Counseling & Physiology
CO 740
Reformed Theological Seminary-Charlotte
Fall 2015
Professor
Jeffery S. Forrey, Ph.D.
forreyjs@yahoo.com
Required Textbooks
Note: See the Reader’s Guide (starting on page 5) and the pre-class assignment to develop a
reading strategy to use with these books. You will not be responsible for every section—nor all of
the technical detail—of these texts. There is also a Glossary (starting on page 10) that defines
some neurobiological and psychological terminology to facilitate your reading.
Luke, Chad. Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015.
Mack, Wayne. Anger & Stress Management God’s Way. Merrick, NY: Calvary Press, 2004.
Sood, Amit. The Mayo Clinic Guide to Stress-Free Living. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press, 2013.
Welch, Edward T. Blame It on the Brain? Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 1998.
Course Overview & Purpose
This course provides an overview of how the body’s functioning affects matters of concern to
biblical counselors. The objectives for the course are:
(1) Learners will describe in general terms how the nervous, endocrine, and genetic systems1
influence cognitive, emotional, & behavioral outcomes.
(2) Learners will develop a model for understanding the relationship between the body and what
the Bible refers to as the “soul,” “mind,” “inner man,” etc.
(3) Learners will explore how the body’s functioning or malfunctioning might affect personal
responsibility for behavior.
1
There is no need for a science background in order to do well in this course. We will be examining the nervous,
endocrine, and genetic systems at a basic level.
1
(4) Learners will apply a model of body/soul interaction & personal responsibility to case
studies, with special consideration of stress management as a counseling issue.
Course Structure & Requirements
Before the week of class time:
(1) Due by the end of the first day of class:
(a) A review of Luke’s Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists in the light of Welch’s
Blame It on the Brain. How do the authors agree or disagree on the nature of the “mind,” the
interaction of the mind and the body, the relationship of the “mind” to the brain, the
usefulness of counseling compared to psychoactive medications, and helping people who
struggle with depression or alcohol abuse? I recommend you take notes on these topics as
you read these texts according to the schedule provided in the Reader’s Guide. Then,
formulate your conclusions in a paper that is 5-8 pages, approximately 1250-2000 words.
(Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper.
Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them.) (50 pts)
(b) A review of Sood’s Guide to Stress-Free Living in the light of Mack’s Anger & Stress
Management God’s Way. How do the authors agree or disagree on the nature of “stress,” the
causes of stress, and helping people who are “stressed out” by their lives? I recommend you
take notes on these topics as you read these texts according to the schedule provided in the
Reader’s Guide. Then, formulate your conclusions in a paper that is 5-8 pages, approximately
1250-2000 words. (Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial.
Double-space the paper. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between
them.) (50 pts)
Before you submit your reviews to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)2, you should proofread them
using the “Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read them aloud to
yourself so you can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you
assess its clarity.
During the week of class time:
(2) Class participation: For example, small-group inductive Bible studies, case study discussions,
& large-group interaction with media. (40 pts)
(3) Multiple-choice quiz on the physiological topics of the week. (There will be daily reviews of
the relevant material leading up to the quiz on Friday.) (60 pts)
2
I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment. If necessary, you
could also give me a hard copy the first day of class. The benefit of sending it to me as a Word document is that I
can return it to you with my comments.
2
After the week of class time:
(4) Research Paper Options—pick one of the following (100 pts):
(a) Select a problem with obvious “mind & body” manifestations (for example, a chronic
pain condition, a specified substance abuse, an anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder,
hypothyroidism). In your paper, describe what is going on in the body, what standard secular
treatments entail (both medical & psychological options), and what a biblical counseling
agenda might entail (focus on: important data gathering considerations, relevant biblical
principles & categories for understanding the counselee’s problem and potential for change,
and potential homework assignments). Your paper must include interaction with a minimum
of 3 outside sources (journal articles, book chapters, etc., written by experienced researchers
and/or clinicians working on your topic). You can also refer to your textbooks, to our class
discussions, and to theological or biblical studies.
Your paper should be 8-10 pages, approximately 2000-2500 words. Use a common 12-point
font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper, except for block
quotations. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them. Before
you submit your paper to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)3, you should proofread it using the
“Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read it aloud to yourself so you
can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you assess its clarity.
(b) Read one of the following books that is often mentioned in Luke’s Neuroscience for
Counselors and Therapists.
