pp.105-118
©Timothy
G. Roufs 07 April 2010
“It’s the last taboo, isn’t it—fat?”
—Jennifer Patterson
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 177
In the news . . .
Paradox . . . ?
The “fat taboo” seems to be everywhere . . .
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://www.fifa.com/newscentre/news/newsid=1178618.html?cid=rssfeed&att=
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6364O420100407
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3635/ceweek08.html
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
source
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
source
“It’s the last taboo, isn’t it—fat?”
—Jennifer Patterson
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 177
“The Fat Ladies rebelled against a
society that despises fatness.”
• American culture scapegoats
fat people in much the same
way that it scapegoats white
trash.”
• Redneck jokes reassure the middle
class that they have not fallen that low
• Similarly, jokes about fat people
reassure less-fat individuals that they
have not gained as much as heavier
people
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 171
“The Fat Ladies rebelled
against a society that
despises fatness.”
• “The American Mainstream hates
fat people and seems to feel little or
not need to hide that emotion.”
• “U.S. society belittles fat people of
all genders, socioeconomic
backgrounds, races, ethnicities, and
ages.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 171
“The Fat Ladies rebelled
against a society that
despises fatness.”
• “The American Mainstream hates fat
people and seems to feel little or not need
to hide that emotion.”
• “U.S. society belittles fat people of
all genders, socioeconomic
backgrounds, races, ethnicities,
and ages.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 171
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402465.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402465.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402465.html
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Anorexia nervosa
and related eating disorders
are classic examples
of the relationship between
culture and biology . . .
between “nurture” and “nature” . . .
Teenage girls, dancers, wrestlers,
skaters, gymnasts, and other
competitive athletes, homosexual
men, and men and women in the
military have higher-than-average
rates of eating disorders
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
http://news.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/hi/health/newsid_7295000/7295839.stm
1 stone = 14 pounds
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/dorset/7360470.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7373846.stm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/birmingham/content/articles/2007/09/11/wm_video_feature.shtml
http://health.taragana.net/articles/neda-launches-star-program-to-support-people-suffering-from-eating-disorders/
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/sussex/7978845.stm
R.I.P.
Beth Kwapik
Secretary
Sociology -Anthropology Department
University of Minnesota Duluth
And different cultures have
different ideals . . .
and rates of eating disorders . . .
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
In some—maybe even many—
cultures fatness is valued as a
sign of wealth, and thinness as
evidence that women are poor
and undernourished.
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 105
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/347637.stm
http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2009/03.19/11-dysmorphia.html
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/20/world/study-finds-tv-alters-fiji-girls-view-of-body.html?sec=health
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2018900.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2381161.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2978216.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Cultural notions about
ideal body size and shape have
important implications for the
public’s health
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 105
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Despite the idealization of
thinness,
increasing numbers of North
Americans have become
overweight,
and in the last three decades the
problem has reached epidemic
proportions
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 105
"After a short stay in America,
Michelangelo's David
has been returned to Europe"
www.wsoctv.com/news/17262427/detail.html
http://francisanderson.files.wordpress.com/2007/08/supersize_me.jpg
http://www.thorninpaw.com/mt/archives/cat_food.html
the three major contemporary debates
• Biological Determinism vs. Cultural
Constructionism
(“nature vs. nurture”)
(“learned vs. inherited”)
• Ideationism vs. Cultural Materialism
• Individual Agency vs. Structuralism
(“free will” vs. “power structures”)
www.wenatcheeworld.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080122/FOOD/373497927/1030/rss1030
www.wenatcheeworld.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080122/FOOD/373497927/1030/rss1030
Larry Wright, The Detroit News
9/7/2002
www.cartoonstock.com/directory/s/supersize_me_gifts.asp
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/humanbody/truthaboutfood/slim/popcorn.shtml
“Study author Dr. Tom Robinson said the kids’ perception of taste
was ‘physically altered by the branding.’ The Stanford University
researcher said it was remarkable how children so young were
already so influenced by advertising. Even carrots, milk and apple
juice tasted better to the kids when they were wrapped in the
familiar packaging of the Golden Arches.”
http://francisanderson.files.wordpress.com/2007/08/supersize_me.jpg
http://www.ursispaltenstein.ch/blog/weblog.php?/weblog/2007/06/04/
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://www.redefiningthefaceofbeauty.com/2012/07/o-b-e-si-t-y-new-form-of-child-neglect.html
http://www.dwp.gov.uk/publications/specialist-guides/medical-conditions/a-z-of-medical-conditions/obesity/causes-obesity.shtml
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743512000394
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7946290.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7925448.stm
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/07/AR2009040701202_pf.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/07/AR2009040701202_pf.html
July 19, 2009
12 November 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://www.parade.com/news/intelligence-report/archive/091108-better-access-to-healthy-food.html
http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article23604.htm
The official poverty rate of 13.2 percent in 2008
was up from 12.5 percent in 2007. This figure
translates into 39.8 million people in poverty
across America. The official poverty level is set at $22,000
annually for a family of four with two children or $12,000 for an
individual, an absurdly low threshold. This means that far
more people than indicated by the survey do not
have adequate resources to pay for food,
shelter, medical care and other basic
necessities.
http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article23604.htm
The poverty rate rose across virtually all
demographic groups. Poverty among Hispanics
climbed from 21.5 percent in 2007 to 23.2 percent in 2008.
