• Every piece of writing has a “rhetorical situation.”
This is the set of circumstances under which the piece of writing is produced, and it affects the choices a writer makes. What is the “rhetorical situation” of piece of writing that is classified as
“research”?
– What is its purpose?
– What is its audience?
– What is its tone/stance?
– What is its medium?

• Make a CLAIM about some area of pop culture and defend that claim using reputable sources and your own analysis of the issue.
• How do I discover and defend a claim?
– ASK a research question that invites further discussion.
– READ a variety of sources about your question.
– DECIDE, based on your research, where you stand on your question, and put that stance into a thesis/claim.
– DEFEND your decision (your thesis) in your paper.

• Assume a general audience of other collegelevel students and professors. Your audience is interested in your topic, and they know what pop culture is, but may not be familiar with your specific issue. You will need to provide appropriate context.

• Tone: I will expect the paper to have a clear point of view on the question you choose, but I will expect the paper to be professional and respectful of those who might disagree. (If you wouldn’t say it to the face of someone you respect but disagree with, it doesn’t belong in your research paper.)
• Medium: Written paper, with the option of correctly cited and captioned images throughout. Also, if you choose to do the extra credit, you may use video and internet sources in your presentation.

• This paper should be written in an academic style.
• Some extra points to remember:
– No text-speak (“u” for “you,” for example)
– Precise, academically appropriate language
– Limit use of “I” and “me” to well-chosen, relevant examples.

• A successful research question will:
– Narrow an issue related to pop culture down to a manageable question for a 6-8 page paper.
– Be specific.
– Invite discussion about the answer to the question.
• Some poor research questions:
• How does science fiction affect society? (Too broad… affect it HOW? And who is “society” referring to?)
• What are some good science fiction movies? (“Good” is too subjective. What do you mean by “good”? And what is your purpose in ranking these movies?)

• Improved Research questions:
• Has science fiction historically been able to comment on issues of racism and prejudice in a unique way?
What has science fiction contributed to the conversation about these topics?
• What are some of the most significant real world scientific discoveries that have been inspired by science fiction films?
• Remember, your research proposal needs to have your research question at the top, followed by a discussion of why you chose this question and where you think you will go from here.

• Make a list of ALL of the areas of pop culture you might like to write about. Come up with some rough questions about each of these topics. (You can refine them later.)
• Be curious! What are connections you’ve always wondered about? What are things you’ve noticed that you’d like to explore in more detail?
• What are readings from our book that intrigued you? What more do you want to know about those topics?

• Turn at least one of the topics you brainstormed into a rough research question.
• Now, ask yourself, why am I interested in this question?
What observations or experiences have led me to ask this?
• Where should I go next to find out what other people are saying about this topic?
• What might I need to find out before I am ready to enter this conversation as an informed participant?
• The answers to those questions are what make up the paragraph for your research proposal.

• Have your research question(s) checked by me. Continue refining them.
• What knowledge/experience do you bring to the topic?
• What are issues you know you will need to explore in order to find out what your claim is going to be?

• Your specific research question
• The Stakeholders (People who are most affected by this issue)
• An explanation of what is at stake in the discussion of this issue
• What do I need to find out before forming an opinion?
• Possible specific sources of information on this issue

• Research Proposal
• Start finding possible sources. Keep track of where you find them.
• Read at least five possible sources. If they are relevant, annotate/highlight/take notes. Keep track of which ideas came from which source.
• Begin to notice common debates or themes in your sources. What are the big issues that show up over and over again as you research?

• An annotated bibliography has two parts:
• First, it is a list of Works Cited entries sources you have already read.
• Second, each source is followed by two paragraphs:
– One paragraph that summarizes the source's claim(s)
– A second paragraphs that tells why the source is
trustworthy and relevant to your question, and explains
why you have chosen to use it in your research paper.
What unique perspective does this source offer? Why would a quote, paraphrase, or summary from this source a valuable addition to your own writing about the topic?

• See the handout I gave you for general information about annotated bibliographies and an example annotated bibliography with three sources (remember, you will need
SEVEN). There is also an example with one source on the class website.
• Your annotated bibliography will need…
– Seven sources
– Each source put into MLA works cited format (as in example)
– Sources alphabetized
– Two paragraphs following each source discussing requirements on previous slide.
– Please skip a line between MLA works cited entries and paragraphs. (See example.)

• Emotional (pathos) - appeals to feelings
• Ethical (ethos) – appeals to values
• Logical (logos) – appeals to reason/logic
• Each different rhetorical situation you find yourself in will call for you to use a different balance of these three types of appeals.

• One type of appeal appeals to your readers’ rational sides using facts and logical explanations.
• This is called logos, which is related to the word
"logic.“
• By making sure that your facts are relevant and well-documented, you will increase your credibility as a writer.
• If an appeal uses scientific research, data, or other
“cold, hard facts” to make its point, it is using logos.

• You may be appealing to your readers’ sense of what is ethical (in this context “ethical” means
“the right thing to do”) by asserting that you share common values with them. An appeal to values/ethics is an appeal to ethos, which shared a root with the word “ethical.”
• If an argument is appealing to ideals or values that are important to the reader (for example, equality and fairness, “The American Dream,” etc.) and are shared by the writer, it is appealing to ethos.

• You may also be making an appeal to emotion.
This is called pathos. It shares a root with the word "pathetic," which originally mean “inspiring pity.” It originally meant appealing to the emotions without the negative connotation of weakness that modern English gives it.
• You are trying to get your audience to really feel for whatever cause you are arguing for.
• If an argument “tugs at the heart strings” or causes the reader to emotionally engage with the topic, it is using pathos.

• It is your job as a writer to balance facts, values, and emotions. Too much of one and not enough of the others can make for an unbalanced argument. Be especially aware of overusing emotional appeals. People are smart, and they don't like being jerked around by their emotions. This is especially true when writing for a mixed audience… people who disagree with you will be on the lookout for emotional manipulation.

• Identify what’s at stake.
• Take some time right now to ask yourself, who might be
affected by my issue? Also, be on the lookout for sources who can give you more info on what’s at stake. A lot of times, we don’t know exactly what’s at stake until we do the research.
• What types of appeals might be useful for you? How might you use emotion? How might you use logic? Values?
• Be on the lookout for all types of appeals, or the building blocks of all types of appeals, in your sources as you read.