Lecture #4:
Bayesian analysis
of mapped data
Spatial statistics in practice
Center for Tropical Ecology and Biodiversity,
Tunghai University & Fushan Botanical Garden
Topics for today’s lecture
• Frequentist versus Bayesian perspectives.
• Implementing random effects models in
GeoBUGS.
• Spatially structured and unstructured
random effects: the CAR, the ICAR, and
the spatial filter specifications
LMM & GLMM move in the direction
of Bayesian modeling
• Fixed effects are in keeping with a
frequentist viewpoint―individual
unknown parameters
• Random effects are distributions of
parameters, and are in keeping with a
Bayesian viewpoint
• The model specifications tend to be
the same, with estimation methods
tending to differ
Sampling distribution-based
inference: the reported p values
• Frequentism: assigns probabilities to random
events only according to their relative frequencies
of occurrence, rejecting degree-of-belief
interpretations of mathematical probability theory.
• The frequentist approach considers  to be an
unknown constant. Allowing for the possibility that 
can take on a range of values, frequentist inference
is based on a hypothetical repeated sampling
principle that obtains desirable and (often)
physically interpretable properties (e.g., CIs).
• Frequentist statistics typically is limited to posing
questions in terms of a null hypothesis (i.e., H0) that
a parameter takes on a single value.
What is Bayesian analysis?
• Bayesianism: contends that mathematical
probability theory pertains to degree of
plausibility/belief; when used with Bayes theorem
(which casts analysis in conditional terms), it
becomes Bayesian inference.
• The Bayesian approach considers  as the realized
value of a random variable Θ with a probability
density (mass) function called the prior distribution
(a marginal probability distribution that is interpreted
as a description of what is known about a variable
in the absence of empirical/theoretical evidence).
• Bayesian statistics furnishes a generic tool for
inferring model parameter probability distribution
functions from data: a parameter has a distribution,
not a single value.
• The Bayesian interpretation of probability allows
(proper prior) probabilities to be assigned
subjectively to random events, in accordance with
a researcher’s beliefs.
• Proper prior: a probability distribution that is
normalized to one, and asymptotically
dominated by the likelihood function
– improper prior: a handy analytic form (such as
a constant or logarithmic distribution) that,
when integrated over a parameter space,
tends to 1 and so is not normalizable.
• Noninformative prior: because no prior information
is available, the selected prior contains
vague/general information about a parameter,
having minimal influence on inferences.
• conjugate prior: a prior probability distribution
naturally connected with the likelihood function that,
when combined with the likelihood and normalized,
produces a posterior probability distribution that is of
the same type as the prior, making the analytical
mathematics of integration easy. (NOTE: MCMC
techniques relaxes the need for this type of
specification)
• The hierarchical Bayes model is called “hierarchical”
because it has two levels. At the higher level, hyperparameter distributions are described by multivariate
priors. Such distributions are characterized by
vectors of means and covariance matrices; spatial
autocorrelation is captured here. At the lower
level, individuals’ behavior is described by
probabilities of achieving some outcome that are
governed by a particular model specification.
• posterior distribution: a conditional probability
distribution for a parameter taking empirical evidence
into account computed with Bayes’ theorem as a
normalized product of the likelihood function and the
prior distributions that supports Bayesian inference
about the parameter
• Bayesian statistics assumes that the probability
distribution in question is known, and hence involves
integration to get the normalizing constant. This
integration might be tricky, and in many cases there is no
analytical solution. With the advent of computers and
various integration techniques, this problem can partially
be overcome. In many Bayesian statistics applications a
prior is tabulated and then sophisticated numerical
integration techniques (e.g., MCMC) are used to derive
posterior distributions.
The controversy
• A frequentist generally has no objection to
the use of the Bayes formula, but when prior
probabilities are lacking s/he deplores the
Bayesians’ tendency to make them up out of
thin air.
• Does a parameter have one or many
values?
• For many (but not all) of the simpler
problems where frequentist methodology
seems to give satisfying answers, the
Bayesian approach yields basically the
same answers, provided noninformative
proper priors are used.
