Bushmeat Consumption and Preferences
of Two Ethnic Groups in Bioko Island, West Africa
John E. Fa,1, 5 Javier Juste,2, 3 Robert W. Burn,4 and Genevieve Broad1
We studied consumption and preference of meats of wild species (bushmeat)
by inhabitants of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. The aim of the study was
to quantify frequency of consumption and stated preferences of the two main
ethnic groups (Bubi and Fang) in the island. Although members of both ethnic groups lived on the island, the Fang originated from the continent and
maintained strong links with this area. Thus, preference and consumption of
the Fang reflected exposure to animals found in the continent as well as on
Bioko. A sample of 196 subjects (115 Bubi and 81 Fang) was interviewed
using semistructured questionnaires. A total of 55 different bushmeat species
was identified as preferred or consumed by interviewees. Principal component
analyses of stated consumption and preference indicated differences between
ethnic groups in their general responses. Further analyses of the effects of
preference and other factors on consumption of the three main species mentioned (blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), Emin’s rat (Cricetomys emini),
and brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) were undertaken. Proportional odds logistic regression models for ordered categorical response data
were employed. Results indicated that age and sex of the respondent did not
affect consumption, but ethnic group was statistically significant for the threestudy species. Consumption and preference of the different meats ( N = 11
species) in relation to their availability in the market and price was studied
1 Durrell
Wildlife Conservation Trust, Les Augrès Manor, Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BP, Channel
Islands, United Kingdom.
2 Estación Biológica de Doñana, C.S.I.C., Pabellon del Péru, Apartado Postal 1056, 41080
Sevilla, Spain.
3 Dpto. Bioquı́mica y Biol. Mol. IV. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain.
4 Statistical Services Centre, The University of Reading, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6
6FN, United Kingdom.
5 To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: jfa@durrell.org.
using multiple linear regressions. Consumption is driven predominantly by
availability but there is some influence of preference; price of the meat did not
have a significant influence.
KEY WORDS: bushmeat; Bioko; Africa; diet; preferences; conservation.
INTRODUCTION
In Central and West Africa, nontimber forest products (NTFP) are
vital resources for food production, health care systems, shelter, clothing,
home crafts, and other needs (Sunderland et al., 1999). In particular, wild
animal meat or “bushmeat” is a widely commercialized and economically
significant NTFP. Bushmeat is available in town and city markets in many
countries in the region. The market place is a specific site where buyers and
sellers meet, and within which prices are determined by forces of supply
and demand (Bohannon and Dalton, 1968). For producers, species sold will
depend on their ease of transport, their value-to-weight ratio, and ultimately
their availability. In contrast, consumers’ buying potential and taste preferences for different meats may influence, and even in some cases, drive the
demand for species to markets.
There have been few studies on linkages between bushmeat consumption and preference. Most have focused on calculating volumes of meat consumed (Fa and Peres, 2001; Juste et al., 1995; Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999) or
on analyzing declared preferences for the available meats. The latter have
either employed questionnaires (Langmia Njiforti, 1996; Martin, 1985) or
have tested sensory traits of wild and domestic meats through elaborate
hedonic ratings (Ladele et al., 1996). Although preference and consumption of different bushmeat species (e.g., Langmia Njiforti, 1996) have been
reported simultaneously, no attempt has been made to establish linkages
between these two variables. An examination of factors affecting consumption, namely consumer characteristics (ethnic group, age, sex, socioeconomic
background) and preference for each meat type can be useful in understanding what drives the bushmeat trade.
Bushmeat is widely available in Bioko Island. Bioko (2017 km2 ), in the
Gulf of Guinea and 32 km from the Cameroon coast, is part of the insular
sector of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Equatorial Guinea is an independent republic in west Africa, consisting of a mainland section (Rio Muni),
coastal islets and the islands of Bioko, and Annobó n (former Pagalu). Previous studies have shown that the volume of bushmeat extracted in Bioko, over
100,000 kg per annum, is disproportionately greater than figures obtained
for other areas of west and central Africa (Fa, 2000). Most meat comes to the
island’s main city and the country’s capital, Malabo, and is sold here. Fa et al.
(1995, 2000) and Fa (2000) indicate that the level of bushmeat extraction in
Bioko will lead to the extinction of duikers and primates if current trends
continue. Who consumes and how much is consumed are influenced by the
complex politico-ethnic situation of Bioko. Two main ethnic groups (Fang
and Bubi) inhabit Bioko. The indigenous group, the Bubi, makes up the majority of the population and is found throughout the rural areas, as well as
in Malabo (Martin del Molino, 1989). The Fang originate in Rio Muni in the
mainland, and are politically the most influential. They reside principally in
Malabo and in coastal cacao plantations. The number of Fang on the island is
still increasing. The two groups are of Bantu origin and consider themselves
ethnically distinct. This ethnic division can be interpreted using linguistic
and ethnographic evidence (Vansina, 1990).