Badenoch, Bonnie. Being a Brain-Wise Therapist. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company, 2008.
Cozolino, Louis. The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company, 2010.
LeDoux, Joseph E. The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York:
Penguin Books, 2003.
Siegel, Daniel. The Developing Mind, 2nd edition. New York: The Guilford Press, 2012.
In your paper, discuss the ways in which Luke was influenced by the writer and how well
Luke used the writer’s material. Then discuss how you think this writer’s material should be
assessed by the biblical counseling community: What was useful, if anything? On what
biblical & theological basis do you arrive at your conclusions? What was unhelpful—and on
what biblical & theological basis do you arrive at your conclusions? You can refer to our
class discussions and to published theological or biblical studies.
Your paper should be 8-10 pages, approximately 2000-2500 words. Use a common 12-point
font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper, except for block
quotations. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them. Before
3
I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment.
3
you submit your paper to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)4, you should proofread it using the
“Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read it aloud to yourself so you
can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you assess its clarity.
4
I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment.
4
A READER’S GUIDE FOR THE “PHYSIOLOGY &
COUNSELING” TEXTS
(1) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Introduction and Chapters 1-2.
(2) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 1-2.
Clarifications & Corrections for Chapters 1-25:
(1) Luke writes, “The content of this chapter [2] is more of an owner’s manual to the
brain and central nervous system.” The brain is part of the central nervous system; the
CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
(2) Sometimes Luke writes about the “cortex,” “cerebrum,” and “cerebral cortex.” These
terms refer to the same structure. In anatomy “cortex” refers to the outer layer of an
organ. In the cerebrum, the outer layers contain its neurons’ cell bodies, which is where
much of the cerebrum’s activity is concentrated. Therefore, sometimes the cerebrum is
referred to as the “cortex.”
(3) When Luke writes about the “thinking brain” and the “emotional brain,” he is using
popular language to refer to different functions of the brain that are centered on different
sets of structures. Yet, at the same time these different sets of structures are
interconnected. Although we can describe the conscious experiences of thinking and
feeling to highlight their differences, these two functions influence one another in a
normally functioning brain.
(4) Luke writes, “The basic components of neurons (generally) include the following:
axon, dendrite, glia, myelin …” “Glia” actually refers to a different type of cell in the
nervous system. Whereas neurons are the information-receiving and information-sending
cells of the nervous system, glia cells are the cells that support and protect the neurons in
a variety of ways. However, it is true that one type of glial cell produces the myelin that
Luke mentions. So there is a close relationship between the neurons and the glia.
(5) Luke writes, “Myelin is the fatty tissue covering a neuron’s axon …” Technically, this
is inaccurate. In anatomy a “tissue” is a set of similar cells that perform a common
function. Myelin is a fat-like compound that insulates the axons of neurons and enables
them to send their messages more effectively and efficiently than otherwise would be
possible.
(6) Luke describes the vesicles in the axon’s terminal button as “pockets” that hold
neurotransmitters. They are better thought of as sacks, because they are structures that are
5
In footnote 2 of chapter 2 Luke says that that he has opted not to delve into many of the technical details of
neurobiology since counselors do not need that in order to use neuroscientific information with their clients. On the
one hand, he is right: Too much detail will obscure the value of what he wants counselors to use with clients. On the
other hand, there are times when his way of writing misrepresents neuroscientific concepts or data. This does not
ultimately help anyone. Therefore, I will offer clarifications or corrections on these misrepresentations in his book. I
also offer clarifications or corrections on a few of his comments about psychological theories.
5
completely bounded by a membrane so they can hold the neurotransmitter molecules
until they are needed at the terminal button. The neurotransmitter molecules are released
into the synapse when the vesicle’s membrane attaches to the axon’s membrane and is
pried apart. (See his Figure 2.7.)
(7) In his description of the flight or fight response, Luke mentions the adrenal glands are
stimulated for “sudden bursts of energy.” This is true, but they can also sustain an
organism’s high level of arousal/energy as long as they secrete their hormones during a
threatening situation. The nervous system can directly cause the same types of reactions
within the body as do the hormones produced by the adrenals, but the hormones can
sustain the reactions over a longer stretch of time.
(8) In describing the general functions of the hypothalamus, Luke writes, “The
hypothalamus also controls the neuroendocrine system, which is responsible for the
release of neurotransmitters.” It would be more accurate to say it is responsible for the
release of hormones, which are the products of the endocrine system.
