The Bureaucracies
"Bureaucracy" has become a negative term equated with "red tape," paper shuffling, duplication
of effort, waste, inefficiency, senseless regulations, and unresponsiveness to the needs of real
people. But bureaucracy is more accurately a form of social organization found not only in
governments but also in corporations, armies, college and universities, and many other social
institutions.
The Classical (Weberian) Model
The German sociologist Max Weber described bureaucracy as a "rational" way for society to
organize itself. The Weberian model of bureaucracy is characterized by:
chain of command
division of labor
specification of authority
goal orientation
impersonality
The Bureaucracies
Growth of Government Bureaucracies
Major periods of growth in the federal executive branch include the late 1800s, the 1930s, and the 1960s. Bureaucratic
growth can be measured in terms of the total number of executive branch agencies, the total number of executive
branch employees, the budgets of executive agencies [in constant dollars], or the jurisdiction of executive agencies
[their span of control or the number of programs they admninister]. Several reasons have been offered to explain
bureaucratic growth:
increasing governmental responsibility in business regulation: As the national government has responded to
public demands to regulate business practices, new agencies have been created to prevent the formation of
trusts(Federal Trade Commission), to ensure the safety of foods and pharmaceuticals(Food and Drug
Administration) and consumer products(Consumer Products Safety Commission), to protect air and water
quality(Environmental Protection Agency), and to regulate trading practices in securities markets(Securities and
Exchange Commission), to name just a few.
increasing governmental responsibility in social welfare: As the national government has responded to public
demands to guarantee income security, new agencies have been created to determine eligibility for distribute
welfare benefits (Social Security Administration).
increasing governmental responsibility in science and technology: As the national government has responded to
public demands to take a leadership role in promoting scientific discovery and the development of new
technologies, new agencies have been established to explore space (NASA), to fight disease and encourage medical
research (National Institute of Health, Center for Disease Control), and to develop nuclear energy (Nuclear
Regulatory Commission), etc.
the American cultural belief in progress [the "technology fix"]: Some commentators have observed that
Americans generally believe that most problems can be solved if the appropriate (hard or soft) technologies can
be developed. This implies an important role for "experts," many of whom are located in government
bureaucracies. This mentality enhances the general stature and span of authority of bureaucracies.
bureaucratic imperialism: This is the idea that agency administrators seek more staff, bigger budgets, more
programs to administer, and more clients to serve as a means of political survival.
The Bureaucracies
Types of Bureaucracies
By examining the basic types of bureaucratic organizations, we can better
understand how the executive branch operates. We may distinguish several
types based on (1) their purposes and (2) their relative independence from
and relation to the president.
cabinet departments
independent establishments
-"old-style" regulatory commissions
-"new-style" presidential agencies
government corporations
executive office of the president
The Bureaucracies
Bureaucratic Policy-Making
Scholars who study the executive branch have observed that the bureaucracies
constitute a fourth branch of government. This argument stems from the fact
that executive agencies exercise several types of policy-making authority; not
only do bureaucracies implement laws and programs, but they also exercise
quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial authority. How is this possible given the
constitutional principle of separation of powers?
Bureaucracies in the American Constitutional System
Types of Bureaucratic Policy-Making Authority
Administrative Discretion
Formal Rule-making
Adjudication
The Bureaucracies
Policy Implementation Problems for Bureaucracies
The primary task of executive agencies is to implement
policy decisions. However, successful implementation can
be affected by several factors:
Vague directives
Faulty coordination
Decentralization of authority
Failure to incorporate a "learning process"
The Bureaucracies
Reform Proposals
Reorganization
Deregulation
Citizen Participation
Sunset Review