Non-Hispanic whites saw poverty rise from 8.2 percent in 2007
to 8.6 percent in 2008, while poverty among Asians was up
from 10.2 percent in 2007 to 11.8 percent in 2008. AfricanAmericans were the only group where poverty remained
statistically unchanged at a staggering 24.7 percent, or about
one in four people.
http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article23604.htm
www.startribune.com/lifestyle/27224664.html
www.startribune.com/lifestyle/27224664.html
Colorado
18.4%
Alabama
Mississippi
31.7%
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/trend/maps/
www.startribune.com/lifestyle/27224664.html
www.wsoctv.com/news/17262427/detail.html
www.wsoctv.com/news/17262427/detail.html
body mass index
(BMI)
www.wsoctv.com/news/17262427/detail.html
www.startribune.com/lifestyle/27224664.html
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The most accurate method for
determining if one is overweight
or obese is to calculate
body mass index (BMI)
using the following formula:
BMI = [Weight in pounds ÷ Height in
inches ÷ Height in inches] X 703
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The most accurate method for
determining if one is overweight
or obese is to calculate
body mass index (BMI)
using the following formula:
or one’s body weight divided
by the square of one’s height
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
or use a calculator
or a BMI table . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5297790.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
If your BMI is equal to or above 25,
you are considered overweight
If it is equal to or above 30,
you are considered obese
(unless you are extremely muscular)
Underweight is defined as having a
BMI below 19
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Because the relative amounts of fat
and muscle tissue and bone size vary
greatly from person to person, ideal
weights are given as ranges . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many experts argue that these ranges
should be made
even more flexible . . .
and point out that the health hazards
are associated only with extreme
overweight and underweight
(that is, 20% over or under the ideal range)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Recommendations to diet, therefore,
should be directed
only to those who are
extremely over- or underweight . . .
(that is, 20% over or under the ideal range)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Rise in excess weight gain is
accompanied by the increased
risk in . . .
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
coronary heart disease
hypertension
stroke
gallbladder disease
type 2 diabetes
osteoarthritis
some forms of cancer
emotional problems
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Rise in excess weight gain is
accompanied by the increased
risk in . . .
degenerative
•acoronary
heart diseasejoint disease in
• hypertension
which
the
connective
tissue
• stroke
(cartilage)
is lost
• gallbladder
disease
• type 2 diabetes
• osteoarthritis
• some forms of cancer
• emotional problems
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 105
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The Surgeon General of the
United States has declared
obesity as a national epidemic
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention have launched a
major initiative to prevent and
control obesity
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Obesity is especially
problematic
for children . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
July 19, 2009
DARWINS NIGHTMARE
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8512102.stm
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/07/AR2009040701202_pf.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/07/AR2009040701202_pf.html
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/07/AR2009040701202_pf.html
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Metabolic changes that
accompany excess weight gain
during childhood make it more
difficult for them to lose weight
later in life . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
“About one-third or overweight
preschoolers and one-half of
overweight school-aged children
will become overweight
adults. . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/7965315.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/staffordshire/7977283.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many factors contribute to the
obesity epidemic . . .
• easy access to an abundant food supply
• sedentary lifestyle
• environmental factors encouraging soft-drink
and calorie-rich food product consumption
• growth of the fast-food industry
• a growing tendency to socialize with food and
drink
• “supersize” me-ing
• school lunch meals
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many factors contribute to the
obesity epidemic . . .
• “Although school breakfasts and lunches
must meet federal nutrition requirements,
including guidelines restricting the amount of fat
they contain, students who participate in the
National School Breakfast and Lunch Program
have been shown to have higher intakes or
energy, fat, and saturated fat than those
who bring their lunches.” (USDA 2001)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many factors contribute to the
obesity epidemic . . .
• “A la carte foods and vending machines
that sell soft drinks, cookies, and
candies are not subject to these
nutritional restrictions and give students
mixed messages, as well as excess
calories.”
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
At the same time food
consumption has increased,
physical activity levels have
declined . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
F MINUS
28 February 2010
http://www.fminus.net/
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Also contributing to sedentary
lifestyles among adults . . .
