Chapter 4
FORMal Words
Chapter 4: Grammar Safari
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Find a word you don’t know and can’t
find in the dictionary.
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Identify its part of speech (form class)
Tell us how you knew (form or function)
Safari Example
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Example:
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“In The Peace War Vernor Vinge
introduced the technology of bobbles,
originally used to counter nuclear threat…
POS:
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Noun
How I knew
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Follows preposition = object of the preposition
A Rose is a Rose…?
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What’s the Part of Speech
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Bat
Slide
Plate
Home
Throw
Inning
(formal class)
of:
 Prototypically…
 Stretching it a bit…
What POS are
“slides” & “swings”
I. Anthony turns
slides and swings
II. Anthony turns,
slides, and swings
No Commas
A.
B.
C.
D.
Nouns
Nouns
Verbs
Verbs
Commas
Nouns
Verbs
Nouns
Verbs
Eats, Shoots, and Leaves…
Form & Function (Revisited)
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Parts of Speech = Form Classes
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_________
_________
_________
_________
Form = Shape = Morphology ≈ Prototypically
Function = Behavior = Role in Sentence
What POS are These Words?
The androokers plurked gribbly along
beside the broofled lumphet.
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Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
How do you know?
Nouns
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Traditional Definition
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Person, place, or thing
Linguistic Definition
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Tangible item or intangible concept
Know a Noun when you see it...
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Formal Clues
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Has noun-making (derivational) morpheme
Takes noun inflection morphemes
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_____ or ____
Functional Clues
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Appears after articles OR prepositions
(may have Adj. before)
Replaceable by a pronoun in a tag question
Fits in the Subject position (test frame sentence)
Noun Test Frame Sentence
(The) ________ seems all right.
NOTE: You may need to change “all right” to
“unacceptable”, “short”, or “slow” in some cases
Missing Nouns
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Fill in the missing nouns…
Identify the (2) nouns that were not deleted…
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Why do you suppose the cartoonist left these in?
Find a Noun…
… in your G & C paper
Slots filled by Nominals
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Subject
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Direct Object
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Most anytime the phone rings, it’s for Yuan
Subject complement
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I gave flowers to my wife on her birthday
Object of a preposition
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I saw my wife this morning
Indirect Object
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My wife is Chinese
My wife’s name is Yuan
Object Complement
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I consider Yuan my best friend
G&C Paper: Find Examples
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Subject
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Direct Object
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Indirect Object
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Object of a preposition
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Subject Complement
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Object Complement
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To Comma or Not to Comma…
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Never put a comma between the:
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subject and verb
direct object and object complement
indirect object and direct object
verb and subject complement
verb and direct object
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except in direct quotes like:
He said, “I’ll never forget you.”
The little comma
makes a big difference!
I’ve finally decided to
cheer up, everybody!

I’ve finally decided to
cheer up everybody!

