Chapter 3
Carbohydrates
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Learning Objectives
 Identify food sources of carbohydrates and distinguish between simple and complex carbohydrates.
 Compare and contrast glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose.
 Identify sugars on an ingredient label, foods high in added sugars, and the number of teaspoons of sugar in a food using a food label.
 Identify the simple sugar found in starch and fiber, list four foods rich in starch, and explain gelatinization and how starch is used in cooking.
 Identify examples of high-fiber foods and explain the difference between soluble and insoluble fiber, and between dietary fiber and functional fiber.
 Distinguish between a whole grain and a refined grain and explain why a whole grain is more nutritious.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
 Summarize the functions of carbohydrates and describe how glycogen functions in the body.
 Describe how carbohydrates are digested and absorbed in the body, and explain how the body regulates the level of glucose in the blood.
 Identify foods with low to medium glycemic loads and how a low glycemic diet might affect your health.
 Discuss current recommendations for carbohydrate, sugar, fiber, and intake of fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains.
 Explain the health effects (if any) of added sugars on dental cavities, obesity, diabetes, heart disease, hypoglycemia, and hyperactivity in children.
 Demonstrate how to select whole grains, and list two ways eating whole grains can improve your health.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
 Define lactose intolerance and describe three strategies to manage it.


Describe how to cook whole grains and legumes and use them on the menu.
Create an appetizer, entrée, side dish, salad, and snack using high-fiber carbohydrate foods.
 Read food labels to identify foods using alternative sweeteners.
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 Carbohydrates are a large class of nutrients including:
◦ sugars
◦ starch
◦ and fibers that provide most of the energy for your body.
 Most carbohydrates are found in plants.
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 Most carbohydrate foods are plant foods.
 Photosynthesis is a process in which plants use energy from the sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrate.
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 Simple carbohydrates = Sugars
◦
Examples:
 Fructose in fruit (natural)
 Table sugar (processed)
 Complex carbohydrates = Starch
= Fiber
◦
Complex carbs contain chains of many sugars.
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 Simple carbohydrates include:
◦
Monosaccharides = single sugar
 Examples
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Galactose
◦
Disaccharides = two sugars bonded together
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 Glucose
◦
The most abundant sugar found in nature
◦
Most important source of energy for us and for plants
◦
Blood glucose level—vital to health and having energy
◦
Found in fruits and honey (and many plant foods)
 Fructose
◦
The sweetest natural sugar
◦
Found in fruits and also in honey
◦
Found in high fructose corn syrup used in sodas, candy, and other foods
 Galactose
◦
Found in milk linked to glucose
◦
The sugar in milk is not very sweet
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 Sucrose = table sugar  Lactose = milk sugar
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 Raw sugar is made from sugar cane and sugar beets . This raw sugar must be further refined for human consumption.
 White sugar provides virtually no nutrients for its 16 kcalories/teaspoon.
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Relative Sweetness of Sugars and
Artificial Sweeteners
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Added Sugars and How They Affect
Your Health
 You find added sugars in:
◦
Beverages: soda, fruit drinks, sweetened teas and lemonade, and many sports drinks, vitamin waters, and energy drink
◦
Desserts and snacks: cookies, cake, ice cream, baked goods
◦
Sweet pickles, ketchup
 Sugar and high-fructose corn syrup are equally harmful in excess.
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
Confectioner’s sugar
 Molasses
 White and brown sugar
 Maple and turbinado sugar
 Fructose
 Corn syrup
 High-fructose corn syrup
 Honey
 Maple syrup
 Brown rice syrup
 Agave nectar/syrup
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 Ingredients for cereal:
◦
Whole-grain wheat, sugar, corn meal, brown sugar syrup, canola and/or rice bran oil, dextrose, baking soda, salt, trisodium phosphate, artificial flavor, BHT
 Ingredients for soda
◦
Water, high-fructose corn syrup, caramel color, phosphoric acid, natural flavor, caffeine
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Examples of food high in added sugars
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Functions of Sugar in
Cooking/Baking
 Sugar helps balance the acidity of ingredients such as tomatoes and vinegar.
 Sugar browns the crust in baking.
 Sugar helps retain moisture in baked goods so they stay fresh.
 Sugar affects texture, tenderizing in baked goods.
 Sugar acts as a food for yeast in breads.
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One teaspoon sugar = 4 grams