• automation of workplaces
• use of labor-saving machinery for
household chores
• reliance on automobile travel
instead of walking and cycling
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Children have become more
sedentary . . .
• little to no vigorous regular
physical activity
• TV
• computers
• electronic games
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The more time children spend
watching TV, the less time they
spend burning calories on more
active forms of recreation . . .
. . . and children consume more
energy during and after watching
TV advertisements for food . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
It is also difficult to exercise in
unsafe neighborhoods and play
areas . . .
. . . or communities that lack
sidewalks and trails for safe
walking . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Children are also less likely to
exercise today because many
schools have eliminated or
greatly reduced physical
education in an attempt to save
money and increase time for
other activities . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 108
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
… even though increasing
physical activity during a school
day actually increases students’
ability to learn . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
“As more and more North
Americans gain excess weight, it
is not surprising that the
proportion of people dissatisfied
with their bodies’ size and shape
has also increased.”
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Very young children are rarely
concerned about their weight . . .
By 6 or 7 many children start
worrying about how they look
and want to be thinner . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Body discontent typically increases
with the onset of bodily changes
during adolescence . . .
. . . even already in the early 1990s
between 50% and 80% of teen girls in
the US dissatisfied with how their
bodies look
(Mossavar-Rahmani et al. 1996; Parker et al. 1995)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3368833.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
girls worry about looking fat . . .
. . . boys tend to be more concerned
that they don’t appear big and strong
enough. . . .
(Sobal 1955b)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
This dissatisfaction usually
continues throughout adulthood, and
eventually declines during the later
ears when it is replaced with
concerns about overall health
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
many people are dissatisfied with
their appearance because they
overestimate how much they weigh
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
In a study of female college students,
only one-third of the girls who
thought they were fat actually
exceeded healthy weight limits
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1997)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
. . . only about half of the adults who
perceive themselves as overweight
actually are
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1997)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Unfortunately body dissatisfaction
often leads to unhealthy eating
practices . . .
• chronic dieting
• “yo-yo” dieting
• use of diet pills and laxatives
• vomiting
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Important ethnic differences exist
in perceptions of the ideal body size
and responses to believing that one
is overweight
• but in the United States these differences may
be decreasing as the cult of thinness is
adopted by many Hispanic, Native American,
and, to a lesser extent African American youth
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
In general,
Euro-Americans are the most likely to
overestimate their bodies’ weights
They score substantially lower than
Afro-Americans and Native Americans on
numerous measures of body satisfaction and
self-perception.
(Parker et. al. 1995)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 109
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Research findings are mixed but it
appears women of Hispanic descent
are more accepting of a larger body
ideal . . .
However, as Hispanics acculturate into U.S.
society, they too begin to adopt thinner body
ideals and disordered eating practices . . .
(Harris, Walters, and Waschull 1991; Miller et. al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Native Americans have also been
thought to prefer a larger body size
than Euro-Americans . . .
However, research suggests Native American
children may be adopting mainstream ideals
for thinness . . .
(Davis and Lumbert 2000; Davis et. al. 1999; Stevens et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
as a group, African Americans enjoy
the highest level of satisfaction with
how they look . . .
(Miller et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
African Americans are also less likely
to be preoccupied with weight loss,
even if they are moderately
overweight . . .
focus group interviews with African American
teens reveal that their ideals of beauty are
more flexible than those of other groups, . . .
(Miller et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
focus group interviews with African
American teens reveal that their
ideals of beauty are more flexible
than those of other groups, with less
emphasis on body size and shape
and more concern with projecting
confidence, positive attitude, and
style. . . .
(Parker et al. 1995)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
despite higher levels of satisfaction
with their bodies, similar proportions
of African American girls try to lose
weight as Euro-Americans and
Hispanic Americans . . .
• increasing numbers of African American
teens are using laxatives and diuretics to
control their weight
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Duluth, Minnesota
If the
defin
ition
of
beau
tiful
gets
any
thinn
er no
one
will
fit“
http://www.newmooncatalog.com/prodinfo.asp?number=C01-TBIO
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Widespread body dissatisfaction and
chronic dieting have drawn concern
from health professionals,
psychologists, educators, and sports
administrators because of the impact
they have on people’s emotional and
physical health.
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 110
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Body dissatisfaction is associated
with . . .
• obsessive-compulsiveness
• anxiety disorders
• depression
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., pp. 110-111
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Chronic or yo-yo dieting not only is
ineffective in controlling excess
weight, but also increases the
chances of . . .
• dying from cardio-vascular disease
• osteoporosis
• and cancer
(Cogan and Ernsberger 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many weight-loss methods have
short- as well as long-term risks . . .
• muscle depletion
• mood disorders
• heart problems
• increased risk for more serious eating
disorders
• anorexia nervosa
• bulimia . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
"Dying to be Thin"
www.wsoctv.com/news/17262427/detail.html
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Anorexia nervosa, self-induced
starvation and a phobia of
gaining weight . . .