(3) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapters 3 and 6.
(4) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 3-6.
Clarifications & Corrections for Chapters 3-6:
(1) Luke writes that Freud’s model of psychosexual development “extended only through
adolescence.” However, Freud’s last proposed stage, the “genital” stage, was presumed to
extend throughout adulthood, since the id’s drives supposedly continue to be focused on
“mature genital satisfaction.”
(2) In his assessment of Freud’s method of theory development, Luke says, “This is not
unlike how some theories are developed today, but we have more rigorous methodologies
to disguise any biases.” I think his use of “disguise” sounds too negative. Today it is
commonly acknowledged that scientists have biases; consequently, contemporary
theorizing involves numerous checks and balances that are intended to help them with
their “blind spots.”
(3) Luke periodically refers to Dan Siegel’s concept of “interpersonal neurobiology.”
Siegel’s construct will be discussed in our classes, but in a nutshell, it refers to
understanding personal experiences, ultimately rooted in the brain, in the context of
relationships. He thinks of the “mind” as a function of our close, influential relationships;
it shapes how the brain develops and changes throughout our lives. Siegel attempts to
draw data from a wide range of disciplines in order to understand our experiences—
neurology, psychology, physics, sociology, mathematics, etc.—and organize them under
the term “interpersonal neurobiology.”
(4) Luke refers to Freud’s “iceberg model” for describing the levels of consciousness we
experience. The iceberg metaphor is helpful for understanding Freud’s thinking on
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consciousness, but it was proposed by later psychologists. Freud used an architectural
metaphor instead.
(5) In his description of different types of memories, Luke defines “semantic memory or
declarative memory” and then defines “explicit memory.” This could be misunderstood.
The usual hierarchy of memory systems is as follows:
Explicit (Declarative) Memories, which includes:
Semantic memory
Episodic (autobiographical) memory
Implicit Memories, which includes:
Procedural memory
Priming (e.g., fear memories)
Note that episodic memories are also forms of explicit or declarative memory. Explicit
memories are also called “declarative” memories because they can be recalled and
explained to others. Implicit memories are “non-declarative” in the sense that they
influence our behavior without a significant draw on our attention, and thus, they are not
easily explained to others. For example, I can tie a necktie without having to spend much
cognitive energy thinking about the movement of my hands. However, when I first tried
to explain the process to my son, I got “tongue-tied.”
(6) In “classical” (or, Pavlovian) conditioning, the following terms are used to describe
this form of learning:
Neutral stimulus: a stimulus that does not normally produce a specified bodily
response. E.g.: hearing a bell would not normally prompt salivation in a typical
dog. It is a “neutral stimulus” with respect to salivation.
Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that normally prompts a specified bodily
response. E.g.: the smell or presence of food normally prompts salivation in a
dog. There is no learning necessary for salivation to occur. In this example, the
response of salivation to food is called an unconditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus: after a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus, it can become a conditioned stimulus, which means it
now can prompt a response similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus. The
response prompted by the conditioned stimulus is called a conditioned response.
(7) Luke places Albert Bandura under “operant conditioning,” which is odd, because
Bandura was reacting against the unduly restrictive point of view of Skinner (who
championed operant conditioning). Bandura added the influence of thoughts and
expectations to his explanation of behavior, which Skinner wanted to avoid.
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(8) Luke mentions “operant factors in shaping behavior.” I think this phrase refers to the
variables that Skinner suggested were necessary & sufficient to explain animal behavior.
Whereas Pavlov had stressed the antecedent stimuli in conditioning, Skinner stressed the
effect of consequences after a voluntary behavior. “Operant” was a word Skinner used to
describe a voluntary behavior (as opposed to an involuntary bodily reaction) that is
“emitted” by an organism in its environment. If the operant behavior is followed by a
pleasurable/desired consequence, then it is more likely to recur.
(9) When you read about “self-efficacy,” do not confuse this with “self-esteem.” Bandura
is specific in defining self-efficacy as one’s expectation of being able to complete a
specific task. He differentiates this from “self-esteem,” how one feels about oneself. Selfesteem is a more global construct; self-efficacy is narrowly focused on a behavior.
(10) In Table 6.7 Luke writes, “… only 10% of the brain is seen as functional in running
the whole of humanity.” This is a very odd sentence. He may be referring to a wrong
notion that we only use 10% of our brains. There is no empirical evidence for this claim.