“Sugars” on the Nutrition Facts panel includes natural and added sugars. If the label says “40 grams” under sugar, then:
40 grams of sugar = 10 teaspoons sugar
4 grams sugar/1 teaspoon
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 Includes starch and fiber
 Facts about starch:
◦
Plants store glucose in the form of starch.
◦
Starch is a chain of hundreds to thousands of glucose molecules linked together.
◦
Starch is only found in plant foods.
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Which foods contain starch?
 Grains: wheat, corn, rice, rye, barley, oats
 Root and tuber vegetables : beets, carrots, potatoes, sweet potatoes
 Dried beans, peas, and lentils : navy beans, split peas
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 When heated in liquid, starch gelatinizes.
 Gelatinization is a process unique to starches, and so you find starches frequently used as thickeners in soups, sauces, gravies, puddings, and other foods.
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 Like starches , fibers are long chains of glucose units bonded together.
 Unlike starches , fiber can’t be broken down by human digestive enzymes.
 Some fiber (called soluble fiber) is digested by bacteria in the large intestine.
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Which foods contain fiber?
 Dried beans, peas, and lentils
 Fruits and vegetables
 Whole grains
 Nuts and seeds
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 Soluble fiber
◦
Swells in water like a sponge (so you feel full longer after eating).
◦
Some intestinal bacteria digest it.
◦
Soluble fiber lowers your cholesterol.
 Insoluble fiber
◦
Does not swell in water much.
◦
Intestinal bacteria are less likely to digest it.
◦
Insoluble fiber helps prevent constipation.
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 Soluble fiber is in:
◦
Oats and barley
◦
Beans
◦
Many fruits such as apple and pears
◦
Many vegetables such as carrots and sweet potatoes
 Insoluble fiber is in:
◦
Wheat bran
◦
Whole grains
◦
Beans, peas, and lentils
◦
Many vegetables and fruits
◦
Seeds
Fiber-containing foods contain both soluble and insoluble fiber.
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Total fiber = Dietary fiber
(naturally in foods) + Functional fibers
Functional fibers: fibers extracted from plants and then added to foods such as bread, cereal, yogurt, and juices.
Examples: Oat fiber, wheat bran, vegetable gums, cellulose, maltodextrin, resistant starch
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

(cont’d)
 Whole grains contain the fiber-rich bran and the vitamin-rich germ:
◦
Whole wheat
◦
Brown rice
◦
Whole wheat bread
◦
Wheaties
◦
Oatmeal
 If the bran and germ are removed, the grain is a refined or milled grain:
◦
White flour
◦
White rice
◦
White bread
◦
Corn flakes
◦
Most baked goods
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(cont’d)
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Whole grains have more nutrients!
 Whole wheat flour has more…
◦
Fiber
◦
Vitamin E
◦
Vitamin B6
◦
Magnesium
◦
Zinc
◦
Potassium
◦
Copper
◦
Phytochemicals
...than white flour.
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Refined grains are enriched.
 By federal law, refined grain are enriched with five nutrients that are lost in processing:
◦
Thiamin
◦
Riboflavin
◦
Niacin
◦
Folate
◦
Iron
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1.
#1 source of energy for body (glucose)— brain and nerve cells almost completely rely on glucose for energy.
◦
Burning glucose for energy spares protein.
◦
Burning fat for energy without carbohydrates can be harmful to the body.
◦
You need at least 130 grams of carbohydrates daily to prevent protein and fat from being burned for fuel. You normally eat half your kcalories as carbohydrates.
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Functions of Carbohydrate
(cont’d)
 Carbohydrates are found in parts of the body including connective tissues, some hormones and enzymes, and genetic material.
 If you eat a lot of fiber, it helps
◦
Lower blood cholesterol
◦
Reduce blood pressure
◦
Decrease the risk of developing diabetes
◦
Keep blood sugar normal
◦
Promote regularity
◦
Lower body weights
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 Glycogen: The storage form of glucose in the body; stored in the liver and muscles.
 Muscle glycogen is only used to supply energy for muscles.
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Digestion, Absorption, and
Glycemic Response
 During digestion, enzymes break down starch and disaccharides into sugar units that are then absorbed.
 Fiber is not broken down by enzymes. Some bacteria in the large intestine can digest soluble fiber.
 Soluble fiber slows the emptying of the stomach.
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© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