Eats, Shoots & Leaves (junior edition), Truss & Timmons, 2006
I’ve finally decided to
cheer up everybody!
Without the comma “everybody” is:
A. Subject
B. Direct object
C. Indirect object
D. Object complement
What’s a comma do?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Shows where to take a breath
Separates one idea from another
Separates equal grammatical elements
All of the above
Any Questions….
…before we go on?
Which is the most
“prototypical” noun?
A. Potato
B. Refusing
C. Glamorous
D. Sheep
Degrees of Nounness
F
D
B
A
C
A. Nouns that name people, places & things
E
G
Examples?
________
B. Nouns derived from adjectives
________
C. Nouns derived from verbs
________
D. Adjectives that are also nouns
________
E. Verbs that are also nouns
________
F. Verbs in noun positions
________
G. Prepositions used as nouns
________
Find a Non-Prototypical Noun…
… in your G & C paper
Prepositions as a Nouns
Diagramming Nouns
Aunt Blabby
Nouns go on a flat line…
Subjects @ front; Objects @ end
Did You Get It?
Which are Functional Nouns?
“Rude Miami drivers have earned
the title of worst road rage.”
A.
B.
C.
D.
drivers, title, rage
Miami, title, road
Miami, road, rage
earned, worst
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How do you know?
How do these sound?
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We’re shopping for a new furniture
Our furnitures are getting shabby
My family’s healths are important to me
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What’s the problem?
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Noun Features
Common
Countable
Singular
(person)
Non-countable
(homework)
Plural
(people)
Words that:
• Don’t fit in A-D
Count
• Fit only A & B
vs. Non-count • Fit only B, C & D
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Test Frame Sentences
He likes ______________.
B. The ________ is good
C. He wants a(n) _________.
D. __________ (e)s are good.
A.
Try these words, then some of your own:
fun
cash
light desk home news chicken
noise ask
lamp amiss dessert
≠ Nouns
= Non-count
= Count
Did You Get It?
Which cannot be a “count” noun?
A. Pizza
B. Sheep
C. Institution
D. Happiness
More Noun Features (FYI)
Examples
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Count & Non-count
Common & Proper
Animate & Inanimate
Human & Nonhuman
Male & female
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Why?? *The king put the crown on herself
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________
________
________
________
________
Find the Error
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1. Find the Error
2. Explain it
3. Fix it
The baby’s mother is a king.
Nominal Varieties
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Appositives
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To watch is boring for me
Nominal Clauses
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Watching is boring for me
Infinitives
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My wife, Yuan, loves to watch TV
Gerunds
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(extra information: use commas)
Why people watch so much TV is a mystery to me
Delayed Subjects
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It is amazing what people will watch…
Appositive Error
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The third image was Ernst Haeckel's, a
German biologist, drawings of embryos.
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What’s the problem with the sentence
above?
How would you fix it?
Do We Have a Problem?
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The boy showed his interest in
American sports though he was
unable to bring his baseball glove to
the concentration camp, a sport that
had not yet reached Japan.
A. Yes
B. No
More to come…
The Problem is with:
The boy showed his interest in American
sports though he was unable to bring his
baseball glove to the concentration camp, a
sport that had not yet reached Japan.
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An appositive
An infinitive
A delayed subject
Subject–verb agreement
Locate the Ambiguity…
A. The state of Florida has found and
restored what it believes to be the
B. earliest film of Jim Morrison, shot in
the early 60s when he attended
C. Florida State University, 34 years after
his death. (AP Photo/Florida State
D. University via Florida State Archives)
To Be Sophisticated...
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To look at the definitions, the levels of
response, and the tone of an apology
will help evaluate when it is necessary
to use these phrases.
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What’s the subject of this sentence?
Try a tag question
Try the Noun Test Frame Sentence
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Does the subject agree with the verb?
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Why Do We Care?
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Subject Verb Agreement
Comma Placement
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Our writing reflects our intelligence
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(in the eyes of those who hold the $$)
What’s the Error?
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Punctuation in the form of exclamation
marks are also evident.
Strategy:
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Subjects must agree with their Verbs
Subjects are never inside prepositional phases
Subject–Verb Agreement
Find & Correct the Errors
Which sentence is best?
A. Often a convention held in big public
rooms feel very institutional.
B. Often, a convention held in big public
rooms, feel very institutional.
C. Often a convention, held in big public
rooms, feel very institutional.
D. Often a convention held in big public
rooms feels very institutional.
Find & Correct the Errors
“Subject – Verb Agreement”
OR “Punctuation Problem”
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This building and its décor shows that the
outside has been brought inside.
Decorative touches, such as the etched
front window, signals a trend in newly
constructed meeting facilities.
Previously, centers for public gathering,
was four walls and a roof.
Any Questions…
…before we move on?
Verbs
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Traditional Definition
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Action & ‘State of Being’ words
Linguistic Definition
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Convey action or state of being AND
Carry grammatical information about
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tense (pres, past, etc)
person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
Other… (to be discussed in later chapters)
Know a Verb when you see it...
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Formal Clues
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Has verb-making morpheme
Can take tense-related morphemes
Functional Clues
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Can be made into a command
Can be made negative
Can fit a Verb Frame Sentence
Verb Frame Sentences
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They must ___________ (it).
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They must ___________ good.
(well)
How many verbs?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3
4
5
6
Diagramming Verbs
(you) Play
ball
Verbs go on a flat line
after the subject…
Functional Shift: Revisited
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Noun, Verb, Both or Neither: Why?
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Rock
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Sob
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Pluralize
Exercise 4.6
Why should we care?

