Understanding
Global Cultures
A “Four-Stage Model” of
Cross-Cultural Understanding
A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding
I.
four-cell typology of process / goal
orientation
II.
more specificity
III. inclusion of other “etic” or culturegeneral dimensions along which
specific cultures have been shown to
vary
IV.
cultural metaphors are employed for
understanding a culture
A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding
I.
four-cell typology of process / goal
orientation
“Four-Stage Model”
one variable of the is the degree to which
process such as effective communication
and getting to know one another in depth
should precede discussion of specific goals
“Four-Stage Model”
another variable is the degree to which a
culture fosters and encourages open
emotional expression
Fig. 1.1. Process, Goals, and Expression of Emotions
(p. 14)
Open Expression of Emotions and Feelings
Lower
Degree to
Which
Process Must
Be
Emphasized
Before Goals
Can Be
discussed
Lower
Higher
England,
Ireland, and
Scotland
China,
Japan, and
India
Higher
United States and
Germany
Mexico, Spain, and
Italy
Cultural Metaphors
four generic types of cultures
horizontal collectivism
 community sharing
vertical collectivism
 hierarchical (authority) ranking
horizontal individualism
 equality matching
vertical individualism
 market pricing
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Four Generic Types of Cultures
1. Horizontal Collectivism /
Community Sharing
reflects community sharing in which
members of the in-group share all of
their goods
• as in a small village
• even to the extent that there is no such
phenomenon as theft
Four Generic Types of Cultures
1. Horizontal Collectivism /
Community Sharing
not much differentiation between
individuals
ethics are based on group membership
• in-group or out-group
• members of out-groups are viewed as
nonpersons
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Four Generic Types of Cultures
2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority
Ranking Cultures
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
Ch.
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
The Thai Kingdom
The Japanese Garden
India: The Dance of Shiva
Bedouin Jewelry and Saudi Arabia
The Turkish Coffeehouse
The Brazilian Samba
The Polish Village Church
Kimchi and Korea
Four Generic Types of Cultures
2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority
Ranking Cultures
authority ranking
found in large parts of Asia, Africa, and
Latin America
involves a psychological relationship
between the leader or leaders and all
others in the culture
Four Generic Types of Cultures
2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority
Ranking Cultures
frequently, such a culture is
symbolized not by the handshake,
which reflects equality, but by
different forms of bowing
Four Generic Types of Cultures
2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority
Ranking Cultures
there is a dynamic, two-way
relationship between subordinates and
leaders in authority ranking cultures
• although the leaders receive more
rewards, they are responsible for
safeguarding the livelihoods of
subordinates
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Four Generic Types of Cultures
3. Horizontal Individualism /
Equality Matching Cultures
Ch. 10 The German Symphony
Ch. 11 The Swedish Stuga
Ch. 12 Irish Conversations
Four Generic Types of Cultures
3. Horizontal Individualism /
Equality Matching Cultures
equality matching
dominant in Scandinavian nations
• Sweden
• Norway
all individuals are considered equal,
even when some are taxed heavily
Four Generic Types of Cultures
3. Horizontal Individualism /
Equality Matching Cultures
it is expected that those who cannot
make individual contributions to the
common good will do so at a later time
if possible
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Four Generic Types of Cultures
4. Vertical Individualism / Market
Pricing Cultures
Ch. 13 American Football
Ch. 14 The Traditional British House
Four Generic Types of Cultures
4. Vertical Individualism / Market
Pricing Cultures
market pricing
found in the United States and other
market-dominated nations
Four Generic Types of Cultures
4. Vertical Individualism / Market
Pricing Cultures
although individualism is emphasized,
so, too, is the free market
• inequality resulting from the operation of
the free market is deemed acceptable
Four Generic Types of Cultures
4. Vertical Individualism / Market
Pricing Cultures
there is equality of opportunity and a
level playing field
• but not equality of outcomes
Four Generic Types of Cultures
4. Vertical Individualism / Market
Pricing Cultures
ethics revolves around the operation
of a free market
Cultural Metaphors
four generic types of cultures, plus
“Cleft National Cultures”
• one in which the subcultures of the diverse
ethnic groups are difficult to integrate . . .
