Lecture – American Foreign Policy
1. The Nature of Foreign Policy. Foreign policy refers to the programs and policies that determine
America’s relations with other nations and foreign entities. Foreign policy includes diplomacy,
military and security policy, international human rights policies, and various forms of economic
policies such as trade policy and international energy policy. The nation’s chief foreign policy
makers are the president, Congress, and the bureaucracy. Foreign and domestic policy areas are
closely intertwined. At the same time, important differences exist. History and historical
memory play a greater role in the foreign policy realm than in domestic policy. Questions of the
national interest figure more prominently than in most domestic policy debates. The foreign
policy arena is affected by the United States’ historical wariness of foreign commitments and
the difficulties of making and justifying what are often cold, harsh, calculating foreign policy
decisions in a democratic context.
2. The Goals of Foreign Policy. Three main goals of American foreign policy stand out. These are
security, prosperity, and the creation of a better world.
A. Security. The chief purpose of the nation’s foreign policy is protection of the United States’
security in an often hostile world. Today, American security policy is concerned not only
with the actions of other nations, but also with activities of terrorist groups and other
nonstate actors (groups other than nation-states that attempt to play a role in the
international system). To protect the nation’s security, the United States has built an
enormous military apparatus and complex array of intelligence gathering institutions, such
as the Central Intelligence Agency charged with evaluating and anticipating challenges from
abroad.
During the 19th century, the United States believed that its security was based on its
geographic isolation. Many Americans thought that security would best be preserved by
remaining aloof from international power struggles, a policy known as isolationism (desire
to avoid involvement in the affairs of other nations). World War I brought traditional
foreign policy powers until World War II. In the aftermath of World War II, the United
States developed a new security policy known as deterrence, the development and
maintenance of military strength as a means of discouraging attack and “containing” the
growing power of the Soviet Union. During the Cold War (the period of struggle between
the United States and the former Soviet Union between the late 1940s and about 1990),
some argued that the United States should attack the Soviets before it was too late. This
argument is for preventive war, a policy of striking first when a nation fears a foreign fore is
contemplating hostile attack. Others said the United States should show peaceful intentions
and attempt to placate foreign foes. This policy is called appeasement, an effort to forestall
war by giving in to the demands of a hostile power.
A policy of deterrence not only requires the possession of large military forces but also
requires the nation pursuing such a policy to convince political adversaries that it is willing
to fight. Deterrence does assume certainty and rationality, which may not be appropriate to
current security threats. Unlike a nation-state (a political entity consisting of a people with
some common cultural experience – a nation – who also share a common political authority
– a state – that is recognized by other sovereign entities), a country with governments and
fixed borders, terrorist groups are nonstate actors having no fixed location that can be
attacked. Policies of these groups may be driven by ideological or religious fervor rather
than careful consideration of economic or human costs. It is difficult to deter groups or
rogue leaders in these cases because they may be willing to accept or may not fully grasp
the political costs of their action. To counter these new security threats, the United States
has shifted to a policy of preemption, in which the United States displays its willingness to
strike first to prevent an enemy attack.
B. Economic Prosperity. The United States international economic policies are intended to
expand employment in the United States, maintain access to foreign energy supplies at a
reasonable cost, promote foreign investment in the United States, and lower the prices
Americans pay for goods and services. American trade policy promotes goods and services
abroad. However, trade policies involved tariffs, treaties, and other policy mechanisms.
Working toward free trade has been an important presidential goal. Long standing policies
to promote trade include most favored nation status (an agreement to offer a trading
partner the lowest tariff rate offered to trading partners). Trade relations include the
organization that promotes free trade the most, the World Trade Organization, an
international trade agency promoting free trade that grew out of the General Agreement
on Tariff and Trade, in effect from 1947 to 1995, that set many of the rules governing
intentional trade. The WTO has rallied to reduce trade barriers. Also, the North American
Free Trade Agreement, (a trade treaty among the United States, Canada, and Mexico to
lower and eliminate tariffs among the three countries) pursued the same policies. The
United States has been a free trade supporter worldwide. Free trade became a
controversial political issue in the 2012 election because job growth remained unusually
low.