In this paper, we present consumption and preference patterns of wild
meats of a sample of Bubi and Fang residents in Bioko Island derived from
interviews. We also examined whether consumption and preferences of bushmeat species obtainable on the island were related to their availability and
prices in the market, based on information gathered during the same time
period. We also ascertained whether ethnic background affected species
consumed and preferred.
STUDY AREA
Bioko’s landscape is characterized by deep valleys and dominated by
two main volcanic massifs, the Caldera de Luba (2261 m) in the southwest
and Pico Basilé (3011 m) in the north. Vegetation is structured along altitudinal belts that include formations dominated by Guineo-Congolian rainforest species with Afromontane elements appearing at higher altitudes
(FED/DHV, 1989; Juste, 1992; Juste and del Val, 1995). Climate is typically
tropical equatorial with a clear rainy season (March–July). The southern
part of the island may receive over 10,000 mm of rain annually whereas the
north averages just 2000 mm (Juste and Fa, 1994; Nosti, 1947). Temperatures
near sea level vary from 17 to 34◦ C.
The human population on the island is around 62,000 (1990 census),
50,000 of whom reside in Malabo and in the four largest towns. Most people live in the northern half of the island. There are few villages in the
midlands or highlands, and about one-half of Bioko has no permanent settlements. Population density is about 93 inhabitants per square kilometer
in the north, but between 8–10 inhabitants per square kilometer along the
southwest and southeast. Socioeconomic conditions are among the lowest
of any West African country; life expectancy is 50 (Juste and Cantero, 1991)
and per capita GNP earnings around US$800 per year (1995 estimates; FAO,
2001).
SURVEY DESIGN
We interviewed 115 Bubi (45 women and 70 men) and 81 Fang
(19 women and 62 men) between October 1990 and October 1991. About
half of Bubi respondents (n = 59) were rural inhabitants in Belebú Belacha,
Eoco, Moca, and Ureca, while the remaining respondents lived in urban population centers (Malabo, Luba, Riaba) (Fig. 1). Fang interviewees originated
Fig. 1. Map of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea showing island and continental localities
mentioned in the text.
from Bata, Niefang, Micomeseng, Evinayong, and Nsorc in Rio Muni (Fig. 1),
but had been resident in Bioko for more than 10 years. Typically for this group
in Bioko, Fang respondents lived in urban surroundings within Malabo,
Basapú , Baney, and Bantabaré. Adult persons were chosen for interview
according to their availability (Kinnear and Taylor, 1995). No prior notification of the interview process was given to the subjects. However, the purpose
of the study was explained and approval sought from village chiefs or from
the head of the family in the case of urban dwellers. No monetary gratuity
was offered to any respondent.
We asked interviewees to name which bushmeat species were most consumed as first, second, and third place and which were preferred (first, second, and third choice) out of all taxonomic groups (mammals, birds, reptiles)
encountered by them. We sought the actual preferences and consumption
patterns of each individual person interviewed rather than their opinion of
what they thought the general public patterns were. Respondents were also
asked to rank consumed and preferred species of primates, ungulates, birds,
and reptiles separately. Basic information on the interviewee (name, age,
marital status, profession, tribe, district, and town in which the interview
was conducted) was also collected.
Respondents consisted mainly of young to middle-aged persons; around
60% were below 50 years. Average age class of interviewees was not significantly different (χ 2 = 20.3, P < 0.001) between sexes (men: mean ± SD =
36.5 ± 12.3, median-35.5 years; women: mean ± SD = 38.9 ± 10.7 years,
median-35.5 years). Around 30 different suprafamilial entities within the
Bubi ( N = 114) and Fang ( N = 81) were represented in the study sample.
Most Bubi were Molosove (22.7%), whereas the predominant Fang groups
were Esaguong (16.3%) or Nzomo (16.3%). Interviewees’ occupations included professional as well as manual work, with 40% of these being farm
workers. Most interviewed persons were married (65%), 33% were never
married, and the remaining 2% were widowed.
Preference and consumption patterns of the different meats were explored separately, looking in particular for differences between the two ethnic groups (Bubi and Fang). A preference score was calculated for each
species: 0 if not mentioned, 1 if third choice, 2 for second choice, and
3 for first choice. Consumption scores were calculated in the same way.
Cross-tabulations between first choice preferred species and most consumed
species were then derived to achieve a simple view of the broad picture.
Second and third ranked species were ignored.