“Torn National Cultures”
• one, such as Russia, that has been torn
from its roots at least once
Cultural Metaphors
“Cleft National Cultures”
Ch. 15 The Malaysian Balik Kampung
Ch. 16 The Nigerian Marketplace
Ch. 17 The Israeli Kibbutzim and
Moshavim
Ch. 18 The Italian Opera
Ch. 19 Belgian Lace
Cultural Metaphors
“Torn National Cultures”
Ch. 20 The Mexican Fiesta
Ch. 21 The Russian Ballet
Cultural Metaphors
“Same Metaphor,
Different Meanings”
Ch. 22 The Spanish Bullfight
Ch. 23 The Portuguese Bullfight
Cultural Metaphors
“Beyond National Boarders”
• Ch. 24 The Chinese Family Altar
Scaling
1. nominal
2. ordinal
3. interval
4. ratio
After H. Russell Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology, 1994
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Scaling
1. Horizontal Collectivism /
Community Sharing
nominal scaling
only names are given to entities
• in-group vs. out-group
Scaling
nominal scaling
naming something
Scaling
nominal scaling
a nominal variable is an item on
a list of things
• the variables are mutually exclusive
• but they do not exhaust the
possibilities
Scaling
religion






Hindu
Moslem
Buddhist
Christian
Druid
“Other”
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Scaling
2. Vertical Collectivism /
Authority Ranking Cultures
ordinal scaling
individual A may be more important
than individual B, and individual C may
be more important than individual B,
but there is no common unit of
measurement
Scaling
ordinal scaling
putting things in order
Scaling
ordinal scaling
ordinal variables are exhaustive
and mutually exclusive
and their values can be rank
ordered
Scaling
ordinal scaling
• high
• medium
• low
Scaling
socioeconomic class (SES)
• upper class
• middle class
• lower class
Scaling
types of political organization
• “peasant society”
• “primitive state”
• “chiefdom”
• “tribe”
• “band”
Scaling
ordinal scaling
in general, concepts are
measured at the ordinal level
Scaling
level of acculturation
• very acculturated
• somewhat acculturated
• unacculturated
Scaling
ordinal scaling
what ordinal variables do not tell us is
how much more
the most important characteristic of
ordinal measure is that there is no way
to tell how far apart the attributes are
from one another
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Scaling
3. Horizontal Individualism /
Equality Matching Cultures
interval scale
culture does have a common unit of
measurement, but it does not make
value judgments about individual
worth
• there are too many dimensions along
which individuals can be measures
Scaling
interval scaling
putting items at fixed intervals
Scaling
interval scaling
interval variables are exhaustive
and mutually exclusive
and their values can be rank
ordered
Scaling
interval scaling
and the distances between the
attributes are meaningful
Scaling
interval scaling
•30° Fahrenheit
•40° Fahrenheit
•70° Fahrenheit
•80° Fahrenheit
Scaling
interval scaling
• 40° F - 30° F = 10° F
• 80° F - 70° F = 10° F
Scaling
interval scaling
• but there is no “zero
point”
• i.e., 80° Fahrenheit is not
twice as warm as 40°
Fahrenheit
Scaling
interval scaling
concrete, observable things are
often measured at the interval
level
• but not always
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
Scaling
4. Vertical Individualism /
Market Pricing Cultures
scale is ratio
there is a common unit of
measurement
and a true zero point
• allows members of the culture to transform
every other dimension and compare them
monetarily
Scaling
ratio scaling
interval variables that have a
zero point
there are few interval variables
that are not also ratio variables
Scaling
ratio scaling
a 40-year-old is 10 years older
than a 30-year-old
a 40-year-old is twice as old as a
20-year-old
Scaling
ratio scaling
it is common practice in the
social sciences to refer to ratio
variables as interval variables
Scaling
ratio scaling
•
•
•
•
•
•
years of education
income in dollars, Euros . . .
years spent migrating
population size
# doctors / 100,000
# violent crimes / 100,000
Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15)
INDIVIDUALISM
Low
(horizontal)
POWER
DISTANCE
High
(vertical)
COLLECTIVISM
Equality
Matching
Community
Sharing
(interval)
(nominal)
Market
Pricing
Authority
Ranking
(ratio)
(ordinal)
A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding
I.
four-cell typology of process / goal
orientation
II.
more specificity
III. inclusion of other “etic” or culturegeneral dimensions along which
specific cultures have been shown to
vary
IV.
cultural metaphors are employed for
understanding a culture
Emics / Etics
emics
 from “phonemics”
 viewing a culture from the
inside
etics
 from “phonetics”
 viewing a culture from the
outside
other “etic” or culture-general dimensions
achievement motivation
uncertainty avoidance
time horizon
femininity or assertiveness
tightness or looseness of rules
collectivistic / individualistic
etc.
Culture Counts
and it counts quit a bit
but when does culture
matter?
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
frequently occupational
similarities neutralize culture
• e.g., two doctors working on a
problem
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
similarity of class can diminish
the importance of culture
• e.g., middle class use of positive
reinforcement in raising children
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
sometimes powerful groups will
exclude others from
opportunities and then
stereotype them negatively, thus
consigning them to permanent
inferior status
• e.g., English / Irish in Ireland
• e.g., Apartheid in South Africa
• e.g., Rom (Gypsies) in many countries
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
sometimes the nature of the
problem minimizes the
importance of cultural
differences
• e.g., companies from two countries
working on problem supported by
top managements
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
when trust is present, culture
decreases in importance
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
culture is particularly important
in cross-cultural negotiations
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
culture is also important when
individuals move to another
nation or culture for an extended
period of time
When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter
to what extent do technological
changes such as the Internet
influence culture?
• internet crime
• more differentiation than
integration
• any indirect form of communication,
such as e-mail, presents special
difficulties and opportunities
Cultural Metaphors
“Metaphors are not
stereotypes.”
Why?