C. International Humanitarian Policies. A third goal of American foreign policy is to make the
world a better place for all its inhabitants. The main forms of policy that address this goal
are international environmental policy, international human rights policy, and international
peacekeeping. These policies are often seen as secondary to the other goals of American
foreign policy, forced to give way if they interfere with security or foreign economic policy.
3. Who Makes American Foreign Policy? The president and his chief advisors are the principal
architects of U.S. foreign policy. Congress, the courts, the bureaucracy, political parties, interest
groups, and trade associations also play important roles in this realm. Often the president and
Congress are at odds over foreign policy.
A. The President. Presidents have always been domestic politicians, and foreign policy has
been treated as an extension of the former. For example, during President George W.
Bush’s administration, foreign policy was the agenda’s centerpiece after the 9/11 attacks,
which reaffirmed his determination to be an effective commander in chief, and the public
approval of these actions remained high for a significant period of time. The president
announced the Bush Doctrine, a foreign policy based on the idea that the United States
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should take preemptive action against national security threats. By 2010, President Obama
began to put his own stamp on American foreign policy, altering the conduct of the United
States war in Afghanistan and seeking to compel the Israelis and Palestinians to accept a
Middle East peace deal, although the Bush Doctrine remains in effect.
Drone Strikes: Drones have been the Obama administration’s tool of choice for taking out
militants outside of Iraq and Afghanistan. Drones aren’t the exclusive weapon – traditional
airstrikes and other attacks have also been reported. But by one estimate, 95 percent of
targeted killings since 9/11 have been conducted by drones. Among the benefits of drones:
they don’t put American troops in harm’s way.
The Bureaucracy. The major bureaucratic players in foreign affairs are the secretaries of the
Departments of State, Defense, and Treasury; the Joints Chiefs of Staff; and the director of
the Central Intelligence Agency. Also, the National Security Council in the White House has
helped the executive make foreign policy. Since the 9/11 attacks, two other players have
been added: the Department of Homeland Security and the Director of National
Intelligence. Finally, key lower level staff members also have strong foreign policy making
influence. In the wake of 9/11, military and law enforcement agencies have increased their
roles in the United States foreign policy making.
Congress. Although the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war, Congress has
done so on only five occasions. The congressional role in foreign affairs was limited for the
first 150 years of American history because of the limited national role in these matters.
Still, during this time, the Senate was a main player because it reviewed and approved
treaties. This continues today. However, Congress as a whole has also become a major
foreign affairs player because both houses must approve the needed financing in
appropriation bills. Executive agreements (agreements made between the president and
another country that have the force of a treaty but do not require the Senate’s “advice and
consent” has become a major component of U.S. foreign policy objectives. Also, several
congressional committees devoted to international affairs play a role.
Interest Groups. Interest groups are among the shapers of foreign policy – a host of
unofficial, informal players, people who possess varying degrees of influence – who, with
the institutional foreign policy players, make up the “foreign policy establishment.” Among
interest groups dealing with foreign policy issues, the most influential are economic interest
groups. Often these are single issue groups that are most influential when their interest is
on the agenda, for example in NAFTA, a trade treaty among the United States, Canada, and
Mexico to lower and eliminate trade barriers among the three countries. Another
influential foreign policy interest group is made up of people with strong attachments and
identifications to their country of national origin, for example, the American Jewish
community. A third type of group growing in influence is the ecological or environmental
group, which is concerned with the health of the environment and often referred to as the
Greens.
The Media. The most important element of the media’s policy influence is the speed and
scale at which they can spread the political communications that shape foreign affairs. The
balancing of security against freedom of the press has become increasingly difficult.
G. Putting It Together. American foreign policy comprises several factors, including the
players, their influence, and their interactions with the president. For example, when an
important foreign policy is made during a crisis, then presidential influence is strongest.
Under the time constraints of a crisis, decisions are limited and narrow.
4. The Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy. Any nation-state has instruments to
implement its foreign policy. The United States tools include diplomacy, the United Nations, the
international monetary structure, economic aid, collective security, and military deterrence.