We also undertook an in-depth analysis of effects of preference and
other factors on consumption of the main species recorded. The analysis was
restricted to the most mentioned species: the African brush-tailed porcupine
(Atherurus africanus), Emin’s rat (Cricetomys emini) and the blue duiker
(Cephalophus monticola). For each, the response variable was the consumption rank, an ordered categorical response. Proportional odds logistic regression models (POLR) for ordered categorical response data were used
(Agresti, 1984). The purpose of this analysis was to identify which variables
were significantly associated with the consumption of each species. Variables
attempted were ethnic group, age and sex of the respondent, and their preference scores for all species mentioned. Preference scores were treated as
simple numerical scores when used as explanatory variables in this analysis
(i.e., not as ordered categories). Statistical significance of explanatory variables in POLR models in assessed by a likelihood ratio test (LRT), which
has approximately a chi-square distribution on one degree of freedom for
each variable. Further analysis of consumption and preference with respect
to availability of the species in markets (data taken for the Malabo market
by Juste et al., 1995) and price (from Fa, 2000) was possible for 11 species. We
used a multiple linear regression of mean consumption scores on availability,
price, and preference scores.
RESULTS
General Patterns of Consumption and Preference
Respondents named a total of 55 animal species (37 mammals, 14 birds,
and 4 reptiles). Only one species recalled by the respondents was only found
in Bioko, 29 species were exclusive to the continental region, and 24 were
found in both regions. All species mentioned by the Bubi were indigenous to
the island but only 7 out of the 44 species mentioned by the Fang (birds = 9,
mammals = 32, reptiles = 3) were found in Bioko as well as in the continental region (Fig. 2). The Bubi named a total of 13 species (8 mammals, 4 birds,
and 1 reptile), but the Fang mentioned significantly more (21 species—20
mammals and 1 bird). The distribution of weighted values (see earlier)
for consumption and preference of each bushmeat species indicate a geometric sequence where only a few species (1–3) are the most prominent
(Fig. 2).
For both ethnic groups, the three most consumed species were the
Cephalophus monticola, Cricetomys emini, and Atherurus africanus. However, A. africanus, followed by the three-toed pangolin (Phataginus
tricuspis), and C. monticola are the most preferred by the Bubi. For the
Fang, the giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea), A. africanus, and P. tricuspis
were the most preferred.
Fig. 2. Scores (expressed as a percentage) for all species mentioned by Fang and Bubi as (a)
preferred and (b) consumed. Species abbreviations are shown in Appendix.
By taxonomic group, the bird most consumed by the Bubi was the blue
plantain-eater (Corythaela cristata), the russet-eared guenon (Cercopithecus
erythrotis) among the primates, C. monticola among the ungulates, and
the forest tortoise (Kinixys erosa) among the reptiles mentioned (Fig. 3).
Preferred species by the Bubi were C. cristata, C. erythrotis and the
drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), C. monticola and K. erosa. In contrast, the
Fang consumed most the back-casqued hornbill (Ceratogymna atrata),
moustached guenon (Cercopithecus cephus) and greater spot-nosed monkey
(Cercopithecus nictitans), C. monticola and the dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis), and monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus). Cercopithecus cephus,
S. gigantea, and O. tetraspis, mentioned by the Fang, are species not found
on the island.
404
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Fig. 3. Consumption and preference scores for (a) birds, (b) primates, (c) ungulates, and (d) reptiles for Fang and Bubi in Bioko Island.
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
405
Descriptive Analysis of Preference and Consumption Patterns
Species with very low scores were not included in the analysis. PCA
results of preference scores (43% of the variance accounted for by the first
two components) showed that there was a degree of separation between
Bubi and Fang, as displayed in the biplot (Krzanowski, 1988) in Fig. 4(a).
The corresponding analysis for consumption (Fig. 4(b)) indicated a similar
Fig. 4. Biplots of principal component scores for (a) consumption and (b) preference of bushmeat species. The Bubi are denoted by the letter b and Fang by the letter f . The length of
an arrow is a measure of the amount of variation explained by the corresponding variable;
the cosine of the angle between two arrows is the correlation between them; the association
between an individual data point (b or f ) and a variable is measured by the perpendicular
projection of the point on the arrow representing the variable.
406
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Fig. 4. (Continued )
partition by ethnic group. In this case, the first two components accounted
for 57% of the total variance.
Cross-tabulations of species most preferred by species most consumed
for each ethnic group show that there is a clustering of responses around the
C. emini-A. africanus pair (23%) for the Bubi, and around the S. gigantea-C.
monticola pair (11%) for the Fang. Four species nominated as preferred did
not appear at all among species consumed in the Bubi dataset, but 11 species
were not consumed but stated as highly preferred among the Fang (Table I).
