Ch3 Age and Acquisition
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of
language learning and teaching (5th
ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Lulu Hu
胡如珊
Caroline Hu 胡毓玲
兒童(C)
成人(A)
L1 = 第一語言
L1
L2
1
3
2
4
L2 = 第二語言
C = 兒童
A = 成人
1vs.3→ L1 vs.L2(Language Variable)
3vs.4→ C vs. A (Age variable)
1vs.4→ C L1 vs. A L2 (有2個variables : 1是age, 2是
language )
2vs.4→×
2vs.3→×
2
L
Language
Mathematics
Deduction
Serialprocessing
R
Music
Pictorial
Kinetics
Induction
Parallel processing
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Hemispheric lateralization(半球側化現
象)
1.Lateralization: (側化現象)--The function of L hemisphere (language) can
be transferred to R hemisphere; that is, one
side of the structure can replace the other
side (when going wrong)
2. Eric Lenneberg(1967) suggested that
lateralization is a slow process that begins
around the age of 2 and is completed around
puberty.(也就是青春期之前,就側化完成, 不會
再轉介,換來換去了)(P.59)
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COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS
• Human cognition develops
rapidly throughout the first 16
years of life and less rapidly
thereafter. Some cognitive
changes are critical; others are
more gradual and difficult to
detect.(p.65)
5
Jean Piaget outlined the course of intellectual
development in a child through various stages:
• Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2)
• Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)
• Operational stage (ages 7 to 16)
• Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)
• Formal operational stage (ages 11 to 16)
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Piaget
Cognitive development theory
•logical inference
•deduction
•prediction, hypothesis testing, planning
Formal operational 形式運思期 12-16歲
•two-way
•de-ego centered
•induction
Concrete operational 7-11歲 具體運思期
•conservation
(小五、小六之前)
•one-way thinking=>A>B
•ego-centered
•intuition…………
Preoperational stage 2-7歲 前運思期
•language………
object
permanence←
就是在搖籃裡)-schema(基模)=>就是
background knowledge
Sensorimoter stage(0-2歲;
7
•A strong case for the superior of
children in implicit learning
(acquisition of linguistic patterns
without explicit attention or
instruction) was advanced by
Robert DeKeyser(2000)(P.66)
8
•In this study, he found that
certain adults, those with high
general verbal ability, were
able to “use explicit learning
mechanisms to bypass the
increasingly inefficient implicit
mechanisms.”
9
•The lateralization hypothesis
may provide another key to
cognitive differences between
child and adult language
acquisition.(p.67)
10
•As the child matures into
adulthood, some would maintain,
the left hemisphere (which controls
the analytical and intellectual
functions) become more dominant
than the right hemisphere (which
controls the functions).
11
•It is impossible that the
dominance of the left
hemisphere contributes to a
tendency to overanalyze and to
be too intellectually centered
on the task of second language
learning.
12
•Equilibration is defined as
“ progressive interior
organization of knowledge in
a stepwise fashion, and is
related to the concept of
equilibrium.”(P.67)
13
•Piaget (1970) claimed that conceptual
development is a process of
progressively moving from states of
disequilibrium to equilibrium and that
periods of disequilibrium mark virtually
all cognitive development up through
age 14 or 15, when formal operations
finally are firmly organized and
equilibrium is reached.
14
The final consideration in
the cognitive domain is the
distinction that Ausubel
made between rote and
meaningful learning.(p.68)
15
•Ausubel noted that people of all ages
have little need for rote, mechanistic
learning that is not related to existing
knowledge and experience. Rather,
most items are acquired by meaningful
learning, by anchoring and relating new
items and experiences to knowledge
that exists in the cognitive framework.
16
•It is a myth to contend that
children are good rote
learners, that they make
good use of meaningless
repetition and mimicking.
17
Affective Considerations
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
p.68
Empathy 同理心
Self-esteem 自尊
Extroversion 外向
Inhibition (self-protection) 抑制
Imitation 模仿
Anxiety 焦慮
Attitudes 態度
………
18
Egocentricity(自我中心) p.69
• Very young children are highly egocentric.
• At puberty(青春期) they develop inhibitions
about self-identity.