Frequentist
Bayesian
Definition
of
probability
Long-run expected
Relative degree of
frequency in repeated
belief in the state of the
(actual or hypothetical) world
experiments (Law of LN)
Point
estimate
Maximum likelihood
estimate
Mean, mode or median
of the posterior
probability distribution
Confidence
intervals
for
parameters
Based on the
Likelihood Ratio Test
(LRT)
i.e., the
expected probability
distribution of the
maximum likelihood
estimate over many
experiments
“credible intervals”
based on the posterior
probability distribution
Confidence
intervals of
nonparameters
Based on likelihood
profile/LRT, or by
resampling from the
sampling distribution of
the parameter
Calculated directly from
the distribution of
parameters
Model
selection
Discard terms that are not
significantly different from
a nested (null) model at a
previously set confidence
level
Retain terms in models,
on the argument that
processes are not absent
simply because they are
not statistically significant
Difficulties
Confidence intervals are
Subjectivity; need to
confusing (range that will specify priors
contain the true value in a
proportion α of repeated
experiments); rejection of
model terms for “nonsignificance”
Impact of sample size
prior
distribution
As the sample size
increases, a prior distribution has less and less
impact on results; BUT
likelihood
distribution
effective
sample size
for spatially
autocorrelated
data
What is BUGS?
Bayesian inference Using Gibbs Sampling
• is a piece of computer software for the
Bayesian analysis of complex statistical
models using Markov chain Monte Carlo
(MCMC) methods.
• It grew from a statistical research project at
the MRC BIOSTATISTICAL UNIT in
Cambridge, but now is developed jointly
with the Imperial College School of
Medicine at St Mary’s, London.
Classic BUGS
BUGS
WinBUGS (Windows Version)
GeoBUGS (spatial models)
PKBUGS (pharmokinetic modelling)
• The Classic BUGS program uses textbased model description and a commandline interface, and versions are available
for major computer platforms (e.g., Sparc,
Dos). However, it is not being further
developed.
What is WinBUGS?
• WinBUGS, a windows program with an option of
a graphical user interface, the standard ‘pointand-click’ windows interface, and on-line
monitoring and convergence diagnostics. It also
supports Batch-mode running (version 1.4).
• GeoBUGS, an add-on to WinBUGS that fits
spatial models and produces a range of maps
as output.
• PKBUGS, an efficient and user-friendly interface
for specifying complex population
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
(PK/PD) models within the WinBUGS software.
What is GeoBUGS?
• Available via
http://www.mrc-bsu.cam.ac.uk/
bugs/winbugs/geobugs.shtml
• Bayesian inference is used to spatially
smooth the standardized incidence ratios
using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC)
methods. GeoBUGS implements models for
data that are collected within discrete regions
(not at the individual level), and smoothing is
done based on Markov random field models
for the neighborhood structure of the regions
relative to each other.
Choice of Priors
• Can effect
– model convergence
– execution speed
– computational overflow errors
• Consider
– Conjugate prior
– Sensible prior for the range of a parameter
• e.g. Poisson mean must be positive; hence, a normal
distribution is not a good prior.
– Truncated Prior
• useful if it is known that sensible or useful parameter
values are within a particular range
Parameter Initialization
• Initialize important parameters.
– Parameters distributed according to a noninformative prior must be initialized (otherwise
an overflow error is very likely).
GeoBUGs
•
•
•
•
Regions are numbered sequentially from 1 to n
Each region is defined as a polygon in a map file
Each region is associated with a unique index
BUGs can import map files from Arcinfo,
Epimap, SPLUS.
Review: What is MCMC?
MCMC is used to simulate from some
distribution p known only up to a constant
factor, C:
pi = Cqi
where qi is known but C is unknown and too
horrible to calculate.
MCMC begins with conditional (marginal)
distributions, and MCMC sampling outputs a
sample of parameters drawn from their joint
(posterior) distribution.
GeoBugs: spatial Poisson with a map
model;
{
for (i in 1:M){
for (j in 1:N){
#Poisson with a constant but unknown mean
y[i,j] ~ dpois(l)
#GeoBUGS numbers regions in a sequence
#This statement turns a 2-D array into a 1-D array for GeoBUGS
mapy[j + (i-1)N] <- y[I,j]
}
}
#priors
#Noninformative conjugate priors for Poisson mean.
l~dgamma(0.001,0.001)
}
Displaying a map with GeoBugs
• Compile model, load data, load initial
conditions
• Set sample monitor on desired variables
• Set trace
• Set sample monitor on map variable OR
set summary monitor on map variable
• Run chain
• Activate map tool, load appropriate map
• Set cut points, colour spectrum as desired.