A. Diplomacy is the representation of a government to other foreign governments. The 1924
Rogers Act and the 1946 Foreign Service Act forged the American foreign service into a
diplomatic corps. Because of the nature of diplomacy and the American tradition of distrust
of diplomacy, the president was unable to delegate much of this function to other
professional diplomats. Also because of distrust, American presidents have turned to
military and civilian personnel outside the State Department to take on a diplomatic role.
After 9/11, many nations pledged to fight terrorism as a result of the diplomatic efforts
carried out by then Secretary of State Colin Powell. However, during that time, the
administration’s commitment to peaceful diplomacy changed. The Bush administration
revealed the belief it could achieve more through its military might. The 2008 presidential
election highlighted the concerns over the failure to use diplomacy in securing support for
the Iraq war. President Obama appointed Hillary Clinton as his secretary of state, followed
by John Kerry in 2013. By appointing such prominent figures as the United States chief
diplomat, Obama, in part, underlined the importance diplomacy was to have in his
administration.
B. The United Nations. An organization of nations founded in 1945 to serve as a channel for
negotiation and a means of settling international disputes peaceably, the UN has had
frequent successes in providing a forum for negotiation and on some occasions a means of
preventing international conflicts from spreading. Sometimes the UN has been a
convenient cover for U.S. foreign policy goals. Its ability to serve the United States as a
foreign policy tool has been underestimated, because it has few powers and no armed
forces to implement its decisions. The UN devolves many powers to its executive
committee, the UN Security Council, which alone has the power to make decisions and to
implement them. The Security Council has five permanent members – China, France,
Russia, Great Britain, and the United States – which have the power to vote and veto power
to reject any proposal.
C. The International Monetary Structure. After World War I, the United States and its allies
created a new economic structure for the post war world. This structure brought into being
two new institutions: the World Bank, an international bank for reconstruction and
development, and the International Monetary Fund, an institution established in 1944 that
provides loans and facilitates international monetary exchange. The World Bank was
established to finance long term capital, and the IMF provided for the short term flow of
money. In the 1990s, the IMF returned to an important position through its efforts to
reform communist nations by fitting them into a full, global, capitalist economy. The IMF
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and the World Bank are committed to the expansion of capitalism by providing credit to
needy nations to foster investment and productivity.
Economic Aid and Sanctions. A good deal of American aid is designed to promote American
security interest or economic concerns, even as the aid may appear to serve a humanitarian
purpose. Aid is an economic carrot. Sanctions are an economic stick. Unilateral sanctions
by the United States usually have little effect unless the United States can convince tis allies
to cooperate.
Collective Security. Initially, the United States was expected to meet its economic and
world obligations alone. However, a series of treaties approved by Congress provided for
national security alliances. The treaties created the Organization of American States, the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and others to defend the member nations against any
armed attack. In addition, American entered into a number a bilateral treaties (treaties
made between two nations) for national security purposes. The United States is viewed as a
security producer, and its allies as security consumers. For example, the United States has
devoted a higher percentage of GDP to defense than any of its NATO allies. Still, it is hard to
calculate U.S. success in the area, because its goal of prevention, which is difficult to
measure. After 9/11, the United States called on NATO’s multilateral provision deeming
that an attack on any member is an attack on all members. Still, after the American
invasion in Afghanistan, no countries other than Great Britain and Spain supported its
actions to fight the war on terror.
Military Force. The most visible element of foreign policy is military force. Though force is
sometimes necessary, military force is general seen as a last resort and avoided because of
problems associated with its use. Military force is costly in both human and financial terms.
It is fraught with risk. The use of military force is almost certain to engender political
difficulties for any government that chooses to address policy problems through such
means. The American public will generally support relatively short and decisive military
engagements. The public loses patience, however, with protracted conflicts.
Arbitration. Under arbitration, international disagreements are referred to a neutral third
party for resolution. Arbitration is sometimes seen as a form of “soft power.” The United
States heavily on arbitration panels to maintain the flow of internal trade on which its
economy depends.