 The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in
Halliday and Hasan’s model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions. , referencing indicates how the writer introduces participants and keeps track of them throughout the text.
 We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something.
 In the textual sense, though, reference occurs when the reader/listener has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the same context.
References to the “shared world” outside a text are called exophoric references. Outward, or exophoric reference often directs us to the immediate context, as when someone says 'leave it on the table please' about a parcel you have for them. Sometimes, the referent is not in the immediate context but is assumed by the speaker/writer to be part of a shared world, either in terms of knowledge or experience. The same sort of exophoric reference is seen in phrases such as the Queen, the Pope, the army,
 References to elements in the text are called endophoric references.
 Only the second ones are purely cohesive, although both of them are important to create texture.
 There are times when the reference is not explicit in the text itself, but it is obvious to those in a particular situation. This is called exophoric reference.
For he's a jolly good fellow
And so say all of us.
 As outsiders, we don’t know who the he is, but, most likely, the people involved in the celebration are aware of the he that is being referred to, and therefore, can find texture in the sentences.
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
Endophoric referencing can be divided into three areas: anaphoric, cataphoric, and esphoric .
Anaphoric refers to any reference that “points backwards” to previously mentioned information in text. Usually items such as he/she or them ,it, this , can be decoded without major difficulty.

Cataphoric refers to any reference that “points forward” to information that will be presented later in the text.
If you want them, there are cookies in the kitchen
For cohesion purpose, anaphoric referencing is the most relevant as it provides a link with a preceding portion of the text (Halliday and Hasan
1976:51). Functional speaking, there are three main types of cohesive references, they are:
1. Person :
Person reference keeps track of function through the speech situation using noun pronouns like : He, him, she, her, etc´.
And possessive determiners like³ : mine, yours, his, hers, etc´.
For example:
Petter has many books. Those books are his
2. Demonstrative
Demonstrative reference keeps of information through location using proximity references like : this, these, that, those, here, there, then, and the.´
For example: This is my book. I bought it yesterday.
3. Comparative:
Comparative reference keeps track of identity and similarity through indirect references using adjectives like : same, equal, similar, different, else, better, more. And adverbs like : so, such, similarly, otherwise, so, more, etc.´
For example: Jack has a white shirt. I bought the same shirt with him.
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2. Substitution and Ellipsis:
nominal ( one & ones)
A. substitution verbal ( do & so)
Clausal ( so & not)
There are three general ways of substituting in a sentence: nominal, verbal, and clausal
 nominal substitutes:
In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are : one and ones ´ and they substitute nouns.
For example: This car is mine, but that one is yours.

 one : can be used as Head of a noun phrase to replace a noun which is count and not a proper name. Usually the substitution is not possible if the
Head is precede by a classifier (e.g. a noun or adjective indicating a particular subclass of the thing in question)
 some / any /much / many

The same (e.g. Winter is often so damp. The same is true for the summer")

Verbal substitutes
I I n v e r r b a l l s s u b s s t t i i t t u t i i o n , , t t h e m o s s t t c o m m o n s s u b s s t t i i t t u t t e i i s s t t h e v e r r b “ d o ” w h i i c h i i s s s s o m e t t i i m e s s u s s e d i i n c o n j j u n c t t i i o n w i i t t h “ s s o ” a s s i i n “ d o s s o ” .
.
L e t t ' ' s s g o a n d s s e e t t h e b e a r r s s .
.
T h e p o l l a r r o n e s s a r r e o v e r r o n t t h a t t r r o c k .
.
D i i d M a r r y t t a k e t t h a t t l l e t t t t e r r ?
S h e m i i g h t t h a v e d o n e .
.

, auxiliaries
 the nominal group: some/any; one

Clausal substitutes
In clausal substitution, an entire clause is substituted by "So, not"
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 If you’ve seen them so often, you get to know them very well.
I believe so.