Even if he is saying that the “gray matter” (which he says amounts to 10% of the brain’s
substance) is what “runs humanity,” that is very misleading. The whole brain, in a
normally functioning person, is active.
(5) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapter 8.
Clarifications & Corrections for Chapter 8:
(1) Luke writes, “Part of this genetic code includes the template for her biologically
determined temperament and personality.” This statement needs clarification:
Temperament is part of one’s personality, and it is genetically rooted, but this should not
be understood to say that it is unmodifiable.
(2) In Biology Box 8.1 Luke writes, “Research on serotonin and depression continue to
proceed in an a priori fashion—after the fact.” This is a confusing sentence. If he means
that research continues on the presumption of a causal connection between serotoninrelated activity in the brain and depression, then that is true. “After the fact,” however,
does not seem to fit, since a priori generally is used to mean “apart from experience or
empirical evidence.”
(3) Also in Biology Box 8.1, Luke says, “Monoamines assist in the transmission of
serotonin in the synaptic cleft, and then are broken down in order to ‘turn off’ the
transmission. MAOIs prevent the breakdown of monoamines in order to keep the
transmission turned on …” To clarify: Serotonin is one type of monoamine
neurotransmitter (i.e., its chemical structure includes one amine group). Monoamine
oxidase is an enzyme that breaks apart monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin;
therefore, its presence in the synapse means there will be fewer serotonin molecules to
communicate with the postsynaptic neuron. MAOIs are “monoamine oxidase inhibitors”;
they are drugs that inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which in turn, means that
more serotonin will be available in the synapse for communication.
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(6) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 7.
(7) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapter 10.
(8) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 10.
(9) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 7 and 9.
Clarifications & Corrections for Chapter 9:
(1) In describing where stress is in the brain, Luke says the pituitary gland stimulates the
adrenal glands to secrete their stress hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol.
In commenting further on epinephrine & norepinephrine, he then describes them as
“neurotransmitters.” To clarify: Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced by some
neurons in the brain—and when used in the brain they are “neurotransmitters.” They are
also produced by the adrenal glands and distributed via the bloodstream to various target
organs in the body. When used in this way, they are “hormones.”
(2) Luke describes the corpus callosum as a “dense bundle of nerves and nerve fibers.”
More precisely, it is a bundle of axons. “Nerves” are bundles of axons that are part of the
peripheral nervous system (i.e., outside the central nervous system).
(3) Luke writes, “The parasympathetic nervous system is the excitatory system … Its role
is to … prepare the body for action.” This is incorrect. It is the portion of the nervous
system that calms us once a threat has passed. It is the function of the sympathetic
nervous system to prompt the “flight or fight” response.
(10) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Preface, Introduction, and Chapters 1-3.
(11) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 5-6.
(12) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 4-7.6
(13) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 8, 18-20, 9-11 (in this order).
(14) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 7-8.
(15) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 12-17.
(16) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 1-2.
(17) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 21-23, 26.
(18) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 3-4.
(19) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 11.
Although not required for this class, you might find it an interesting exercise to compare Sood’s chapters 5-7
(attention training) and Welch’s chapter 8 (Attention Deficit Disorder). Does this comparison spark any fresh
insights on ministry to this segment of our congregations?
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GLOSSARY
Adler, Alfred: Adler was a one-time associate of Sigmund Freud who eventually expressed
disagreement with some of Freud’s ideas. This led to a break in their relationship, although it
also afforded Adler the opportunity to develop what he called “Individual Psychology,” a
theoretical framework in which he emphasized the critical importance of one’s social network in
development. One aspect of Adler’s therapeutic approach was to ask patients to recall their
earliest memories. He assumed that such early memories reflected the fundamental perspective
that had shaped the development of the person’s personality and life style.
Affect: As a noun in the psychological literature, “affect” refers to emotions.
Conation: One’s will, purpose, or volition.
Depressive/manic episodes: In the DSM-5 (see below), depressive or manic episodes are not
diagnosable conditions; they are the building blocks for determining the presence of a depressive
disorder or bipolar disorder. A “depressive episode” is a two-week period in which there is a
persistent sadness and/or lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities, and in addition, there
are likely disruptions in eating behaviors, sleeping, and sexual desire. The person is typically
fatigued, has difficulty concentrating, and may report hopelessness, worthlessness, and suicidal
thoughts or activities. A “manic episode” is a one-week period in which a person might
experience an unusual and persistent elevated or irritable mood, a lot of goal-directed energy,
and in addition, there might be a grandiose sense of one’s importance or abilities, extreme
talkativeness, racing thoughts, extreme distractibility, and involvement in risky behaviors.