How quickly, how high, and how long your blood sugar level rises after eating
 A low glycemic response (meaning your blood sugar rises slowly and not too high) is preferable to a high glycemic response BECAUSE it may decrease your risk factors for heart disease and diabetes.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

(cont’d)
 Several factors influence:
◦
Amount of carbohydrate eaten
◦
Type of sugar or starch
◦
Presence of fat, protein, fiber (all these slow down the emptying of the stomach)
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The higher a food’s glycemic load, the higher your blood glucose goes up.
 High Glycemic Load:
◦
Chocolate cake with frosting, white rice, spaghetti, French fries, cola, jelly beans
 Medium Glycemic Load
◦
Raisin Bran cereal, brown rice, banana, apple juice, white bread, pretzels
 Low Glycemic Load
◦
Whole wheat bread, All-Bran cereal, apple/orange/peach/grapes, peas/carrots, legumes
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Dietary Recommendations for
Carbohydrates
Americans get enough carbohydrate:
45 to 65 percent of total kcalories
.
 And we eat too little:
◦
Vegetables and fruits
◦
Whole grains such as whole wheat
◦
Milk and milk products
◦
Beans, peas, and lentils
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Milk, fruit, and grains, are healthy carbohydrates, along with vegetables and beans.
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1.
RDA is 130 grams per day:
◦
This is a minimum so the brain gets enough glucose—we normally eat a lot more than 130 grams/day.
2.
Limit intake of added sugars:
◦
For most women—no more than 100 kcal/day
(about 6 teaspoons)
◦
For most men—no more than 140 kcal/day (about 9 teaspoons) (American Heart Association)
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Carbohydrate Recommendations
(cont’d)
3.
Adequate Intake for total fiber is:
◦
25 grams/day for women (21 g after 50)
◦
38 grams/day for men (30 g after 50)
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 Instead of:
◦ White bread…
◦ Rice Krispies…
◦ White pasta…
◦
Baked goods with white flour…
◦ Fruit juices…
◦ White rice…
◦ Meat/cheese sandwich…
 Choose:
◦
Whole-grain bread
◦
Whole-grain cereals
◦
Whole-wheat pasta
◦
Baked goods with whole-wheat flour
◦
Fresh/canned fruits
◦
Brown rice
◦
Sandwich with vegetables/peanut butter
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Follow MyPlate guidelines for eating enough:
 fruits


 vegetables legumes whole grains (make half of your grain choices whole grains)
 dairy
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Added Sugars and Their Health
Effects
 Dental cavities
 Obesity
 Diabetes
 Heart disease
 Hypoglycemia
 Hyperactivity in children
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 When you eat sugar or starch, the bacteria living on your teeth ferment, or digest, the sugar/starch for about 20 to 30 minutes.
 As the bacteria do this, they produce acid. This acid dissolves the enamel surface of teeth and cavities can develop.
 The sticky film of bacteria, protein, and polysaccharides that forms on teeth and gums is called plaque.
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(cont’d)
 Foods that contribute to cavities:
◦
Foods with sugar
◦
Starches—bread, pasta, crackers, pretzels
◦
Sticky sweets such as raisins and caramels
◦
Acids in carbonated beverages (regular and
 diet), juice, and many sports drinks, which erode tooth enamel
Foods that don’t cause cavities:
◦
Cheese
◦
Peanuts
◦
Sugar-free gum
◦
Meat and fish
◦
Some vegetables
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 Brush soon after eating sticky carbohydrate foods such as raisins.
 Eat foods with sugar or starch with meals rather than between meals.