Poisson mixture on a spatial
lattice
model;
Poisson mean varies
{
for (i in 1:M){
for (j in 1:N){
y[i,j] ~ dpois(l[i,j])
x[i,j] in (0,1)
l[i,j] <- mu1*x[i,j]+ (1-x[i,j])*mu2
x[i,j] ~ dbin(p,1)
x[i,j] independent binomials
#These statements are for the benefit of GeoBugs
mapx[j + (i-1)*N] <- x[i,j]
mapy[j + (i-1)*N] <- y[i,j]
mapl[j+(i-1)*N] <-l[i,j]
Map the hidden lattice
}
and the Poisson means
}
#priors
p~dunif(0,1)
#Noninformative conjugate priors for Poisson means.
mu1~dgamma( 0. 001, 0. 001)
mu2~dgamma( 0. 001, 0. 001)
}
a
b
E(mu) = a/b; var(mu) = a/b2
Introducing a covariate
model;
{
Poisson mean varies with location
for (i in 1:M){
for (j in 1:N){
y[i,j] ~ dpois(l[i,j])
l[i,j] <- mu1*x[i,j]+ (1-x[i,j])*mu2[i,j]
l og( mu2[ i , j ] ) <- cov[ i , j ] * bet a2
x[i,j] ~ dbin(p,1)
Log link function
#These statements are for the benefit of GeoBugs
mapx[j + (i-1)*N] <- x[i,j]
mapy[j + (i-1)*N] <- y[i,j]
mapl[j+(i-1)*N] <-l[i,j]
}
}
#priors
p~dunif(0,1)
mu1~dgamma( 0. 001, 0. 001)
bet a2~dnor m( 0, 0. 001)
}
Normal prior for covariate parameter
Adding a random effect
model;
{
Random effect
for (i in 1:M){
for (j in 1:N){
y[i,j] ~ dpois(l[i,j])
l[i,j] <- mu1*x[i,j]+ (1-x[i,j])*mu2[i,j]
log(mu2[i,j])<- cov[i,j]*beta2 + alpha[i,j]
alpha[i,j]~dnorm(0, tau_alpha)
x[i,j] ~ dbin(p,1)
#These statements are for the benefit of GeoBugs
mapx[j + (i-1)*N] <- x[i,j]
mapy[j + (i-1)*N] <- y[i,j]
mapl[j+(i-1)*N] <-l[i,j]
}
}
}
GeoBUGS Example
NOTE: Possible mappings for the
Scottish lip cancer data include
b – area-specific random effects term
mu – area-specific means
RR – area-specific relative risks
O – observed values
E – expected values
The Scottish lip cancer example
Open a window in WinBUGS and insert the following items:
- model
- data
- initial
values
#MODEL
model
{
for (i in 1 : N) {
O[i] ~ dpois(mu[i])
log(mu[i]) <- log(E[i]) + alpha0 + alpha1 * X[i]/10 + b[i]
# Area-specific relative risk (for maps)
RR[i] <- exp(alpha0 + alpha1 * X[i]/10 + b[i])}
# CAR prior distribution for random effects:
b[1:N] ~ car.normal(adj[], weights[], num[], tau)
for(k in 1:sumNumNeigh) {
weights[k] <- 1
}
# Other priors:
alpha0 ~ dflat()
alpha1 ~ dnorm(0.0, 1.0E-5)
tau ~ dgamma(0.5, 0.0005) # prior on precision
sigma <- sqrt(1 / tau)
# standard deviation
}
#DATA
list(N = 56,
O = c( 9, 39, 11, 9, 15, 8, 26, 7, 6, 20,
13, 5, 3, 8, 17, 9, 2, 7, 9, 7,
16, 31, 11, 7, 19, 15, 7, 10, 16, 11,
5, 3, 7, 8, 11, 9, 11, 8, 6, 4,
10, 8, 2, 6, 19, 3, 2, 3, 28, 6,
1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0),
E = c( 1.4, 8.7, 3.0, 2.5, 4.3, 2.4, 8.1, 2.3, 2.0, 6.6,
4.4, 1.8, 1.1, 3.3, 7.8, 4.6, 1.1, 4.2, 5.5, 4.4,
10.5, 22.7, 8.8, 5.6, 15.5, 12.5, 6.0, 9.0, 14.4, 10.2,
4.8, 2.9, 7.0, 8.5, 12.3, 10.1, 12.7, 9.4, 7.2, 5.3,
18.8, 15.8, 4.3, 14.6, 50.7, 8.2, 5.6, 9.3, 88.7, 19.6,
3.4, 3.6, 5.7, 7.0, 4.2, 1.8),
X = c(16, 16, 10, 24, 10, 24, 10, 7, 7, 16,
7, 16, 10, 24, 7, 16, 10, 7, 7, 10,
7, 16, 10, 7, 1, 1, 7, 7, 10, 10,
7, 24, 10, 7, 7, 0, 10, 1, 16, 0,