• found in ca. 1% of female adolescents in the
U.S.
• and percentage estimates are even higher for
teen girls from middle- and upper-class EuroAmerican families
(Mehler 1996)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
http://media.barometer.orst.edu/media/storage/paper854/news/2008/02/26/News/Eating.Disorders.Affect.More.Than.Half.Of.U.s.Population-3234616.shtml
http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/health-news/big-rise-in-teenage-girls-admitted-to-hospital-with-anorexia-1624881.html
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/5360768.stm
http://hubpages.com/hub/eating-disorder
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6498345.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6498345.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/7227898.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7824298.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/6153016.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7824298.stm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2009/02/body_image.html
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7824298.stm
Experts believe over-eating
may be a bigger problem than
either anorexia or bulimia
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7587515.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Anorexia nervosa, self-induced
starvation and a phobia of
gaining weight . . .
• although still relatively rare, some
believe the problem is becoming more
common among teen boys
(Mehler 1996)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Although self-induced starvation has
been reported for centuries,
it was rarely associated with
a fear of being fat
• some religious aesthetics, for e.g., fasted to
express their religiosity
• Chinese Taoists and others fasted to extend
their longevity, separate themselves from the
mundane world, and encourage mystical
experiences
(Rieger et al. 2001)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Although self-induced starvation has
been reported for centuries,
it was rarely associated with
a fear of being fat
• some religious aesthetics, for
e.g., fasted to express their
religiosity
• Chinese Taoists and others fasted to extend
their longevity, separate themselves from the
et al. 2001) mystical
mundane world,(Rieger
and encourage
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
experiences
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_mirabilis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_mirabilis
Catherine of Siena
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_mirabilis
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Although self-induced starvation
has been reported for centuries, it
was rarely associated with
a fear of being fat
• some religious aesthetics, for e.g., fasted to
express their religiosity
• Chinese Taoists and others fasted to
extend their longevity, separate
themselves from the mundane world,
and encourage mystical experiences
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
道教
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TaoismSymbol.PNG
Buddha. 2-3th century CE.
British Museum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism
India
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism#Jain_fasting
Palitana Tirtha, India
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism#Jain_fasting
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Although self-induced starvation
has been reported for centuries, it
was rarely associated with
a fear of being fat
These forms of fasting appear to
differ significantly from the type
found in Western societies today
(Rieger et al. 2001)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Anorexia is a devastating disease
The anorexic may lose between
15% and 60% of her normal body
weight, losing significant amounts
of muscle as well as fat
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
signs of chronic starvation appear . . .
• menses stop
• a covering of soft hair appears on
the skin
• the heart rate slows
• she feels cold even in warm
surroundings
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
• excessive exercise combined
with anorexia often leads to joint
problems, especially in dancers
and athletes
• the skin may become dry and
scalp hair thin
• the stomach is often bloated
• memory may become impaired
• thinking may become confused
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Anorexia can cause . . .
• kidney failure
• serious gastrointestinal problems
• abdominal pain
• neurological complications
• hormonal imbalance
• osteoporosis
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Anorexia can cause . . .
• serious heart problems
• blood disorders
• brain damage
• a permanent reduction in stature
• psychological trauma
• loss of self-esteem
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
between 4% and 20% die . . .
• usually from heart failure or suicide
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
http://hubpages.com/hub/eating-disorder
be aware
of the signs and criteria for
diagnosing
anorexia nervosa . . .
Criteria for Diagnosis of Anorexia . . .
1. refusal to maintain normal body weight
2. intense fear of gaining weight or
becoming fat, even though
underweight . . . or the denial of the
seriousness of the current low body
weight
3. disturbance in the way in which one’s
body weight or shape is experienced
4. amenorrhea in females past puberty
(the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Two types of Anorexia include . . .
1. Restricting type
• the person does not regularly engage
in binge eating or purging behavior
2. Binge eating / purging type
• the person does regularly engages in
binge eating or purging behavior
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 111
Anorexia nervosa
and related eating disorders
are classic examples
of the relationship between
culture and biology . . .
between “nurture” and “nature” . . .
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
•
•
•
•
•
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Bulimia nervosa . . .
purging by vomiting or the use of
laxatives and diuretics
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Bulimia nervosa . . .
. . . is far more common
than anorexia
• reported by ca. 3% of women and 10% of
female college students
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Bulimia nervosa . . .
. . . usually starts in early
adolescence when youth try to
restrict their diets fail, binge, and
then purge
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
• Binge eating
•
•
•
•
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Binge eating . . .