For the Fang, two species, C. emini and C. nictitans, did not appear among the
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
407
Table I. Cross-Tabulation of Preferred Species by Species Consumed Most
Species consumed most
Preferred
Bubi
Aaf
PPtr
Cmo
Cem
Mle
NP
Sq.
Cer
Cog
Ppe
Vni
Ddo
Str
Ccri
Total
Fang
Sgi
Aaf
PPtr
Ppo
Msp
Tsw
Cmo
NP
Cce
Cdo
Cpo
Ggo
Haq
Laf
Lma
Pse
Tsp
Vci
Vni
Total
Cem
26
10
5
3
Cmo
Sq.
8
4
1
Cer
Cog
Ddo
Mle
Ppe
Total
1
1
56
1
1
33
15
3
3
2
1
1
1
46
17
14
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
115
Cmo
Cem
Aaf
Cdo
Cce
Tsw
Cni
Msp
PPtr
Total
4
2
3
1
1
2
3
1
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
1
9
9
4
6
9
3
9
1
2
1
2
Aaf
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
5
4
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
36
18
1
1
13
5
4
2
1
1
1
23
16
13
8
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
81
Note. NP means no preferences expressed. Species abbreviations are given in Appendix.
most consumed but were not mentioned in the most preferred categories.
In most cases, these species were the preferred choice for small numbers of
respondents; an exception is S. gigantea, which was the first choice for 23 of
the 196 respondents.
408
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Table II. Patterns of Consumption and Preference for the Four Main Species Mentioned by
Bubi (n = 114) and Fang (n = 82) Interviewees in Bioko
Bubi
None 3rd
Consumption of Atherurus africanus
Consumption of Cricetomys emini
Consumption of Cephalophus monticola
Preference for Cephalophus monticola
Preference for Varanus niloticus
31.3
26.1
18.3
66.1
88.7
24.3
13.0
27.0
11.3
1.7
Fang
2nd
1st
None 3rd
31.3
12.2
26.1
10.4
7.0
13.0
48.7
28.7
12.2
2.6
24.3
35.7
17.4
65.2
69.6
2nd
1st
13.9 20.9 11.3
13.9 5.2 15.7
5.2 16.5 31.3
2.6 0.9 1.7
0.0 0.0 0.9
Note. Figures represent the percentage number of respondents who mentioned the species as
3rd, 2nd and 1st order of consumption or preference. None refers to no respondents mentioning
the species.
Regression Models for Consumption of the Main Species
Atherurus africanus
The significant terms were preference for P. tricuspis (LRT = 9.644,
P = 0.0019) and preference for A. africanus (LRT = 7.1015, P = 0.0077).
The interaction between ethnic group and A. africanus preference was also
significant (LRT = 8.1610, P = 0.0043). The fact that the ethnic group main
effect is not significant means that the overall consumption profile (ignoring
preference scores) is about the same for both ethnic groups (Table II). The
interaction plot in Fig. 5, which shows the mean preference score for each
ethnic group, explains the significant interaction between ethnic group and
A. africanus preference. The effect of preference for A. africanus among
the Fang is effectively zero; the significant association of preference for A.
africanus with its consumption is almost entirely due to the Bubi. A general preference for P. tricuspis (among both ethnic groups) seems to be
quite strongly associated with consumption of A. africanus ( P = 0.0019).
Although both ethnic groups consume A. africanus, a preference for it is
noted among the Bubi only and this preference is significantly associated
with consumption ( P = 0.0077). Age and sex of respondent were not significantly related to consumption.
Cricetomys emini
The clearly significant terms were ethnic group (LRT = 10.9473, P =
0.0009), preference for C. emini (LRT = 3.9694, P = 0.0463) and preference
for P. tricuspis (LRT = 4.4769, P = 0.0344). In this case, the overall consumption profiles (ignoring preference scores) are very different between
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
409
Fig. 5. Interaction plot between mean preference score
and mean consumption score for each ethnic group for
A. africanus.
ethnic groups (Table II), which explains the highly significant main effect
for ethnic group. Bubi tend to consume C. emini significantly more than the
Fang.
The association between consumption and preference for C. emini is
just significant (LRT = 3.9694, P = 0.0463), with no significant interaction
with ethnic group. Preference for P. tricuspis is somewhat more strongly
associated with consumption of C. emini (LRT = 4.4769, P = 0.0344). Preference for V. niloticus was also found to be associated (LRT = 5.7703, P =
0.0163). However, the numbers expressing preference for V. niloticus are
small (Table II), and this result is probably unreliable. What preference was
expressed was almost entirely among the Bubi. The age and sex of respondent were not significant.