1, 16, 16, 0, 1, 7, 1, 1, 0, 1,
1, 0, 1, 1, 16, 10),
num = c(3, 2, 1, 3, 3, 0, 5, 0, 5,
4,
0, 2, 3, 3, 2, 6, 6, 6, 5, 3,
3, 2, 4, 8, 3, 3, 4, 4, 11, 6,
7, 3, 4, 9, 4, 2, 4, 6, 3, 4,
5, 5, 4, 5, 4, 6, 6, 4, 9, 2,
4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 5
),
adj = c(
19, 9, 5,
10, 7,
12,
28, 20, 18,
19, 12, 1,
17, 16, 13, 10, 2,
29, 23, 19, 17, 1,
22, 16, 7, 2,
5, 3,
19, 17,
35, 32,
29, 25,
29, 22,
29, 19,
56, 55,
17, 13,
56, 18,
50, 29,
16, 10,
39, 34,
56, 55,
29, 26,
7,
31,
21, 17, 10, 7,
16, 13, 9, 7,
33, 28, 20, 4,
9, 5, 1,
4,
16,
29, 9,
48, 47, 44, 31, 30, 27,
15,
43, 29, 25,
56, 32, 31,
45, 33, 18,
50, 43, 34,
55, 45, 44,
47, 46, 35,
31, 27, 14,
55, 45, 28,
54, 52, 51,
46, 37, 31,
41, 37,
46, 41, 36,
54, 51, 49,
40, 34, 23,
52, 49, 39,
53, 49, 46,
51, 43, 38,
42, 34, 29,
49, 48, 38,
55, 33, 30,
53, 47, 41,
53, 49, 48,
49, 47, 44,
54, 53, 52,
29, 21,
54, 42, 38,
54, 49, 40,
49, 47, 46,
52, 51, 49,
56, 45, 33,
55, 27, 24,
),
sumNumNeigh
24,
4,
26, 25, 23, 21, 17, 16, 15, 9,
42, 38, 24,
32, 27, 24, 14,
18,
43, 42, 40, 39, 29, 23,
14,
35,
44, 42, 30,
34,
37,
34,
26,
30,
28,
37,
46,
24,
48,
36,
30,
24,
35, 31,
31, 24,
47, 44, 41, 40, 38,
34,
34,
41,
38, 34,
30, 24, 18,
20, 18
= 234)
#INITIAL VALUES
list(tau = 1, alpha0 = 0, alpha1 = 0,
b=c(0,0,0,0,0,NA,0,NA,0,0,
NA,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0))
GeoBUGS Execution Instructions
Step 1: open a new window in WinBUGS (this will be
referred to as the user window)
Step 2: enter the model syntax, data, and initial values,
using the WinBUGS format, in the user window
Step 3: select “Specification” in the “Model” pull down
window
Step 4: highlight “model” in the user window, appearing at
the beginning of the model syntax, and click once
on the “check model” button in the “Specification
Tool” window
NOTE: feedback from the program appears in the lower
left-hand corner of the WinBUGS program window,
and should be monitored
Step 5: highlight “list” in the user window,
appearing at the beginning of the data,
and click once on the “load data” button
in the “Specification Tool” window
Step 6: insert the number of chains to be run (the
default number is 1) in the “Specification
Tool” window
Step 7: click once on the “compile” button in the
“Specification Tool” window
Step 8: highlight “list” in the user window,
appearing at the beginning of the initial
values, and click once on the “load inits”
button in the “Specification Tool” window
(one set is needed for each chain to be
run; clicking the “gen inits” button can be
dangerous for sound analysis)
Step 9: close the “Specification Tool” window
Step 10: select “Samples” in the “Inference” pull
down menu
Step 11: in the “Sample Monitor Tool” window:
type in the name (as it appears in the
model syntax) of the 1st parameter to be
monitored, and click once on the “set”
button; type in the name of the 2nd
parameter to be monitored, and click
once on the “set” button; …; type in the