19
Language ego 語言自我 p.69
•
•
•
•
•
By Alexander Guiora (1972)
the identify a person develops in reference to the
language he or she speaks
children’s ego
– is dynamic and flexible
– willing to make mistakes of speaking and
understanding
– so learning a new language is not a threat to the ego
adults’ ego is protective and defensive
successful learning- one’s language ego must be
strong enough to overcome inhibitions
20
So, it is possible that adult
language learners can bridge
this affective gap(情意鴻溝), they
can be successful!
Q: Do you agree with it?
21
The role of attitudes p.71
• Very young children are not developed
enough cognitively to possess “attitudes”
toward races, cultures, ethnic groups,
classes of people, and languages, may
be less affected than adults.
• But from the school age on up, children
are taught and begin to change the
attitudes to the second languages.
22
Peer pressure (同儕壓力) p.71
• Children
– more pressure in words, thoughts and actions
– to be like other kids
– extend to language
– to be critical of other children’s actions and words
• Adults
– tolerate linguistic differences
– errors in speech are more easily excused
– provide positive cognitive and affective feedback
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Linguistic considerations p.71~74
1. Bilingualism (雙語)
2. Interference between first and second
languages(第一和第二語言間的干擾)
3. Order of acquisition(習得的順序)
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1. Bilingualism (雙語) p.72
•
•
Children are learning two first languages.
The key to successful is in distinguishing
separate contexts for the two languages.
– Coordiante bilingual 對等雙語
•
two meaning systems learned from different
language contexts
– Compound bilingual 複合雙語
•
One meaning system from which two languages
operate
25
• Code-switching(符碼轉換)
– The act of insert words, phrases of one
language into the other
– Especially when they communicate with
another bilingual.
– Ex:”你…get out!”, “我要去打ball” “so 累”
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91ccg1BqA
FU&feature=related(小孩不壞)
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2. Interference between L1 and L2
(第一和第二語言間的干擾) p.72
• usually not in young children
• For children– Similar strategies and linguistic features are
present in both L1and L2
– Expected intralingual strategies, not
interference errors from L1
ex:” He go to school everyday.”
• For adult– L1 can be a facilitating factor, not just an
interfering factor.
27
3. Order of acquisition (習得的順序) p.73
•
By Roger Brown (1973)
–
For children acquiring English as L1
1. present progress(-ing)
2. [and 3.] in, on
4. plural(-s)
5. Past irregular
6. possessive(-’s)
7. uncontractible copula (am, is, are)
8. articles (a, the)
9. Past regular (-ed)
10. third-person regular (-s)
11. third-person irregular
*Criticism: lack of generalizability
(only 11morphemes)
28
Issues in L1 acquisition revisted P.75
1. Competence and performance能力及表現
-Competence: one’s underlying knowledge of the system of
a language
- Performance: actual production (speaking, writing) or the
comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events
2. Comprehension and production理解及產出
-Learning to speak and to comprehend
Ex: “ Do you speak English?”
=“Do you understand it, too?”
3. Nature or nurture? 先天還是後天
– LAD
– Environmental factors also matter
29
4. Universals (UG)普遍現象
– language is universally acquired in the same manner
– the deep structure of language at its deepest level may
be common to all languages
– Universal linguistic categories e.g. word order,
morphological marking tone, agreement…
5. Systematicity and variability 系統性及變異性
– induce rules, generalize across a category, overgeneralize (Ch 9)
6. Language and thought 語言及思想
7. Imitation模仿
-meaning contexts for language learning
ex:韓國英語村
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8. Practice and frequency練習及頻率
-the frequency of stimuli and the number of times
-meaningfulness →contextualized, appropriate,
meaningful communication in L2
9. Input語言輸入
-parental input is replaced by teacher input
10. Discourse言談 (Ch 9)
-interaction rather than exposure is required for
successful language acquisition
31
Some “age-and-acquisition-inspired”
language teaching methods P.78
1. Total Physical Response (TPR)
2. The Natural Approach (NA)
32
Total physical response (TPR)
P.78
•
•
•
•
James Asher(1977)
listening, acting → speaking
as stress-free as possible
the imperative mood (祈使句)
-ex: Open the door. Stand up. Jump!
• effective in the beginning levels
• Classroom activity: “Simon says…”
33
The Natural Approach
•
•
•
•
•
•
P.79
Krashen & Tracy Terrell (1983)
To “pick up” a language
Less pressure
Comprehensive input
Focus on communication
Silent period
– Students don’t need to speak until they are ready.
34
Thank you
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