Cephalophus monticola
The only significant effects found were ethnic group (LRT = 7.5294,
P = 0.0061) and preference for C. monticola itself (LRT = 17.6554, P <
0.0001). Although both ethnic groups consume C. monticola, the patterns
are clearly different (Table III). Among the Bubi, 82% say they consume
C. monticola at some time or other, while the corresponding figure is 75%
410
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Table III. Consumption, Preference, Availability and Price of the Main Species Mentioned in
by Bubi and Fang Respondents in Bioko Island
Species
Hyrax
Dendrohyrax
dorsalis
Pangolin
Phataginus
tricuspis
Primates
Cercopithecus
erythrotis
Cercopithecus
nictitans
Cercopithecus
pogonias
Mandrillus
leucophaeus
Piliocolobus
pennanti
Rodents
Atherurus
africanus
Cricetomys
emini
Ungulates
Cephalophus
monticola
Cephalophus
ogilbyi
a Data
b Data
Mean
Mean
Availability
Price Price per
Body
consumption preference
(mean
per kg carcass
mass (kg)
score
score
carcasses/mth.)a (US$)b (US$)b
3
0.0357
0.0663
1
0.7
2.10
2.3
0.0561
0.8316
1
4.64
10.67
3.44
0.1888
0.1735
78
0.58
2.00
5.3
0.0765
0.0204
28
0.32
1.70
2.2
0.0051
0.0561
6
1.86
4.09
0.0408
0.2602
54
0.49
7.35
7.75
0.0204
0.0816
38
0.5
3.88
2.88
1.2653
1.5408
164
0.69
1.99
1.95
1.4949
0.2245
237
0.42
0.82
3.9
1.7449
0.4592
321
0.43
1.68
0.1684
0.1735
70
0.32
5.44
15
17
from Juste et al. (1995) and Fa (unpublished data).
from Fa (2000).
for the Fang. A greater proportion of Fang, however, eat it “most often”
(44%), compared with 29% of the Bubi. Neither ethnic group expressed
any great preference for C. monticola, the Fang showing greater dislike.
The highly significant LRT for preference for C. monticola simply reflects
the increase in consumption with increasing preference score, even though
these preference scores are quite low. The fact that there was no significant
interaction with ethnic group means that the rate of increase is about the
same for each group.
Both ethnic groups eat C. monticola, but the preference scores are low,
especially among the Fang (Table II). Unsurprisingly, consumption increases
as preference score increases ( P < 0.0001). Age and sex of respondent were
not found to be significant.
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
411
Analysis of Consumption and Preference With Respect
to Availability and Price
Complete data were available only for 11 species. Results of a multiple linear regression of mean consumption scores on availability, price,
and preference scores showed that the regression of consumption score on
availability accounted for most of the variation ( R2 = 0.93, P < 0.0001).
Preference score, adjusting for availability, is also significant, but much less
so ( P = 0.039). There was no significant price effect for either price per
kilogram or price per carcass. However, although there was no significant
relationship between price per carcass and consumption score ( R2 = 0.25;
df = 10, ns), the three most consumed species (A. africanus. C. emini, and
C. monticola) were also the cheapest.
DISCUSSION
From the viewpoint of changing peoples’ attitudes to a variety of foods,
such surveys can quantify what emphasis is placed on different species,
and determine, at least from the consumers’ point of view, how difficult
it would be to modify their preferences. Quantitative food consumption surveys are important in determining differences between consumer behavior,
range of dishes or products people prefer and those considered prestigious
(de Garine, 1993). These differences are indicative of the cultural adaptation
of a given population to its food system and the feeling of well-being derived
from it, which in turn may have an important influence on the biological
status of the food species consumed. Food consumption surveys, where the
nutritional value of food consumed is determined directly by weighing foods
eaten, may offer a more accurate picture of the diet consumed by people in
an area. This method, however, is costly and if used, has to be applied to a
sufficiently large sample and be repeated to take account of seasonal variations and individual household differences. Alternatively, questionnaires,
although more general, can be applied to a large number of consumers.
Questionnaires can help ascertain which foods consumers say they eat and
contrast these answers with foods they would rather eat. By comparing food
preferences with food consumption it is possible to estimate “prestige” value
of each of these foods.
We analyzed the importance of bushmeat species within Bioko Island.
In particular, we studied contrasts in consumption and preference for the
two main ethnic groups on the island. Both groups live in juxtaposition but
have different backgrounds and therefore expectations of their environment.