name of the pth parameter to be
monitored, and click once on the “set”
button
Step 12: close the “Sample Monitor Tool” window
Step 13: select “Update” in the “Model” pull down
menu
Step 14: the default value in the “updates” box is
1000 this value most likely needs to be
substantially increased (say, to 50,000;
once any desired changes are made,
click once on the “updates” button
Step 15: once the number appearing in the
“iteration” box equals the number in the
“updates” box, close the “Update Tool”
window
Step 16: select “Samples” in the “Inference” pull
down menu
Step 17: click on the down arrow to the right of
the “node” box, and select the
parameter to be monitored
Step 18: click once of the “history” button to view the timeseries plot for all iterations; click once on the
“trace” plot to view the time-series plot for the last
iterations; click once on the “auto cor” button to
view the time-series correlogram (you may wish to
enlarge the graphic in this window); click once on
the “stats” button to view a parameter estimate’s
statistics
Step 19: close the “Sample Monitor Tool” window
Step 20: select “Mapping Tool” from the “Map” pull down
menu
Step 21: select the appropriate map from the list appearing
for the “Map” box when the down arrow to its right
is clicked once (hint: your map that you imported
from an Arc shapefile should appear here)
Step 22: type the name of the variable (exactly as it
appears in the model syntax) to be mapped in the
“variable” box, and click once on the “plot” box
Puerto Rico Binomial with
Spatial Autocorrelation Example
#MODEL
model
{
for (i in 1 : N) {
U[i] ~ dbin(p[i], T[i])
p[i] <- exp(alpha0 + b[i])/(1+exp(alpha0
}
# CAR prior distribution for random effects:
b[1:N] ~ car.normal(adj[], weights[], num[],
for(k in 1:sumNumNeigh) {
weights[k] <- 1
}
# Other priors:
alpha0 ~ dflat()
tau ~ dgamma(0.5, 0.0005)
# prior on
sigma <- sqrt(1 / tau)
# standard
}
+ b[i]))
tau)
precision
deviation
#DATA
list(N = 76,
U = c(42527,
25584,
41997,
27605,
23829,
23848,
38583,
23852,
40919,
23077,
27850,
42467,
14262,
33421,
21087,
58848
),
T = c(44444,
34415,
45409,
29965,
26719,
25935,
44204,
35336,
46384,
26493,
28909,
43335,
19811,
34017,
23072,
59035
),
11048, 46236, 35859, 21330,
3792, 32126, 32389, 18664,
2839, 11787, 95880, 37713,
21499, 29709, 17200, 14688,
178792, 24196, 14767, 50242,
28462, 34650, 434374, 35130,
17412, 63929, 94085, 75728,
36971, 59572, 23364, 37238,
11062, 42042, 64685, 27305,
25387, 91593, 18346, 22105,
224044, 40875, 139445, 30886,
185703, 30071, 43707, 16671,
40457, 29802, 16800, 35270,
39958, 10176, 20682, 40395,
99850, 35476, 36201, 16472,
17318, 50531, 36452, 26261,
11061, 34485, 32537, 19817,
6449, 12741, 98434, 39697,
23753, 29709, 23844, 20152,
186475, 25450, 14767, 52362,
31113, 37105, 434374, 40997,
21665, 63929, 94085, 75728,
37910, 61929, 27913, 39246,
19143, 42042, 64685, 29032,
28348, 100131, 19117, 22322,
224044, 46911, 140502, 35244,
186076, 30071, 47370, 18004,