Learning is as unique as the individual
who is attempting to do so, and any
“principles” for second language
acquisition must be regarded as tentative
suggestions, not absolute rules.
Is this acceptable?
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A = Yes
B = No
Why or Why Not?
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Key errors to watch for:
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Sentence Fragments
Comma splices
Run-on (fused) sentences
Sentence Fragments
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A sentence missing a Subj. or a Verb
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“Today’s generation does not understand
reading’s benefits. For instance better
spelling, wider vocabulary and appropriate
expressions.”
Often begins with a conjunction…
Find the fragment
A. Head down, Lela stared at the
textbook on her desk.
B. She understood the fragment practice
that Mrs. Markham was going over in
class.
C. But was too shy to raise her hand and
volunteer an answer.
D. She wishes she had a clicker!
Comma splices
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Joining two full sentences with a comma
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Main Clause +
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, + Main Clause = 
“Let’s take a look at a business, that I
worked for in the past, it shall remain
anonymous.”
Can typically be fixed with a semicolon (;)
Run-ons
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Joining two full sentences without
any punctuation
Main Clause + Ø + Main Clause =
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
“Yuan is a real hypochondriac when her
stomach hurts, she is certain that she has
a bleeding ulcer, and if she has a backache,
she starts to believe that she has cancer of
the spine.”
There is a problem in:
A. Yuan is a real hypochondriac when her
stomach hurts,
B. she is certain that she has a bleeding
ulcer,
C. and if she has a backache,
D. she starts to believe that she has
cancer of the spine.
Find a Verb Related Error…
… in your G & C paper
MYTH: Never begin a
sentence with a conjunction.
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And why is that a rule? The device can
be overused, sure. But it should not be
banned.
When & why can we break this rule?
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(You’ve got to KNOW IT to break it effectively)
MYTH: Always write in
complete sentences.
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You might wince at the use of
fragments as a literary device, but it
can be done well. Really.
When & why can we break this rule?
Any Questions…
…before we move on?
You Tell Me…
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1. Find the Error
2. Explain it
3. Fix it
Three words frequently use as slang are
“cool”, “bad”, and “sweet”.
Hint:
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Verb as Adjectival
Adjectives
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Traditional Definition
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Linguistic Definition
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Modify nouns & other adjectives
Modifies a nominal or adjectival
(really close to the traditional definition…)
Modify: To change.
To add information about.
X
Know an Adj when you see it...
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Formal Clues
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Has adjective-making morpheme
Takes comparative/superlative morphemes
Functional Clues
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Can be compared using more or most
Modifies a nominal or adjectival
Can fit the Adjective Frame Sentence
Adjective Frame Sentence
“The _________ man is very ________.”
You may need to change “man” to another noun…
Exercise 4.7
Adjective or Not… Why?
I.
Shiny
II. Wicker
III. Calling
A.
B.
C.
D.
I - only
I & II,
I & III
I, II & III
Adjective Subclasses
Examples
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Attributive
- Precedes the noun
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Predicative
- Follows the verb
- AKA subject complement
the red wagon…
____________
the sky is blue…
____________
Adjective Subclasses
“The
sour
apple is very
(Attributive)
sour
(Predicative)
One more subclass…
Post-Nominal: It hit me like a ton of bricks.
- may come either before or after the verb…
- prepositional phrase may be an adjectival…
.”
Find the Adjective
Find the Adjective: Challenge
What’s the ADJ?
A. Once
B. Stick
C. Stays
D. Fetched
How did you know?
Diagramming Adjectives
pi
…it
stays
fetched
Use slanted lines for modifiers…
A Pumpkin Pi Tree
NP
Det
Adj
N
A
pumpkin
pi
You Tell Me…

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1. Find the Error
2. Explain it
3. Fix it
Animal rights modern movement can be
tracked to the 1970s, which was
created by philosophers.
Hint:

Adjectivals typically modify close referents
To Comma or Not to Comma

Between two or more adjectives
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When the adjectives are “equal”
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“and” can be inserted between them
they can be reversed
No comma before the noun
Traditional Rule:
Size  Age  Color
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Example:
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the crabby old dog (≠ ‘equal’)
the bright, curious child
= the bright and curious child
= the curious, bright child
the big old red wagon
* the old red big wagon
* the red old big wagon
Did You Get It?