DSM-5: The American Psychiatric Association’s The Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 5th edition. It is a book that contains the diagnostic labels for the types of problems
addressed by psychologists, psychiatrists, and other licensed mental health practitioners (e.g.,
Social Anxiety Disorder, Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder, Pyromania). Associated with each
label is a criteria set that describes the types of experiences a client must report during a clinical
assessment in order for the diagnostic label to be given to him or her.
Endogenous depression: Depression that cannot be clearly tied to external (situational or
relational) trials in one’s life. It seems to come from within the person, who is usually presumed
to have a physiological problem.
Environment (in genetics): Every influence on a person’s development that is not a gene. Thus,
conditions in the womb, nutrition, educational opportunities, parenting strategies, etc., are
considered part of the environment.
Epigenetics: the general term used for the variables that influence when—or if—genes are
“expressed” and that do not involve a change in the DNA sequence itself.
Executive functions: A person’s abilities to organize, regulate, and plan behavior and to resist
unhelpful urges.
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Gene: A segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that provides the information needed by a cell
to build a protein.
Gene expression: When genes are “expressed,” the information they encode is used to create
specific proteins in the cell. Gene expression is a two-stage process. (a) Genes are “transcribed”
in the nucleus of the cell by “messenger RNA” molecules, and their information is taken to
special structures outside the nucleus (the ribosomes). At the ribosomes the information from the
genes is used to create proteins (the genetic information is “translated” into a protein).
Genome: All of the DNA found in the cells of an organism.
Hormone: A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland. Endocrine
glands produce their hormones and then release them directly into the circulatory system. The
hormones travel through the bloodstream until they reach their “target organs,” i.e., organs
whose cells have special receptors for the hormones to bind to & affect the organs’ functioning.
Consequently, hormones can affect organs in the body far removed from the gland that produced
them. For example, hormones from the adrenal glands (which sit on top of the kidneys in the
trunk of the body) can influence the functioning of the brain.
Learned helplessness: The tendency for organisms who are exposed to inescapable stressors to
eventually give up trying to avoid them. In humans, this can be a precursor to severe depression.
Mindsight: “our human capacity to perceive the mind of the self and others. … Mindsight is a
kind of focused attention that allows us to see the internal workings of our own minds. It helps us
get ourselves off of the autopilot of ingrained behaviors and habitual responses.”7
Neuroendocrine system: The various organ systems of the body are interconnected. The
nervous system’s primary channel of connection with the endocrine (hormonal) system is the
link between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland within the brain.
Nucleus: This term is used in various ways in biology. The two most important uses for our
purposes are: (a) The structure (“organelle”) in the cell that contains most of its genetic material,
and thus, controls what proteins are constructed by the cell, both for structural and functional
purposes. (b) A cluster of neurons of similar shape that forms an identifiable structure in the
brain.
Object (in psychodynamic theory): The term used for influential people, symbols, etc., in the
life of a young child with which there is some type of relationship.
Organ inferiority & inferiority complex: In Adler’s theory, he proposed that every person is
motivated in life by a sense of inferiority, very often connected to a weak organ (e.g., a birth
defect or poor eyesight). Usually the person develops goals in order to overcome the source of
inferiority. Sometimes, however, a person so focuses on the source of inferiority that it seems to
overshadow any possible attempts to compensate. In those cases Adler said the person had
developed an inferiority complex.
7
From: http://www.drdansiegel.com/about/mindsight/ (accessed 6/15/2015).
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Paralanguage: The elements of verbal communication other than the words: intonation, speed
of speaking, hesitation noises, etc.
Parasuicide8: Those thoughts, feelings, or behaviors associated with potentially fatal self-harm,
but they are motivated by a weaker determination to end one’s life than those activities that result
in death.
Process addiction: a compulsive behavior pattern in which the process of completing the
behavior is analogous to the “high” received from taking drugs. Two examples are “pathological
gambling” and “compulsive shopping.” In both substance abuse and process addictions the
brain’s “reward circuit” is activated.