42753, 37597, 20002, 36867,
40712, 12367, 21888, 44301,
100053, 36743, 38925, 16614,
num = c(4,
3,
4,
7,
4,
6,
7,
5,
),
3,
4,
5,
6,
4,
7,
4,
4,
5,
5,
4,
8,
8,
6,
3,
2,
3,
5,
6,
7,
5,
3,
6,
3,
4,
3,
7,
5,
5,
5,
5,
2,
4,
3,
3,
6,
7,
3,
3,
3
3,
6,
2,
7,
6,
7,
3,
3,
4,
4,
5,
5,
6,
5,
5,
7,
6,
6,
6,
5,
6,
5,
6,
2,
5,
7,
6,
4,
adj = c(
2, 7, 14, 25,
1, 14, 21,
5, 8, 23, 31, 34,
9, 10, 29,
3, 6, 33, 34,
5, 7, 25, 33,
1, 6, 25,
3, 10, 23,
4, 11, 24, 29, 32,
4, 8, 23, 29, 31,
9, 12, 24,
11, 16, 19, 24,
17, 18, 28, 37, 39,
1, 2, 21, 25, 36,
17, 20, 22,
12, 18, 19,
13, 15, 22, 28, 38, 48,
13, 16, 19, 39,
12, 16, 18, 24, 35, 39, 45,
15, 22, 26, 41, 42, 46,
2, 14, 30, 36,
15, 17, 20, 46, 48,
3, 8, 10, 31,
9, 11, 12, 19, 32, 35,
1, 6, 7, 14, 33, 36, 44,
20, 27, 41,
26, 41,
13, 17, 37, 38,
4, 9, 10, 31, 32, 43,
21, 36,
3, 10, 23, 29, 34, 40, 43,
9, 24, 29, 35, 43, 50,
5, 6, 25, 34, 44, 49, 53, 60,
3, 5, 31, 33, 40, 49, 59,
19, 24, 32, 45, 50,
14, 21, 25, 30, 44, 47,
13, 28, 38, 39, 51, 52, 61,
17, 28, 37, 48, 52,
13, 18, 19, 37, 45, 51,
31, 34, 43, 59, 64,
20, 26, 27, 42,
20, 41, 46, 54,
29, 31, 32, 40, 50, 56, 57, 64,
25, 33, 36, 47, 53,
19, 35, 39, 50, 51,
20, 22, 42, 48, 52, 54, 68,
36, 44, 53, 58, 62, 63,
17, 22, 38, 46, 52,
33, 34, 59, 60, 66, 67,
32, 35, 43, 45, 51, 55, 57,
37, 39, 45, 50, 55, 61,
37, 38, 46, 48, 61, 68, 69,
33, 44, 47, 58, 60, 65,
42, 46, 68,
50, 51, 57, 61, 71,
43, 57, 64,
43, 50, 55, 56, 64, 71, 74,
47, 53, 62, 63, 65, 72,
34, 40, 49, 64, 67,
33, 49, 53, 65, 66, 76,
37, 51, 52, 55, 69, 70, 71,
47, 58, 63, 72,
47, 58, 62,
40, 43, 56, 57, 59, 74,
53, 58, 60, 72, 76,
49, 60, 67,
49, 59, 66,
46, 52, 54, 69, 73,
52, 61, 68, 70, 73, 75,
61, 69, 71, 75,
55, 57, 61, 70, 74,
58, 62, 65, 76,
68, 69,
57, 64, 71,
69, 70,
60, 65, 72, 2, 7, 14, 25,
1, 14, 21,
5, 8, 23, 31, 34,
9, 10, 29,
3, 6, 33, 34,
5, 7, 25, 33,
1, 6, 25,
3, 10, 23,
4, 11, 24, 29, 32,
4, 8, 23, 29, 31,
9, 12, 24,
11, 16, 19, 24,
17, 18, 28, 37, 39,
1, 2, 21, 25, 36,
17, 20, 22,
12, 18, 19,
13, 15, 22, 28, 38, 48,
13, 16, 19, 39,
12, 16, 18, 24, 35, 39, 45,
15, 22, 26, 41, 42, 46,
2, 14, 30, 36,
15, 17, 20, 46, 48,
3, 8, 10, 31,
queen’s
connectivity
definition
9, 11, 12, 19, 32, 35,
1, 6, 7, 14, 33, 36, 44,
20, 27, 41,
26, 41,
13, 17, 37, 38,
4, 9, 10, 31, 32, 43,
21, 36,
3, 10, 23, 29, 34, 40, 43,
9, 24, 29, 35, 43, 50,
5, 6, 25, 34, 44, 49, 53, 60,
3, 5, 31, 33, 40, 49, 59,
19, 24, 32, 45, 50,
14, 21, 25, 30, 44, 47,
13, 28, 38, 39, 51, 52, 61,
17, 28, 37, 48, 52,
13, 18, 19, 37, 45, 51,
31, 34, 43, 59, 64,
20, 26, 27, 42,
20, 41, 46, 54,
29, 31, 32, 40, 50, 56, 57, 64,
25, 33, 36, 47, 53,
19, 35, 39, 50, 51,
20, 22, 42, 48, 52, 54, 68,
36, 44, 53, 58, 62, 63,
17, 22, 38, 46, 52,
33, 34, 59, 60, 66, 67,
32, 35, 43, 45, 51, 55, 57,
37, 39, 45, 50, 55, 61,
37, 38, 46, 48, 61, 68, 69,
33, 44, 47, 58, 60, 65,
42, 46, 68,
50, 51, 57, 61, 71,
43, 57, 64,
43, 50, 55, 56, 64, 71, 74,
47, 53, 62, 63, 65, 72,
34, 40, 49, 64, 67,
33, 49, 53, 65, 66, 76,
