Politics, Power, and
Violence
Part II
Centralized Political Systems:
As a society’s social life becomes more complex;
as population rises, technology becomes more
intricate, and specialization of labor and trade
networks produce surplus goods; the
opportunity increases for some individuals or
groups to exercise control at the expense of
others.
 In such societies, political authority and power
are concentrated in a singe individual (the chief)
or in a body of individuals (the state).

Chiefdoms

Chiefdom: a regional polity in which two or
more local groups are organized under a
single chief, who is at the head of a ranked
hierarchy of people.
– The leaders are considered one class, the rest of
the population another class

The office of the chief is usually for life and
other hereditary.
– Typically, it passes from a man to his son or his
sister’s son, depending on whether descent is
traced patrilineally or matrilineally.
Chiefdoms
The leader of a chiefdom is generally a true
authority figure, whose authority serves to unite
members in all affairs and at all times.
 Chiefdoms have a recognized hierarchy
consisting of major and minor authorities who
control major and minor subdivisions.
 Although leaders of chiefdoms are almost always
men, in some cultures a politically astute wife,
sister, or single daughter of a deceased male
chief could inherit such a powerful position as
well.

Chiefdoms

Chiefs usually control the economic activities of
those who fall under their political rule.
– Typically, chiefdoms involve redistributive systems,
and the chief has control over surplus goods and
perhaps even over the community’s labor force.

The chief may also amass a great amount of
personal wealth and pass it on to offspring.
– High-ranking families of the chiefdom may engage in
the same practice and use their possessions as
evidence of noble status.
Chiefdoms

Traditionally, chiefdoms in all
parts of the world have been
highly unstable, with lesser
chiefs trying to take power
from higher ranking chiefs or
paramount chiefs vying with
one another for supreme
power.

A Kpelle town chief in
Liberia, West Africa,
listens to a dispute in
his district.

Settling disputes is
one of several
ongoing traditional
tasks that fall to
paramount chiefs
among Kpelle people.
State

States differ from nations, which are
communities of people who see
themselves as one people with a common
language, culture and territorial base, but
who may or may not have an independent
political organization.
– About 200 states exist in today's world (the
majority having come into existence after
World War II), compared to some 5000
nations.
State

State: in anthropology, a centralized polity
involving large numbers of people within a
defined territory who are divided into social
classes and organized and directed by a formal
government that has the capacity and authority
to make laws, and use force to defend the social
order.
– This is the most formal of political organizations and
represents one of the hallmarks of what is commonly
referred to as civilization.
State
A large population in a state-organized society
requires increased food production and wider
distribution networks.
 Together, these lead to a transformation of the
landscape byway of irrigation and terracing,
carefully managed crop rotation cycles, intensive
competition for clearly demarcated lands, roads,
and enough farmers and other rural workers to
support market systems and a specialized urban
sector.

State
Ethnic differentiation and ethnocentrism
become more pronounced, and the
potential for social conflict increases
dramatically.
 State institutions, which minimally
involved a bureaucracy, a military, and
(usually) an official religion, provide the
means for numerous and diverse groups
to function together as an integrated
whole.

A Nation without a State

About 73% of the world’s states are pluralistic
societies, having within their boundaries peoples
of more than one nation.
– Often, smaller nations (including tribes) and other
groups find themselves at the mercy of one or more
dominant nations or ethnic groups controlling the
state.

Frequently facing discrimination, even
repression, some minority nations seek to
improve their political position by founding an
independent state.
A Nation without a State

The Kurdish Nation
Some examples are:
– The Kurdish people in
habiting the
borderland of Iran,
Iraq and Turkey
– The Palestinians
whose lands have
been occupied by
Israel for several
decades
– The Chechens in the
Russian federation.
State

An important aspect of the state is its
delegation of authority to maintain order
within and outside its borders.
– Police, foreign ministries, war ministries, and
other bureaucracies function to control and
punish disruptive acts of crime, dissention,
and rebellion.
Nation-State

An example of a state is Swaziland in southern
Africa, one of the world’s few true nation-states.
– The traditional Swazi authority system was
characterized by a highly developed dual monarch, a
hereditary aristocracy, and elaborate kinship rituals,
as well as by statewide age sets.
– Swazi government extended from the smallest local
unit, the homestead, upward to the central
administration.
– Swazi officials held their positions for life and were
dismissed only for treason or witchcraft.
Political Systems and the Question
of Legitimacy:

Centralized political systems may rely
upon coercion as a means of social
control.
– The emphasis on force may create
resentment and lessen cooperation.

Thus, police states are generally shortlived; most societies choose less extreme
forms of social coercion.
Political Systems and the Question
of Legitimacy:
Also basic to the political process is the
concept of legitimacy.
 Legitimacy: the right of political leaders to
govern; to hold, use, and allocate power;
based on the values of a particular society.

– Like force, legitimacy is a form of support for a
political system; unlike force, legitimacy is based
on the values a particular society holds.
– While the basis for legitimacy varies across
cultures, power based on legitimacy always results
in authority.
Politics and Religion:
Religion is often intricately connected with
politics.
 Frequently it is religion that legitimizes the
political order and leadership.