. . . often start with relative small
amounts of food
(from 100-1000 calories)
but may go up to over 5,000 calories
in just a few hours
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
. . . binges are followed by vomiting
and use of laxatives, diet pills,
and / or drugs to reduce water
retention
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Bulimia nervosa . . .
. . . bulimics average ca. 14 bingepurging episodes a week . . .
. . . with some vomiting as many as
four times a day . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Bulimia nervosa . . .
• victims usually develop severe tooth
decay from destruction of thee tooth
enamel by the acid in their vomit
• the strain of vomiting can break blood
vessels in their eyes
• gums may become diseased
• pimples or rashes may break out on the
face
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Other health problems include . . .
• a constant sore throat
• swollen glands near the cheeks
• liver, heart, and kidney damage
• dehydration
• stomach rupture
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
Bulimia nervosa . . .
. . . binges are followed by vomiting
and use of laxatives, diet pills,
and / or drugs to reduce water
retention
(Rieger et al. 2001)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 112
be aware
of the signs and criteria for
diagnosing
Bulimia nervosa . . .
Criteria for Diagnosis of Bulimia . . .
1. recurrent episodes of binge eating
• eating an amount of food that is
definitely larger than most people
would eat during that same time
period
• a sense of a lack of control over
eating during the heavy eating
episode
• i.e., the feeling that one cannot stop
eating or control what or how much one
is eating
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Criteria for Diagnosis of Bulimia . . .
2. recurrent inappropriate compensatory
behavior in order to prevent weight
gain
• self-induced vomiting
• misuse of laxatives, diuretics
enemas, or other medications
• excessive exercise
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Criteria for Diagnosis of Bulimia . . .
3. binge eating and inappropriate
compensatory behaviors that both
occur, on average, at least twice a
week for three months
4. self-evaluation unduly influenced by
body shape and weight
5. the disturbance does not occur
exclusively during episodes of
anorexia nervosa
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Two types of Bulimia include . . .
1. Purging type
• the person regularly engages in self-induced
vomiting or the misuse of laxatives,
diuretics, or enemas
2. Nonpurging type
• the person uses other inappropriate
compensatory behaviors, such as fasting or
excessive exercise, but does not regularly
engage in self-induced vomiting or the
misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
• Binge eating
• Orthorexia nervosa
• Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
• Pica
• Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthorexia_nervosa
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4389849.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4389849.stm
Orthorexics prefer market stalls to checkouts
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4389849.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
• Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
• Pica
• Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_eating_disorder
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
• Pica
• Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pica_(disorder)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pica_(disorder)
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7596067.stm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/hometruths/0207zinasarowiwa.shtml
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3503967.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7370524.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
• Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Eating_disorders
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wannarexia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Eating_disorders
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wannarexia
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
“Eating Disorders are about feelings, not food.”
The Eating Disorder Foundation
www.eatingdisorderfoundation.org/EatingDisorders.htm
“Eating Disorders are about feelings, not food.”
The Eating Disorder Foundation
Eating Disorders Awareness Sticker
http://bumperstickers.cafepress.com/item/eating-disorders-awareness-sticker-oval/7048402
Theories of Eating Disorders . . .
• biological
• psychological
• sociocultural
• feminist orientations
(Banks 1992; Thompson et al. 1999b)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
“Eating Disorders are about feelings, not food.”
The Eating Disorder Foundation
www.eatingdisorderfoundation.org/EatingDisorders.htm
Theories of Eating Disorders . . .
• biological
• psychological
• sociocultural
• feminist orientations
(Banks 1992; Thompson et al. 1999b)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Biological explanations usually
focus on abnormal hormonal
balance and other biochemical
changes observed in people with
anorexia
• of special interest are changes in a tiny portion
of the brain called the hypothalamus that
regulates appetite and weight control
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7124697.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Biological explanations usually
focus on abnormal hormonal
balance and other biochemical
changes observed in people with
anorexia
• brain scans show that people wit anorexia
have high levels of certain proteins secreted
during stress that may indirectly bock appetite
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7120564.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4215298.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4577338.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Biological explanations usually
focus on abnormal hormonal
balance and other biochemical
changes observed in people with
anorexia
• other substances that stimulate appetite and
reproductive hormones are abnormally low in
anorexics
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Biological explanations usually
focus on abnormal hormonal
balance and other biochemical
changes observed in people with
anorexia
• most experts believe excessive weight loss
and restrictive dieting cause these changes
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Biological explanations usually
focus on abnormal hormonal
balance and other biochemical
changes observed in people with
anorexia
• however, menstrual changes have occurred
before weight loss began in some girls,
suggesting that brain chemical abnormalities
may contribute to the development of anorexia
in some teens
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Theories of Eating Disorders . . .