37, 51, 52, 55, 69, 70, 71,
47, 58, 63, 72,
47, 58, 62,
40, 43, 56, 57, 59, 74,
53, 58, 60, 72, 76,
49, 60, 67,
49, 59, 66,
46, 52, 54, 69, 73,
52, 61, 68, 70, 73, 75,
61, 69, 71, 75,
55, 57, 61, 70, 74,
58, 62, 65, 76,
68, 69,
57, 64, 71,
69, 70,
60, 65, 72
),
sumNumNeigh = 366)
#INITIAL VALUES
list(tau = 1, alpha0 = 0,
b=c(0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0)
)
Model {
for (i in 1:N) {m[i] <- 1/num[i]}
cumsum[1] <- 0
for(i in 2:(N+1)) {cumsum[i] <- sum(num[1:(i-1)])}
for(k in 1 : sumNumNeigh)
{for(i in 1:N){pick[k,i] <- step(k - cumsum[i] - epsilon)*step(cumsum[i+1] - k)
# pick[k,i] = 1 if cumsum[i] < k <= cumsum[i=1];
otherwise, pick[k,i] = 0}
C[k] <- sqrt(num[adj[k]]/inprod(num[], pick[k,]))
# weight for each pair of
neighbours}
epsilon <- 0.0001
for (i in 1 : N) {
U[i] ~ dbin(p[i], T[i])
p[i] <- exp(S[i])/(1+exp(S[i]))
theta[i] <- alpha}
# proper CAR prior distribution for random effects:
S[1:N] ~ car.proper(theta[],C[],adj[],num[],m[],prec,rho)
for(k in 1:sumNumNeigh) {weights[k] <- 1}
# Other priors:
alpha ~ dnorm(0,0.0001)
prec ~ dgamma(0.5,0.0005)
# prior on precision
sigma <- sqrt(1/prec)
# standard deviation
rho.min <- min.bound(C[],adj[],num[],m[])
rho.max <- max.bound(C[],adj[],num[],m[])
rho ~ dunif(rho.min,rho.max)
}
node
rhoCAR
mean
0.9378
sd
MC error2.5%
0.05255 5.995E-4 0.8047
MCMC iteration time series plot
MCMC iteration correlogram
median
0.9514
97.5%
0.9973
start
50001
sample
10000
GeoBUGS demonstration: % urban
population in Puerto Rico – no
random effect
#MODEL
model
{
for (i in 1 : N) {
U[i] ~ dbin(p[i], T[i])
p[i] <- exp(alpha)/(1+exp(alpha ))
}
# priors:
alpha ~ dflat()
}
#DATA
list(N = 73,
U = c(11062, 42042, 64685, 27305, 23077, 25387, 91593, 18346, 32281,
27850, 254115,
40875, 139445, 30886, 185703, 43707, 16671, 14262, 40457, 29802, 16800, 35270,
33421, 39958, 20682, 40395, 21087, 99850, 35476, 36201, 16472, 58848, 42527, 11048,
46236, 35859, 21330, 25584, 3792, 32126, 74856, 18664, 41997, 2839, 11787, 95880,
37713, 27605, 21499, 29709, 17200, 14688, 23829, 178792, 24196, 14767, 50242,
23848, 28462, 34650, 434374, 35130, 38583, 17412, 63929, 94085, 75728, 23852,
36971, 59572, 23364, 37238, 40919
),
T = c(19143,
42042, 64685, 29032, 26493, 28348, 100131, 19117, 34689,
28909, 254115,
46911, 140502, 35244, 186076, 47370, 18004, 19811, 42753, 37597, 20002, 36867,
34017, 40712, 21888, 44301, 23072, 100053, 36743, 38925, 16614, 59035, 44444,
17318, 50531, 36452, 26261, 34415, 11061, 34485, 75872, 19817, 45409, 6449, 12741,
98434, 39697, 29965, 23753, 29709, 23844, 20152, 26719, 186475, 25450, 14767,
52362, 25935, 31113, 37105, 434374, 40997, 44204, 21665, 63929, 94085, 75728,
35336, 37910, 61929, 27913, 39246, 46384
),
)
#INITIAL VALUES
list(alpha=-3)
The German labor market
revisited:
frequentist and Bayesian
random effects models
Frequentist random intercept term
The spatial filter contains 27 (of 98) eigenvectors,
with R2 = 0.4542, P(S-Wresiduals) < 0.0001.