– Religious beliefs may influence or provide
authoritative approval to customary rules and
laws.
– In both industrial and nonindustrial societies,
belief in the supernatural is important and is
reflected in people’s political institutions.
Politics and Religion:

Within the United States there are several
instances of the use of religion to legitimize
political power.
– the president of the United States takes the oath
of office by swearing on the Bible.
– the phrase “one nation, under God” in the Pledge
of Allegiance.
– the phrase “In God We Trust” on U.S. coins.

In spite of an official separation of church
and state, religious legitimization of
government lingers.
Visual Counterpoint

Iran and Great Britain permit a closer relationship between
political and religious affairs. Shiite Muslim religious leader
Ayatollah Khamenei is Iran’s supreme spiritual leader and his
country’s highest political authority. In England, Queen
Elizabeth is her country’s nominal head of state and head of the
Anglican Church.
Political Leadership and Gender

Irrespective of cultural configuration or type of
political organization, women hold important
positions of political leadership far less often
than men.
– When they do occupy publicly recognized offices,
their power and authority rarely exceed those of men.
But significant exceptions occur.
– Perhaps most notable is Queen Victoria, the longreigning queen of England, Scotland, Wales, and
Ireland.
Political Leadership and Gender

In addition to inheriting high positions of
political leadership, growing numbers of
women have also been elected as
presidents or prime ministers.
– Countries with female heads of state now or
in recent years include Indonesia, Pakistan,
Ireland, Sri Lanka, Norway, India, Turkey,
Liberia, Chile, Germany, and the Philippines.
Political Leadership and Gender

Lower visibility in politics does not
necessarily indicate that women lack
power in political affairs.
– Among the Iroquois nations of New York, men
hold all positions o the village and tribal
councils, as well as on the great council of the
Iroquois Confederacy.
– They were, however, completely beholden to
women because only women could nominate
men to high office. Women could also lobby
to have someone removed from office.
Political Leadership and Gender

In the dual-sex system of the Igbo in Nigeria, West
Africa, each political unit has separate political
institutions for men and women, so that both have
an autonomous sphere of authority, as well as an
area of shared responsibility.
– When the British imposed colonial rule on the Igbo in the
late 1800s, they failed to recognize the autonomy and
power of the women.
– As a result, Igbo women lost much of their traditional
equality and became subordinate to men.
Question:

In a chiefdom:
A. Each male member of the society is basically
equal
B. Each kinship group is basically equal
C. The leaders are considered one class, the
rest of the population another class
D. Every member of the society has a unique
position in the heirachy
Question: C

In a chiefdom the leaders are
considered one class, the rest of the
population another class.
Question:

The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is
provided by:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Several paramount chiefs
A king
A “Big Man”
An informal “owner”
Question: A

The Kpelle soceity’s leadership is provided
by several paramount chiefs.
Question:

Religion is used to legitimize political
structures and leadership:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Rarely
Chiefly in industrial societies
Chiefly in uncentralized political systems
In a wide range of societies
Question: D

Religion is used to legitimize political
structures and leadership in a wide
range of societies.
Types Of Political Organization:
Membership
Membership
Number of people
Settlement pattern
Band
Dozens and up
Mobile
Tribe
Hundreds and up
Chiefdom
Thousands and up
State
Tens of thousands
and up
Mobile or fixed: 1
or more villages
Fixed: 1 or more
villages
Fixed: Many
villages and cities
Types Of Political Organization:
Membership
Membership
Basis of
relationships
Ethnicities and
languages
Band
Kin
1
Tribe
Chiefdom
State
Kin, descent
groups
Kin, rank and
residence
Class and
residence
1
1
1 or more
Types Of Political Organization:
Government
Membership
Decision making,
leadership
Bureaucracy
Band
“Egalitarian”
None
Tribe
Chiefdom
State
Egalitarian” or
Big-Man
Centralized,
hereditary
None, or 1 or 2
levels
Centralized
Many levels
None
Types Of Political Organization:
Government
Membership Conflict resolution
Hierarchy of
settlement
Band
Informal
No
Tribe
Informal
No
Chiefdom
Centralized
No Paramount
village or head
town
State
Laws, judges
Capital
Types Of Political Organization:
Economy
Membership
Division of labor
Exchanges
Exchanges
Band
No
Reciprocal
Tribe
No
Reciprocal
Chiefdom
No -> Yes
State
Yes
Redistributive
(“tribute”)
Redistributive
(“taxes”)
Types Of Political Organization:
Society
Membership
Stratified
Slavery
Band
No
No
Tribe
No
No
Chiefdom
State
Yes, ranked by
kin
Yes, by class or
caste
Some small-scale
Some large-scale
Types Of Political Organization:
Society
Membership
Luxury goods
for elite
Indigenous literacy
Band
No
No
Tribe
No
No
Chiefdom
Yes
No ->Some
State
Yes
Often