Psychodynamic: A general term used to describe those theories of personality & counseling that
highlight unconscious forces at play in determining people’s behaviors. Freud’s psychoanalytic
theory was the “fountainhead” for this way of explaining people’s experiences in life. His
original ideas have been modified or changed in various ways by later theorists; however, when
unconscious forces are considered to be important in understanding people, the theories are
classified as “psychodynamic.” The prefix psycho refers to one’s “psyche,” which was a
common term used in Freud’s day for the “mind”; “dynamic” refers to “a lot of activity.”
Plasticity/neuroplasticity: The ability of the brain to modify its structure either as a function of
development or learning in one’s life. There are two ways in which the brain might make these
changes: (a) the generation of new neurons (neurogenesis) and (b) the creation of new
communication channels, i.e., synapses (synaptogenesis). In adult humans, as far as we know,
neurogenesis is very limited. Synaptogenesis appears to be the primary form of plasticity in
human beings after adolescence; it allows for much more effective & efficient communication
between neurons.
Presynaptic/postsynaptic (neurons): These adjectives are used to describe the direction of
information flow between two neurons. Recall that neurons communicate across a synapse. The
sender of the information is the presynaptic neuron (since it is positioned before the synaptic
gap), and the receiver is the postsynaptic neuron (since it is positioned after the synaptic gap).
Temperament: The emotional reactivity that is typical of a person and that is evident even when
the person is a very young child. Therefore, temperament is heavily influenced by one’s genes.
Transference: This was a key element in Freud’s psychoanalytic process. It occurs when the
client becomes comfortable enough with the therapeutic relationship that he or she unconsciously
reacts to the analyst as if the analyst was an important person from the client’s past. This enables
the therapist to see firsthand how this past relationship continues to influence the client’s current
relationships, and Freud thought it allows therapeutic change to occur.
Unconscious: Freud taught that there were three levels of consciousness: a “conscious level”
(what we are currently aware of thinking), a “preconscious level” (what we are not currently
Note that the terms “paralanguage” and “parasuicide” use a common meaning of the Greek preposition para,
“around.”
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thinking about, but can easily access), and the “unconscious level.” In Freud’s theory, the
unconscious mind represents all those factors (variously referred to as desires, wishes, needs,
instincts) that shape our thinking, behavior, and motivations without our awareness of their
presence. Although he was very confident that later neurological research would verify his
speculations about the unconscious mind, he himself was restricted to using various metaphors to
describe how he thought the unconscious worked. Today, it is clear that there is a lot of brain
activity that occurs outside our awareness, although psychological researchers do not typically
embrace Freud’s original ideas without significant modifications.
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GRADING RUBRIC FOR ASSIGNMENTS
CRITERIA
EXCELLENT
WORK
AVERAGE
WORK
BELOW
AVERAGE WORK
(90-100%)
(70-89%)
(< 70%)
Comprehension of
Course
Material
The submission
demonstrated a firm
grasp of the relevant
theories, concepts &
strategies under
consideration. All
assignment
instructions were
followed.
The submission
demonstrated an
elementary grasp or
demonstrated
misunderstanding
of the ideas or their
use that could lead
to a misleading
application. Or
some assignment
instructions were
not followed.
The submission
demonstrated such
misunderstanding of
the relevant theories
& concepts under
consideration that no
accurate presentation
could be given.
50%
Reasoning &
Development
of
Arguments
The submission
demonstrated: no
significant flaws in
use of logic
(weakening the
value of the paper),
clearly articulated
conclusion(s), &
well developed
substantiation of the
conclusion(s).
The submission
demonstrated some
logical error(s) that
lowered confidence
in the
argumentation or
did not substantiate
key points
supposed to lead to
the conclusion(s).
The submission
demonstrated
extensive logical
fallacies or lack of
good substantiation
so that the
conclusion(s) were
not credible.
25%
Writing
Standards
The submission
demonstrated good
use of standard
English grammar &
spelling with no
more than 5
violations of the
“Common
Mistakes.”
The submission
demonstrated 6-10
violations of the
“Common
Mistakes” which
made the
submission
challenging to
understand.
The submission
demonstrated over 10
violations of the
“Common Mistakes”
& it was difficult to
grasp the intent of the
paper or its sources.
25%
Total Points
POINTS
100%
14
COMMON MISTAKES IN ASSIGNMENTS
Below are correctives to common grammar and style mistakes I find in students’ writing assignments.