measure
No
covariates
Spatial
filter
exponential
semivariogram
-2log(L)
1445.1
1179.3
1349.8
Intercept
variance
0.9631
0.2538
0.5873
Residual
variance
0.6116
0.6011
0.9154
Intercept
estimate
5.2827
(0.0599)
5.2827
(0.0443)
5.0076
(0.1835)
MCMC results from GeoBUGS
1000 weeded
25,000
burn-in
the
proper
CAR
model
Bayesian model estimation
measure
No
covariates
Spatial
filter
-2log(L): post mean
1477.8
1213.4
Spatial structure
parameter
***
Residual
variance
1.69
1.028
(0.0517)
0.9277
Intercept
estimate
5.255
(0.0640)
5.258
(0.0473)
CAR
computer
execution
time
required
to
estimate
is
prohibitive
The ICAR alternative
• #MODEL
• model
• {for (i in 1 : N) {
offset
•
W[i] ~ dpois(mu[i])
•
log(mu[i]) <- alpha + S[i] + U[i] + log(A[i])
• U[i] ~ dnorm(0,tau.U) }
• # improper CAR prior distribution for random effects:
• S[1:N] ~ car.normal(adj[],weights[],num[],tau.S)
• for(k in 1:sumNumNeigh) {weights[k] <- 1}
•
•
•
•
•
•
# Other priors:
alpha ~ dflat()
tau.S ~ dgamma(0.5, 0.0005)
sigma2.S <- 1/tau.S
tau.U ~ dgamma(0.5, 0.0005)
sigma2.U <- 1/tau.U }
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
#DATA
list(N = 439,
W = c(
25335, 74162, 64273, 25080, 39848, 59407, 49685, 60880, 101563, 39206, 83512,
…
32999, 26534, 45267, 35232, 35788, 41961, 36129
attribute
),
variables
A = c(
23.51, 43.81, 87.14, 27.53, 558.57, 512.17, 855.22, 578.86, 261.45, 447.18, 877.26,
…
369.50, 382.46, 452.02, 350.84, 219.97
),
num = c(1, 2, 4, 3, 4, 7, 2, 4, 4, 5,
…
number of neighbors
8, 7, 8, 4, 7, 7, 6, 8, 6
),
adj = c(
This can be
12,
generated by
11, 10,
GeoBUGS; the
lists of neighbors
359, 15, 8, 6,
queen’s definition
…
of adjacency is used
438, 400, 390, 375, 372, 368
),
sumNumNeigh = 2314)
• #INITIAL VALUES
• list(tau.U=1, tau.S=1, alpha=0,
• S=c(0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
•
…
•
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0
,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0),
• U=c(0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,
•
…
•
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0
,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0)
• )
intercept
Convergence has
not been
achieved (10,000
burn in; +
25,000/100)
Random effects: spatially
structured and unstructured
SA:
2.67/(30.39+2.67)
= 0.08
(8% of variance)
Variance diagnostics
bugs.R: functions for running
WinBUGS from R
The bugs() function takes data and
starting values as input, calls a Bugs
model, summarizes inferences and
convergence in a table and graph, and
saves the simulations in arrays for easy
access in R.
1st: Download WinBugs1.4
2nd: Download OpenBUGS and extract
the zip file into "c:/Program Files/“
3rd: Go into R and type
install.packages("R2WinBUGS")
Some prediction comparisons
n = 56;
effective sample
size = 24