Eat cheese as a snack or meals because it helps neutralizes the acids the bacteria produce and clears the mouth.
It’s worse to take frequent, small sips of a sweet drink than several large drinks.
 Brush twice a day and floss once a day.
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 As individuals eat more added sugars, they have a higher risk of becoming obese.
 Children and adolescents who consume more sugar-sweetened beverages have higher body weights compared to those who drink less.
Kcalories from sugar-sweetened beverages are not as filling as solid foods.
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Added Sugars and Obesity
(cont’d)
 Being overweight or obese increases your risk for:
◦
High blood pressure
◦
High blood cholesterol
◦
Heart disease
◦
Stroke
◦
Type 2 diabetes
Taking in too many added sugars also makes it hard to get in all the required vitamins and minerals you need
—this is especially important for children.
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 People with diabetes have either inadequate insulin or insulin that doesn’t work as it normally would to move glucose from the bloodstream into the body’s cells.
 Higher consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with a higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes.
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Added Sugars and Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia: Abnormally low blood glucose level
 Symptoms: Shakiness, weakness, dizziness
 Seen in people with diabetes but not often in healthy people
 Treatment: Regular, well-balanced meals with moderate amounts of refined sugars and sweets
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Added Sugars and Hyperactivity in Children
 High sugar intake does not cause hyperactivity or ADHA.
 In some children, a hypersensitive reaction to certain foods may trigger ADHD.
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Choosing Whole Grains and Their
Health Effects


Tips to Choose a Whole Grain: A whole grain should be the first ingredient listed on the label.
Look for:
◦
Whole wheat
◦
Whole oats
◦
Whole-grain corn
◦
Brown rice
◦
Whole-grain barley
If you see “wheat flour” or “enriched flour,” it means “white flour.”
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How to choose whole-grain foods
One serving of whole grains = 16 grams of whole grains
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How to choose whole-grain foods
(cont’d)
 Look for this claim:
◦ “Diets rich in whole-grain foods and other plant foods and low in saturated fat and cholesterol may help reduce the risk of heart disease.”
 The product should contain at least 2 grams of fiber/serving.
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 A diet high in whole grains is associated with less weight gain.
 A diet high in whole grains reduces your risk of:
◦
Heart disease
◦
High blood pressure and stroke
◦
Type 2 diabetes
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Why are whole grains healthy?
 They contain:
◦
Vitamins
◦
Minerals
◦
Antioxidants such as vitamin E that keep body cells healthy
◦
Phytochemicals—substances in plants that promote health
◦
Fiber
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 A diet high in fiber reduces your risk of:
◦
Heart disease
◦
Type 2 diabetes
◦
Stroke
◦
High blood pressure
◦
Obesity
◦
Some gastrointestinal disorders
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 Improves blood cholesterol levels
 May reduce blood pressure modestly
 Decreases risk of developing diabetes
 Helps keep blood sugar at normal levels
 Promotes regularity (prevents constipation)
 Is linked to lower body weights—increases satiety
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If you decide to increase your fiber intake:
 Add fiber gradually to let your gastrointestinal track time to adjust.
 Drink more fluids to soften the fiber.
 If too much fiber is added too fast, you will have gas and diarrhea.
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 Lactase (enzyme) is deficient so lactose (milk sugar) is not split into its components in the small intestines.
 Instead it travels to the colon (large intestine), where it attracts water and causes bloating and diarrhea.
 In addition, intestinal bacteria ferment lactose and produce gas.
 Symptoms usually occur within 30 minutes to 2 hours and clear up within 2 to 5 hours.
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Who is more likely to suffer from lactose intolerance?
 Asians
 Native Americans
 African Americans
 Latinos
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Treatment for Lactose Intolerance
 Use lactose-free milk and milk products. Or use lactase as a liquid or tablet.
 Consume small portions of dairy with a meal containing fat and protein.
 Choose dairy products naturally lower in lactose, such as yogurt and hard cheeses such as Cheddar.
 Soymilk and rice milk are fine.
Don’t forget that milk is the leading source of calcium & vit. D in the diet.
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Culinary Focus: Grains and Legumes
 The best way to get maximum flavor and texture of grains is to cook each grain separately and add seasonings such as bay leaf, large diced onion, and fresh thyme stem.
 Toasted barley or quinoa, combined with other grains or small pastas (such as orzo or ditalini), then mixed with ingredients such as roasted vegetables, fresh herbs, and dried fruits with a balanced dressing create attractive and flavorful dishes.
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