412
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Although colonization may have resulted in a certain amount of homogenization of some aspects of both societies, there are still clear interethnic
differences. The relationship between Fang and Bubi, sometimes volatile
and antagonistic, is expressed not only by different social values but also
by the highly asymmetrical relations regarding access to political power and
economic wealth. The pluralistic colonial society under Spanish administration was followed by domination of the Fang, especially a single clan subset
(the Esangui). Each ethnic group occupies a distinctive social, political, and
economic niche on Bioko, which has had implications for the consumption
of bushmeat and by extension for the preference of meats. There is no doubt
that bushmeat production, sale, and purchasing potential are affected by ethnic identity. The Fang come from the complex and highly diverse rainforest
in mainland Africa and this is reflected in the diversity of animals consumed
(Juste et al., 1995). In contrast, the Bubi are traditionally devoted to agriculture and dedicate less time to trapping and hunting (Fernandez Moreno,
1999). On the other hand, the Fang are skilled hunters who inhabited forests
of much richer variety of quarry than Bioko. This, together with easier access to guns and cartridges, may explain the fact that selling and producing
bushmeat in Bioko are predominantly carried out by the Fang (Colell et al.,
1994; Fa, 2000).
Our study has demonstrated clear differences in what members of each
ethnic group consumed or preferred. The variety of meats eaten by the Fang
was significantly greater than that declared by the Bubi. Many of the species
mentioned by the Fang as consumed are not available in Bioko’s forests. The
prevalent and significant preference for mainland species (such as the giant
pangolin or some monkeys) by the Fang may indicate their traditional link
to eating these species. The Bubi never mentioned these meats. This is not
surprising given that the Bubi have been exposed to a significantly smaller
number of species than the continental Fang. The Fang are not only bringing
with them a memory of foods consumed in their home areas on the continent,
but also these patterns are continually reinforced because the Fang resident
on the island travel regularly to Rio Muni. Meat from the continent is also
regularly imported (mainly smoked) to the island.
Emin’s rat and the porcupine are very common not only in the forest
but also in cacao plantations and around cities and villages. Because these
species do not require special techniques or skills for their capture, they are
highly available all year around. These species are especially consumed and
appreciated by the Bubi and may have been always important part of their
diet. The third key species, the blue duiker, is appreciated and also commonly
eaten in the island. The lower preference score among Fang is again due to
the relatively larger choice of bushmeat of this tribe. The low preference
score among the Bubi of the other larger duiker of the island, the endemic
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
413
Ogilbyi’s duiker, is notable. This is probably due to its lower availability and
traditional restriction to high-class families. Also in contrast to the Fang, the
Bubi consume more of the cheaper meats than the Fang, namely C. emini
and A. africanus. This may be either cultural or a reflection of the Bubi’s
socioeconomic status on the island, which does not enable them to purchase
the more expensive meats (e.g., primates). Interestingly, gender and age did
not influence consumption and preference of the different meats in either
ethnic group. The Fang in particular keep their rich and varied traditional
meat prohibitions alive, associated with age and/or gender, so that it is not
reflected in our results. This it is probably due to the fact that the Fang are
relative newcomers to Bioko and their diet on the island is simplified with
respect to the diversity of species available in their original habitat, with
which these traditional prohibitions are associated. This would also explain
the lack of correspondence between preferred and consumed meats. Only
a small proportion of the population can afford the average meat prices
in the markets of Equatorial Guinea, one of the poorest countries in subSaharan Africa. Therefore, most of the population has to rely for their daily
consumption on the cheapest meats (Emin’s rat and porcupine), which are
also the most available year around (Juste et al., 1995). This is probably the
cause of the small proportion of consumption explained by the “price factor,”
whereas “availability” accounts for most of the variation in the multiple
regression (with a less significant contribution of the “preference factor”).
No attempt was made in this study to establish a link between socioeconomic background and use and preferences for the different meats. Studies
from other parts of the world show clearly that people of different socioeconomic groups vary in what they purchase and consume (Marmot et al.,
1991; Patterson and Block, 1988; Turrell, 1998). The long-term outcomes
of this dietary profile may not just reflect different weight attainment and
mortality rates for diet-related disease, but in the context of conservation of
the prey species, varying impacts on their viability. Studies to date in bushmeat countries have not attempted to investigate the connection between
socioeconomic status and impact on animals consumed.
The assumption is made here that when asked to answer questions
about food likes or dislikes, people provide responses which tap their sensory
evaluation of the food, such as flavor, texture, and appearance (Axelson and
Brinberg, 1989). This evaluation may be based on direct experience with
the food (i.e., having tasted it at some previous point), or it may be based
exclusively on one’s perception (i.e., reporting a preference for a food that
has never actually been tasted). In the latter, a complex interaction of social,
psychological, and cultural factors may be involved. These include attitudes
and beliefs about certain foods, the meaning and symbolism of food, dietary
norms and past food associations (Turrell, 1998).