Everyone thinks he’s guilty. If so, no doubt he’ll resign.

We should recognise him when we see him.
Yes, but supposing not: what do we do?

In
“we presuppose something by means of what is left out”... ellipsis sets up a relationship that is not semantic but lexico-grammatical – a relationship in the wording rather than directly in the meaning;

In
the substitute serves as a place-holding device, showing where something has been omitted and what its grammatical function would be
B .
.
e l l l l i i p s s i i s s
nominal
A. Ellipses verbal
Clausal
 Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised.
If substitution is replacing one word with another, ellipsis is the absence of that word, "something left unsaid". Ellipsis requires retrieving specific information that can be found in the preceding text.
There are three types of ellipsis too: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
(a) Do you want to hear another song? I know twelve more [songs]
(b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought] lilies.
(c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on the second

A translator needs only be aware that there are different devices in different languages for creating “texture”. This has clear implications in practice.
Usually what is required is reworking the methods of establishing links to suit the textual norms of the target language and of each genre.
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 nominal ellipsis: one of the pre-modifiers of the Head is upgraded to Head.

Verbal ellipsis : from the right ("Are you laughing?" "Yes, I am") or from the left ("Are you eating dinner?" "No, washing up")

Clausal ellipsis

Yes/no answers, answer to wh- questions only with what the question interrogates about (Why are you going away?" "Because it's late"), only whelement in questions ("Leave those alone" "Why?")
3. Discourse markers and conjunctions

 A third way of creating cohesion is through discourse markers and conjunctions. Discourse markers are linguistic elements used by the speaker/writer to ease the interpretation of the text, frequently by signalling a relationship between segments of the discourse, which is the specific function of conjunctions. They are not a way of simply joining sentences.
Their role in the text is wider that, because they provide the listener/reader with information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists prefer to describe them as discourse markers.
Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them, though conjunctive relations are not tied to any particular sequence in the expression.
Therefore, amongst the cohesion forming devices within text, conjunction is the least directly identifiable relation.
 Conjunctions can be classified according to four main categories: additive, adversative, causal and temporal.
 Additive conjunctions act to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and are signalled through “and, also, too, furthermore, additionally”, etc. Additive conjunctions may also act to negate the presupposed item and are signalled by “nor, and...not, either, neither”, etc.
 I don't like smoking, and neither does he.
 (Derived from: I don't like smoking. He doesn't like smoking).
 Adversative conjunctions act to indicate “contrary to expectation” and are signalled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather”, etc.
Peter is an English students, but he can't speak English.
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Causal conjunction expresses “result, reason and purpose” and is signalled by “so, then, for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect, etc.”.
She studied match hardly as a result she passed the exam.



 The last most common conjunctive category is temporal and links by signalling sequence or time. Some sample temporal conjunctive signals are
“then, next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point”, etc.
 The use of a conjunction is not the only device for expressing a temporal or causal relation. For instance, in English a temporal relation may be expressed by means of a verb such as follow or precede, and a causal relation by verbs such as cause and lead. Moreover, temporal relations are not restricted to sequence in real time, they may also reflect stages in the text
(expressed by first, second, third, etc.)
 Examples: time-sequence
After the battle, there was a snowstorm.
They fought a battle. Afterwards , it snowed.
The battle was followed by a snowstorm.
4. Lexical cohesion : It occurs when two words in a text are semantically related. It denotes links between words which carry meaning: verbs, nouns, adjectives.
 Two types of lexical cohesion are differentiated, namely: reiteration and collocation .
 Reiteration adopts various forms, particularly synonymy, repetition, hyponymy or antonyms.
 Collocation is the way in which certain words occur together in one text but not in another. We can say that the background knowledge of the reader/listener plays an important role in understanding the text. e.g my neighbour broke my fence. The scoundrel did it on purpose. which is why it is easy to make out what will follow the first item.
 E.g. guerilla warfare– freedom fighters or terrorists.
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