• biological
• psychological
• sociocultural
• feminist orientations
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
among the most common theories
is the view that anorexia is a
symptom of other psychiatric
problems, especially anxiety
disorders, and
obsessive-compulsiveness
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
emotional problems are very
common among people with
anorexia and bulimia . . .
however, it is unclear if these
cause eating disorders
or
result from them
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
emotional problems are very
common among people with
anorexia and bulimia . . .
however, it is unclear if these
cause eating disorders
or
result from them
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
phobias and
obsessive-compulsiveness
usually develop before the eating
disorders begin . . .
whereas anxiety attacks
tend to occur afterward
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
phobias and
obsessive-compulsiveness
usually develop before the eating
disorders begin . . .
whereas anxiety attacks
tend to occur afterward
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
approximately one-third of people
with bulimia and two-thirds of
those with anorexia suffer from
obsessive-compulsiveness . . .
persistent, recurring thoughts and
repetitive routines associated with
dieting and weight gain
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
approximately one-third of people
with bulimia and two-thirds of
those with anorexia suffer from
obsessive-compulsiveness . . .
persistent, recurring thoughts and
repetitive routines associated with
dieting and weight gain
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
they may . . .
• exercise excessively
• weigh every bite of food
• cut food into small pieces
• chew each morsel a specified
number of times
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Other psychological
characteristics associated with
eating disorders are . . .
• narcissism
• sensitivity to criticism and the need for
a great deal of admiration from others
• borderline personality disorders
• difficulty controlling anger
• fears
• impulses
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
depression is also common
among people with eating
disorders . . .
but it is more likely to be the result
rather than the cause of the
problem
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
depression is also common
among people with eating
disorders . . .
treating the depression rarely
cures bulimia or anorexia . . .
but weight gain often relieves
depression
(MDConsult 2002)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
bulimia and anorexia nervosa
appear to be more common among
children raised in a critical family
environment . . .
especially when parents encourage them
to diet, tease them about their weight, or
try to dominate them in other ways
(Lunner et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
teens who suffer form bulimia are
more likely than teens without the
disorder to report that their
mothers invade their personal
privacy and relate to them in a
jealous or competitive manner
(Rorty et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
bulimia is also more common
among girls whose fathers are
detached . . .
perhaps making them feel worthless
(Rorty et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
bulimia is also more common
among girls whose fathers treat
them in a sexual or seductive
manner . . .
(Rorty et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
many studies show increased
eating disorders among teens
whose parents show excessive
concerns about their weight,
eating, and appearance . . .
(Rorty et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7824298.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7824298.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
children who are sexually abused
are also much more likely than
those who are not to develop
disordered eating patterns . . .
(Neumark-Sztainer et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
re parent-child relations . . .
In contrast, young people raised in
cohesive families with good
parent-child communication area
less likely to develop these
problems
(Thompson et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Theories of Eating Disorders . . .
• biological
• psychological
• sociocultural
• feminist orientations
(Banks 1992; Thompson et al. 1999b)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Sociocultural theories propose
that the value Western societies
place on thinness and self-control
leads to eating disorders
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
the three major contemporary debates
• Biological Determinism vs. Cultural
Constructionism
(“nature vs. nurture”)
(“learned vs. inherited”)
• Ideationism vs. Cultural Materialism
• Individual Agency vs. Structuralism
(“free will” vs. “power structures”)
www.wenatcheeworld.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080122/FOOD/373497927/1030/rss1030
www.wenatcheeworld.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080122/FOOD/373497927/1030/rss1030
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7053725.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5341202.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5374862.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7349607.stm
http://theday.com/re.aspx?re=716e5482-a35a-4d6e-8ed6-bac5d1a0d04f
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
sociologists and anthropologists
point out that the cult of thinness
and disorders such as anorexia
nervosa and bulimia are found
predominantly in Western
societies
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/347637.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2381161.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2978216.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
a slimmer body has been the norm in the
United States and Canada for almost a
century, and this idealization of thinness
may serve as a counterbalance against the
tendency to gain weight in societies with
abundant, stable food supplies where
people can gain weight easily and obesity is
common
Cf., Ch. 4
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 114
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
according to sociocultural
theorists,
the media plays a powerful role
in transmitting the cult of thinness
...
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., pp. 114-115
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2018900.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/6935768.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4245109.stm
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
television, radio, magazine, and
other print messages use anorexic
models whose pictures have been
airbrushed and computer-altered
to create unachievable standards
of beauty
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 115
“Along with disparaging fatness,
Americans are scared of fatness
because it can sneak up on anyone.”
“It is nearly impossible to read a
newspaper or watch a TV program
without hearing something new
about the growing rates of obesity in
the United States.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 171
Cooking With the Two Fat Ladies, Clarkson Potter, 1998
“[The] fantasy world where no woman
carries any extra weight impacts how real
women perceive their bodies.