414
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
APPENDIX
List of Species Mentioned by Respondents in Bioko Island
Locality
Group
Reptiles
Birds
Abbreviation
Bga
Ker
Ote
PNa
Pse
Vni
Aci
Bha
Bsu
Gaboon Viper
Forest Tortoise
Dwarf Crocodile
Cobras
Python
Monitor Lizard
Grey Heron
Ibis
Casqued Hornbill
Cat
Black Casqued
Hornbill
Great Blue Turaco
Francoline
Palm-nut Vulture
Guinea fowl
Grey Parrot
Tree Duck
Crowned Eagle
Ccr
Fr
Gan
Ngu
Per
Pha
Sco
Carnivores
Hyrax
Pangolins
Primates
English name
Str.
Tur.
CHe
Gsp
Lma
Vci
Ddo
PPtr
Sgi
Cal
Cce
Cer
Cmn
Cne
Cni
Cpo
Cpr
Csa
Cto
Ggo
Mle
Msp
Mta
Ppe
Turtle Doves
Turacos
Mongooses
Genets
Otter
African Civet
Tree Hyrax
Tree Pangolin
Giant Pangolin
Mangabey
Moustached
Monkey
Russet-eared
Guenon
Mona Monkey
DeBrazza’s Monkey
Spot-nosed Monkey
Crowned Guenon
Preussi’s Guenon
Black Colobus
Collared Mangabey
Lowland Gorilla
Drill
Mandrill
Talapoin
Pennant’s Red
Colobus
Scientific name
Bitis gabonica Kinixys
erosa Osteolaemus
tetrapis Pseudohaje sp.
Naja sp. Python sebae
Varanus niloticus
Ardea cinerea
Botrhychia hagedash
Bycanistes
subcylindricus
Ceratogymna atrata
Corythaeola cristata
Francolinus spp.
Gypohierax angolensis
Numidu maleagris
Psittacus erithacus
Pteroneta haurtlaubi
Stephanaoetus
coronatus
Bioko Rio Muni
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Streptopelia sp
Turaco sp.
Herspestinae
Genetta spp.
Lutra maculicollis
Viverra civetta
Dendrohyrax dorsalis
Phataginus tricuspis
Smutsia gigantea
Cercocebus albigena
Cercopithecus cephus
X
X
Cercopithecus erythrotis
X
Cercopithecus mona
Cercopithecus neglectus
Cercopithecus nictitans
Cercopithecus pogonias
Cercopithecus preussi
Colobus satanas
Cerocebus torquatus
Gorilla gorilla
Mandrillus leucophaeus
Mandrillus sphinx
Miopithecus onguensis
Piliocolobus pennanti
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island
415
Appendix (Continued )
Locality
Group
Rodents
Abbreviation
Ppt
Ptr
Aaf
Cem
Sq.
Tsw
Ungulates
Elephant
Cca
Cdo
Cmo
Cng
Cog
Haq
Nba
Ppo
Sca
Tsp
Laf
English name
Potto
Chimpanzee
Brush-tailed
porcupine
Emin’s Rat
Squirrels
Grasscutter
Scientific name
Perodictus potto
Pan troglodytes
Atherurus africanus
Cricetomys emini
Scuirids
Thryonomys
swinderianus
Peter’s Duiker
Cephalophus callypigus
Bay Duiker
Cephalophus dorsalis
Blue Duiker
Cephalophus monticola
Black-fronted Duike r Cephalophus nigrifrons
Ogilbyi’s Duiker
Cepahlophus ogilbyi
Water Chevrotain
Hymoschus aquaticus
Dwarf Antelope
Neotragus batesi
Bushpig
Potamochoerus porcus
Forest Buffalo
Syncerus caffer
Sitatunga
Tragelaphus spekei
Forest Elephant
Loxodonta africana
cyclotis
Bioko Rio Muni
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Jaime Perez del Val, Ramó n Castelo, and Anton Ayong for
help in collecting the interviews. We are most grateful to the Minister of
Culture of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, Excmo. Leandro, Mbio local
authorities of Bioko, and Javier Castroviejo for their help and support. This
study was funded by the O.C.G.E., at present the Instituto de Cooperació n
para el Desarrollo (I.C.D.) of the Spanish Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores.
REFERENCES
Agresti, A. (1984). Analysis of Ordinal Categorical Data, Wiley, New York.
Axelson, M., and Brinberg, W. J. (1989). Do men have stronger preferences for hot, unusual,
and unfamiliar foods? Journal of General Psychology 118: 201–213.
Bohannon, P., and Dalton, G. (1968). Introduction. In Bohannon, P., and Dalton, G.
(eds.), Markets in Africa, Northwestern University African Studies No. 9, Northwestern
University Press, Evanston, Illinois, pp. 1–26.
