control over floor participation
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
•
The Speaker of the House
Contemporary:
–
–
–
–
–
presides over all sittings of the House
recognizes members desiring to speak
interprets and applies the rules
determines the outcome of unrecorded
votes
appoints members to select, special
and conference committees
Lawmaking Function of
Congress
The Senate Leaders
•
Vice President of the United States
(President of the Senate)
•
President Pro Tempore
•
Majority & Minority Leaders
U.S. Senate
Presiding Officer
(VP or President
Pro Tempore)
Minority
Leader
Democratic
Committee on
Committees
Democratic
Policy
Committee
Minority
Whip
Democratic Caucus
Majority
Leader
Democratic Republican
Republican
Policy
SteeringSteering
Committee
Committee Committee
Democratic
Policy Majority
CommitteeWhip
Republican Caucus