Breakfast
◦
Whole-grain cereals with yogurt, fresh fruits, spices, etc.
◦
Wheat berry or whole-grain pancakes with fresh kiwi salsa

Lunch
◦
Whole-wheat burrito
◦
Wrap stuffed with grains, proteins, and veggies
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Dinner
◦
Flavorful stuffings
◦
Bed for seared sea scallops, tomato confit, and broccolini
◦
Side dishes
◦
Desserts such as oatmeal white raisin cookies or carrot cake with whole-wheat flour



When choosing legumes for a dish, make sure the flavor profile and appearance of the legume will complement the finished dish.
Also consider how you will flavor it.

Chef’s Tips:
◦
Bigger beans hold their shape and lend a hearty flavor to stews, ragouts, and salads.
◦
Cook soaked beans in flavored vegetable stock.
◦
Use split lentils in soup where you want some thickening and shape is not important.
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 Breakfast:
◦
Burritos stuffed with heirloom bean stew
 Lunch
◦
White bean artichoke and grilled veggie
◦ and eggs
◦
Huevos Rancheros
◦
Miso soup—Japanese soup made with soybean paste
Bean cakes with poached eggs served with fresh salsa or relish
◦
◦ wrap
Vegetable and bean chili w/toasted whole wheat tortillas
Black bean burgers w/ grilled tomatoes
◦
Falafel with cucumber yogurt sauce, grilled eggplant and roasted peppers
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(cont’d)
 Dinner
◦
Lentil salad
◦
White bean and veggie
Napoleon, w/wilted spinach and spicy tomato sauce
◦
Stuffed portabellos w/four bean, broccoli rabe, and sautéed lemon asparagus
◦
Baked cranberry and anasazi beans with sage-crusted pork loin
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Hot Topic: Alternative Sweeteners
 Nonnutritive or artificial sweeteners (provide virtually no kcal)
◦ Saccharin (Sweet N’Low, Sweet Twin)
◦
Aspartame (NutraSweet, Equal)
◦
Acesulfame potassium (Sunett, Sweet One)
◦
Sucralose (Splenda)
◦
Neotame
◦
Stevia
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 A group of carbohydrates that are sweet and occur naturally in plants.
 Examples: Sorbitol and xylitol found in sugarfree gums and candy
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.



Don’t provide as many kcalories as sugar—only about 2 kcal/gram.
Don’t promote tooth decay.
 Taste sweet—though not as sweet as sugar.
 Add bulk and texture to foods.
 Cause smaller increases in blood sugar and insulin than sugar.
Large amounts of sugar replacers can have a laxative effect.
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 Chewing gums
 Chocolate
 Candies
 Frozen desserts such as ice cream
 Baked goods
 Salad dressings
 Beverages
 Other foods designed to be lower in kcalories, carbohydrates, and/or fat
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