Colell, M., Maté, C., and Fa, J. E. (1994). Hunting by Moka Bubis in Bioko: Faunal exploitation
at the village level. Biodiversity and Conservation 3: 939–950.
de Garine, I. (1993). Food resources and preferences in the Cameroonian forest. In Hladik,
C. M., Hladik, A., Linares, O. F., Pagezy, H., Semple, A., and Hadley, M. (eds.), Tropical
Forests, People and Food, MAB, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 561–574.
Fa, J. E. (2000). Hunted animals in Bioko Island, West Africa: Sustainability and future. In
Robinson, J. G., and Bennett, E. (eds.), Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests,
Columbia University Press, Columbia, pp. 168–198.
416
Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad
Fa, J. E., Garcia Yuste, J. E., and Castelo, R. (2000). Bushmeat markets on Bioko Island as a
measure of hunting pressure. Conservation Biology 14: 1602–1613.
Fa, J. E., Juste, J., Perez del Val, J., and Castroviejo, J. (1995). Impact of market hunting on
mammal species in Equatorial Guinea. Conservation Biology 9: 1107–1115.
FAO (2001). http://www.fao.org/
Fa, J. E., and Peres, C. A. (2001). Game vertebrate extraction in African and Neotropical
Forests: An intercontinental comparison. In Reynolds, J., Mace, G., Robinson, J. G.,
and Redford, K. (eds.), Conservation of Exploited Species, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 203–241.
FED/DHV (1989). Proyecto de Rehabilitació n de Cacao: Isla de Bioko. Uso Actual y Potencial
de las Tierras, Repú blica de Guinea Ecuatorial, Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderı́a,
Pesca y Forestal, Malabo.
Fernandez Moreno, N. (1999). El Sistema de Parentesco y el Culto a los Ancestros en la É tnia
Bubi De La Isla De Bioko (Guinea Ecuatorial), PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional de
Enseñanaza a Distancia, Madrid.
Juste, J. (1992). Zonació n Ecologica y Evaluació n del Impacto Ambiental de Usos Actuales en la
Isla de Bioco, Ministerio de Agricultura y Forestal, Organización de las Naciones Unidas
para la Agricultura y la Alimentación, Malabo.
Juste, J., and Cantero, J. (1991). Informe Nacional Sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo: Guinea
Ecuatorial, Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas Sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo
(UNCED), Malabo.
Juste, J., and Fa, J. E. (1994). The biodiversity conservation of the Gulf of Guinea Islands: Taking
stock and planing actions. Biodiversity and Conservation 3: 759–771.
Juste, J., and del Val, J. P. (1995). Altitudinal variation in the subcanopy fruit bat guild in Bioko
Island. Journal of Tropical Ecology 11: 141–146.
Juste, J., Fa, J. E., del Val, J. P., and Castroviejo, J. (1995). Market dynamics of bushmeat species
in Equatorial Guinea. Journal of Applied Ecology 32: 454–467.
Kinnear, T. C., and Taylor, J. (1995). Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, 5th edn.,
McGraw-Hill Series in Marketing, New York.
Krzanowski, W. J. (1988). Principles of Multivariate Analysis, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Ladele, A. A., Joseph, K., Omotesho, O. A., and Ijaiya, T. O. (1996). Sensory quality ratings,
consumption pattern and preference for some selected meat types in Nigeria. International
Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 47: 141–145.
Langmia Njiforti, H. (1996). Preferences and present demand for bushmeat in north Cameroon:
Some implications for wildlife conservation. Environmental Conservation 23: 149–155.
Marmot, M. G., Davey Smith, G., Stanfeld, S., Patel, C., North, F., Head, J., White, J., Brunner, E.,
and Feeney, A. (1991). Health inequalities among British civil servants: The Whitehall study
Part II. The Lancet 337: 1387–1393.
Martin, G. H. G. (1985). Carcass composition and palatability of some wild animals commonly
used as food. World Animal Review 53: 40–53.
Martı́n del Molino, A. (1989). Los Bubis. Ritos y Creencias, Centro Cultural Hispano-Guineano,
Madrid-Malabo.
Nosti, J. (1947). Notas Geográ ficas, Fisicas y Econó micas Sobre los Territorios Españ oles del
Golfo de Guinea, Instituto de Estudios Africanos (CSIC), Madrid.
Patterson, B. H., and Block, G. (1988). Food choices and the cancer guidelines. American Journal
of Public Health 78: 282–286.
Sunderland, T. C. H., Clark, L. E., and Vantomme, P. (1999). Non-Wood Forest Products of
Central Africa: Current Research Issues and Prospects for Conservation and Development,
FAO, Rome.
Turrell, G. (1998). Socioeconomic differences in food preference and their influence on healthy
food purchasing choices. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 11: 135–149.
Vansina, L. (1990). Paths in the Rainforest, University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin.
Wilkie, D. S., and Carpenter, J. F. (1999). Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: An assessment
of impacts and options for mitigation. Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 927–955.