They see so many unrealistically slender
bodies that they begin to assume that
their bodies should be similarly thin.
This feeling is aggravated because
American culture is inundated with
ways to slenderize,
many focused on women.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 173
“Every diet book possible
fills bookstores.
Health clubs and gymnasiums
inundate cities and towns
from coast to coast.
TV shows and tabloids
are replete with ways to diet.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 173
“Losing weight obsesses our
culture . . . so [women] feel that
they must strive for thinness,
whatever the cost.”
• anorexia and bulimia are rampant
because women feel such a desire to lose
weight
• even if a woman is not anorexic, she is still apt
to wish to lose five or ten pounds
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 173
“Losing weight obsesses our
culture . . . so [women] feel that
they must strive for thinness,
whatever the cost.”
and
are rampant because women feel such a desire to
lose weight
even if a woman is not anorexic, she is still apt to
wish to lose five or ten pounds
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 173
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7120564.stm
“In a society where women’s eating
is constantly under scrutiny, one of
the tragic end results is
anorexia and bulimia.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 186
“What explains the Two Fat Ladies’ appeal
around the globe?”
“. . . the Ladies were
resolutely anti-diet. . . .”
“In their world, one did not have to worry
about following the latest diet.”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 176
Writing about the death of Robert Atkins,
“the diet guru”
Clarissa wrote . . .
“The legacy of today’s ultra-thin
‘heron chic’ models
— and of celebrity diet gurus —
is anorexia . . .”
Sherrie A. Inness, Secret Ingredients, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 177
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
numerous studies have shown that
exposure to images of ultrathin
models can lead to body
dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating
behaviors . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 115
http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/2201659/posts
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
some social scientists blame a
capitalistic society for the increase in
anorexia and bulimia . . .
•
•
•
•
•
weight-control products
diet industry ($33 billion)
cosmetic industry ($20 billion)
cosmetic surgery industry ($300 billion)
fitness industry
(Colditz 1992)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 115
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
“These industries have developed a ‘surefire’ formula for success: Standardize a thin
idea of beauty that the majority of women
can never attain, but make it look so
appealing that they actually seek it out. The
pursuit of thinness and the subsequent
failure of most women in this pursuit
construct an indefinite marketing of
consumers.”
(Germov and Williams 1999:121)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 115
Theories of Eating Disorders . . .
• biological
• psychological
• sociocultural
• feminist
orientations
(Banks 1992; Thompson et al. 1999b)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 113
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
feminist scholars have also entered
the debate, proposing that eating
disorders are a natural response to
pathological societal pressures to be
thin rather than a manifestation of
psychiatric illness
(Bordo 1993; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 115
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
although the feminist scholars
recognize that many men are
concerned about their weight, they
argue that body imagery has special
meaning for women
(Bordo 1993; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., pp. 115-166
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• women grow up knowing that
attractiveness is a key to attracting men
• they expect others to evaluate themselves
in terms of their appearance and begin to
watch their own bodies as outside
observers
• women also learn that dieting and appetite
control are necessary to achieve society’s
standards of beauty
(McKinley 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
feminists note that today’s women
are conflicted because they are
socialized to seek equal opportunity
in education and employment but, at
the same time, must maintain the
sexual identity of a pleasing wife and
mother . . .
(Bordo 1993; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., pp. 115-166
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
The result is . . .
• confusion
• body dissatisfaction
• low self esteem
• ambivalence about eating
(McKinley 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
by restricting their rate, women gain
a sense of control that is otherwise
thwarted in a male-dominated society
(Beardsworth and Keil 1997; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
“anorexia nervosa is considered a rebellion
against misogynistic societal norms that
demean women by objectifying their
bodies, and the anorexic’s decision to lose
weight is seen as a
symbolic protest against . . . “
• male domination
• a rigid sexual division of labor
• “the traditional female role”
[presumably the white middle-class female role]
(Banks 1992)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
other feminists argue that eating
disorders represent anxieties about
success and femininity
•starvation stops menstruation and delays
their bodies’ maturation, “allowing them to
return to the less threatening prepubescent
body and avoiding becoming a sexually
mature, autonomous person in a world they
see as dangerous for women”
(Beardsworth and Keil 1997; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
of course, each of these theories
has its shortcomings . . .
no single theory, for instance,
explains why only a small
proportion of women develop
eating disorders whereas others
gain excess weight or stay within
healthy limits
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
most likely,
a combination of factors, such as
young people’s susceptibility to
social pressure or their feelings of
worthlessness or shame, mediate the
effects of media exposure to cultural
ideals of thinness
(Banks 1992; Murray, Waller, and Legg 2000; Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
the study of
twins who are raised together and
twins who are raised separately . . .
suggests that a combination of
biological, psychological and
sociocultural factors work together to
create eating disorders
(Bulik et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
twins studies suggest that a
combination of genetic factors
and environmental factors
contributes to the development of
eating disorders . . .