Problems with Commas and Semicolons
1. Use a comma with the next-to-the-last item in a series of three or more items.
2. Place commas and periods within quotation marks, but place other punctuation marks outside of
quotation marks.
3. Use the semicolon for (a) separating independent clauses9 within a compound sentence that does not
have a coordinating conjunction or (b) separating lengthy items in a series where commas are used
already within the items themselves.
4. In a compound sentence with two independent clauses, join the independent clauses by either a
semicolon or a comma + “and.” In a compound sentence with more than two independent clauses,
separate all the clauses by a semicolon except for the last one, which should be separated by a comma +
“and.” For example:
INCORRECT: My mother went to Washington and a tour guide took her through the
Smithsonian Institute. [Here there are two independent clauses; that is, each part of the sentence
could stand alone as a separate sentence.]
CORRECT: My mother went to Washington, and a tour guide took her through the Smithsonian
Institute.
INCORRECT: My mother went to Washington, she visited the Smithsonian Institute and she
saw the President.
CORRECT: My mother went to Washington; she visited the Smithsonian Institute, and she saw
the President.
9
An “independent clause” is a clause with a subject & predicate that could stand on its own as a separate sentence.
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5. Use a colon (:) to introduce clarifying clauses, phrases, or lists.
INCORRECT: James decided to spend his day doing these chores; washing his car, paying his
bills, and washing his clothes.
CORRECT: James decided to spend his day doing these chores: washing his car, paying his
bills, and washing his clothes.
Problems with Pronouns
6. Make sure pronouns and their antecedents match in number, gender, and person. For example:
INCORRECT: Anxiety will not be overcome if a counselee refuses to apply Matthew 6:25-34 to
their life. [Here the pronoun “their” does not match its antecedent “counselee” in number.]
CORRECT: Anxiety will not be overcome if counselees refuse to apply Matthew 6:25-34 to
their lives.
7. To avoid unnecessary “gender-biased language,” wherever appropriate, use collective nouns
(“humanity,” or “people”) and plural pronouns (“they,” “them,” “their,” etc.). Avoid use of “he/she” or
“s/he.” Also avoid exclusive use of either “he” or “she.”
8. Use personal pronouns consistently within a sentence or paragraph. For example:
INCORRECT: Biblical counselors must be careful to use passages of Scripture appropriately.
You must “rightly divide” the Word of Truth (2 Tim. 2:15). [Here the first sentence is written in
the third person, and the second sentence is written in the second person.]
CORRECT: Biblical counselors must be careful to use passages of Scripture appropriately.
They must “rightly divide” the Word of Truth (2 Tim. 2:15).
Problems with Quotations
9. Use block quotations for quotes that will be over 5 lines of text.
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10. Do not use quotation marks to open or close block quotations; instead, indent them as many spaces as
you indent your paragraphs. Single-space block quotations.
11. Use single quotation marks only within double quotation marks (signifying a quote within a quote).
Problems with Formatting
12. Reserve the use of Latin phrases (“e.g.,” “etc.,” “i.e.,” and so on) for parenthetical comments or
footnotes (or endnotes).
13. Use a double space between lines within the body of the paper and between separate bibliographic
entries. Use a single space between lines within footnotes and within bibliographic entries.
14. In bibliographies, indent the second and subsequent lines 5 spaces (a “hanging indentation”).
15. Format headings and subheadings consistently throughout the paper.
16. Do not allow subheadings to “hang” at the bottom of a page without at least two lines of supporting
text underneath them.
17. Format citations consistently throughout the paper; do not mix citation systems.
18. Use parallel construction of items in lists or series. For example:10
INCORRECT: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the
instructions, and that they should ask about anything they did not understand. [Here the first two
items in the series are infinitive phrases and the last one is a dependent clause introduced by a
relative pronoun.]
CORRECT: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions,
and to ask about anything they did not understand.
10
This particular example comes from Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed
(Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, 2001), 60.
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19. Capitalize “Scripture” and “Bible.” Do not capitalize “biblical,” “scriptural,” “pastor” (unless it’s
used with a particular name, e.g., “Pastor Mark” or “Pastor Smith”), “biblical counseling,” or “biblical
counselor.”
20. When you delete a portion of quoted material (a word, phrase, or sentence), you show that with an
ellipsis. An ellipsis does not replace the period of the sentence before it.
18