Which of these should have commas?
A. I went to a high priced auction.
B. A splendid old table was for sale.
C. A rich famous movie star bought it.
D. I was quite sad I couldn’t have it.
Find a list of adjectives…
… in your G & C paper
Did you use the
appropriate punctuation?
Any Questions…
…before we move on?
Adverbs
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Traditional Definition
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Modifies verbs, adjectives or adverbs
w/ info about Time, Place, or Manner
Answer: Where, When, Why? How?
Linguistic Definition
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Modifies non-nominal items
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V, Adj, Adv, phrases, clauses, or sentences
Know an Adv when you see it...
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Formal Clues
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Has adverb-making morpheme
Takes comparative/superlative morphemes
Functional Clues
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Can be compared using more or most
Moveable in sentence
Can fit the Adverb Frame Sentence
Adverb Frame Sentence
“The man told his story _________.”
Exercise 4.9

Prototypically Adverb or Adjective?
Why? Do you see a pattern?

Boldly, shortly, silently, seriously
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Earthly, beastly, gentlemanly
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Yearly, leisurely (Exceptions…)
Find the Adverbs
The ADVs are:
A. suddenly, awkwardly
B. snapping, dirge
C. suddenly, was, along
D. suddenly, awkwardly,
along
Diagramming Adverbs
Andy
realized
…
was snapping
Words that modify go on a slanted line
- Adv’s go under the modified word
even if they are separated…
Adverb Subclasses
Examples
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Manner
Time
Place
Degree
Frequency
Duration
Reason
happily,________
quickly, well
now, soon,
next week
________
here, there,
everywhere
________
clearly,
definitely
________
often, ________
seldom, never
always,
still, yet
________
‘to save
money’
________
Identify the Adverbials
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After breakfast let’s take the bus to the
shopping center.
To save money, we can take our lunch
and eat in the park next door.
The park is empty this time of year.
If you agree, we can meet at the
corner.
To Comma or Not to Comma

No Comma
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When the adverb is next to
the item it modifies
Short phrase beginning a sentence


By noon we were all ready to eat.
Comma


When the adverb has moved away from the word
it modifies. (Suddenly, awkwardly…)
Long phrase beginning a sentence

Before the dog was able to join his friends again, he was
forced to chase the cat.
More Commas

Sentence initial Infinitive VPs
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A cat, however, seems never to work at all
Parenthetical phrases
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To find a bone, a dog must work very hard
Interruptions


(function as adverbials)
(comment on whole sentence)
I love pets. Unfortunately, my wife doesn’t feel the
same way.
Ambiguity

During the winter, vacation days are precious.
Find an Adverb…
… in your G & C paper
What type of ADV is it?
Any Questions…
…before we move on?
Reviewing Form & Function

What a word is (Form: N, V, Adj, Adv)
is not always the same as what it does
(Function: nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial)


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Two fresh flowers
Two spring flowers
Two wilting flowers
Strategy Suggestion:
Use substitution to identify form classes
Exercise 4.13

Form vs. Function: Identify each.



I think Carl has lost his electronic ticket
I think Carl has lost his parking ticket
I think Carl has lost his theater ticket
A. Prototypical noun acting as an adjective
B. Prototypical verb as an adjective
C. Prototypical adjective as an adjective
D. Prototypical adverb as an adjective
Find Functional Shift…
… in your G & C paper
Will the meaning be
clear to ALL readers?
Exercise 4.14


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Page 87
Group work
The Review Exercises on pages 89-91
are also very good…
Think About It…
NOTE:
While many of the exercises are referenced in
this slide show, several are not…
Those not reviewed are intended for you to
cover on your own.
Remember: The answer keys are posted on my site…
(& I’ll be happy to review your work w/you outside class)
Tomorrow

Quiz on Chapter 4

Begin Chapter 7