• parental influence
• peers
• etc.
(Bulik et al. 2000)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
As a result . . .
researchers are testing
comprehensive models that examine
the combined effects of people’s . . .
•
•
•
•
global psychological makeup . . .
social pressure . . .
body image
levels of dissatisfaction on people’s
actual weight and disordered eating
practices
(Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
As a result . . .
researchers are testing
comprehensive models that examine
the combined effects of people’s . . .
•
•
•
•
global psychological makeup . . .
social pressure . . .
body image
levels of dissatisfaction on people’s
actual weight and disordered eating
practices
(Thompson et al. 1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• global psychological makeup
• self-esteem
• emotional problems
• susceptibility to external feedback
• social pressure
• media exposure
• teasing by relatives, peers and friends
• body image
• levels of dissatisfaction on people’s
actual weight and disordered eating
practices
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 116
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
• The Obesity Epidemic
• Disordered Body Image and Eating Behaviors
• Eating Disorders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating
Orthorexia nervosa
Selective Eating Disorder (SED)
Pica
Others
• What Causes Eating Disorders?
• Applications
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
success in assisting people in
achieving their ideal weight
requires an understanding of both
the medical and cultural
definitions of the term “ideal
weight,” as well as the ability to
reconcile the differences between
them . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., pp. 116-117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Medically, ideal weight is usually
determined in terms of height, as
given in the body mass index,
Metropolitan Life Insurance tables,
or other indexes . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
or use a calculator
or a BMI table . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
If your BMI is equal to or above 25,
you are considered overweight
If it is equal to or above 30,
you are considered obese
(unless you are extremely muscular)
Underweight is defined as having
a BMI below 19
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 107
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Because the relative amounts of
fat and muscle tissue and bone
size vary greatly from person to
person, ideal weights are given as
ranges . . .
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Many experts argue that these
ranges should be made even more
flexible . . .
and point out that the health
hazards are associated only with
extreme overweight and
underweight
(that is, 20% over or under the ideal range)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Recommendations to diet,
therefore, should be directed only
to those who are extremely overor underweight . . .
(that is, 20% over or under the ideal range)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Flexibility allows one to adapt to
cultural notions of body size . . .
• working at the upper end of the range in
cultures that value fatness
• working with the lower end of the range in
cultures that value thinness
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Efforts reinforcing unrealistic
standards of beauty and thinness
may do as much harm as good . . .
• one must avoid “contributing to the barrage of
media messages portraying an ultrathin
figure as the only way to be attractive and
healthy”
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Proactive behaviors include . . .
• increased fruit and vegetable consumption
• physical activity, rather than dieting
• focusing on a wide variety of benefits rather
than solely on weight loss
• e.g., ethnic pride with Native American youth
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Avoid blaming the victim . . .
• focus on environmental factors rather than
just individual knowledge and attitudes
• support lowering the fat content of school
cafeteria food
• support offering phy ed programs during or
after school
• building walking trails in safe neighborhoods
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Avoid blaming the victim . . .
• reframe weight-loss goals so that even small
weight losses are considered successful and
cause for celebration
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 117
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Debate continues on the feasibility of
significant, long-term weight loss for
severely overweight people, and
some medical professionals have
change their approach radically,
recommending a “nondiet” approach
to eating moderately . . .
(Parham1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 118
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Others focus their efforts on
prevention of obesity rather than
weight loss . . .
(Parham1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 118
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
Anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and other
severe forms of eating disorders are
not nutritional problems . . .
and may require assistance from
other professionals . . .
(Parham1999)
The Cultural Feast, 2nd ed., p. 118
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
And sometimes even the physicians
specializing in relevant medial
complications, the other medical personnel
skilled in treating eating disorders, the
psychologists, nutritionists, and the
prayers of all of the good sisters at the
St. Scholastica Monastery
can’t help . . .
Chapter 4: “Eating is a Cultural Affair” — Body Image and Health
For further study consider . . .
• CST 3080 - Cultural Constructions of the Body
(4.0 cr; Prereq-Min 30 cr or #; A-F or Aud, fall, spring, offered periodically)
Contemporary cultural constructions of the human body. How
biology and culture intersect in body building, menstruation,
childbirth, and tattooing. Students gain skills in reading the body as
social text and learn core theoretical approaches to cultural studies
of the body.
• PSY 3540 - Psychology of Food Abuse
(3.0 cr; Prereq-1003 or #; A-F or Aud, fall, spring, summer, every year)
Basic understanding of eating disorders: obesity, binge
eating, anorexia, bulimia, and social, psychological, and
physical influences on normal and abnormal eating. Social
evaluation of obesity.
http://news.discovery.com/human/women-body-image.html