Studies on learning strategies
Much of the research into vocabulary learning strategies has been aimed at determining the most effective
vocabulary memorization techniques, developing taxonomies of strategy usage, and at identifying the
vocabulary learning strategy (VLS) usage that distinguishes good and poor language learners.
A number of significant research studies have investigated how learners use vocabulary learning
strategies. Some of these have attempted to determine which strategies learners use (or claim to
use) and which they consider helpful. Others have focused on relationships between strategy use
and success in language learning according to various measures. There have also been attempts
to develop taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies on the basis of empirical research.
Several of those studies are summarized here. As will be seen, many of the authors refer in some
way to the need to address strategy training in the language classroom.
ÇALIŞKANa and SÜNBÜL ( 2011) investigated the effects of learning strategies
instruction on metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive skills, and achievement.
An experimental pre-test/post-test control group design was used in the research.
The study was conducted in the 2008-2009 school year on 6th grade students at
Orgeneral Tural and Dikmeli Primary Schools located in the city center of Konya.
Forty-two students participated in the study, 21 in the experimental group and 21 in
the control group. Groups were qualized on the basis of the Learning Strategies
Scale, Turkish Lesson Metacognitive Knowledge Interview Form, and pre-test
results of Turkish Lesson Achievement Test. In the experimental group, strategy
instruction was given by the researcher himself for 15 weeks, using a direct
instruction approach. At the end of the study, it was found that learning strategies
instruction increased awareness of strategy and metacognitive knowledge and it
was effective in using metacognitive skills. It was also found that using
metacognitive skills increased achievement.
TULUHONG (2006) conducted a study whose purpose was to describe the vocabulary learning
strategies of proficient and less proficient Malaysian Chinese ESL tertiary learners. Two hundred
and twenty-three Chinese students from thirteen Faculties at Universiti Putra Malaysia were
involved in this study. A questionnaire of Vocabulary Learning Strategies and a semi-structured
interview were used to collect the data. The interviews were audio taped. Data was analyzed
quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Science. The interview data was analyzed
qualitatively by identifying patterns in the responses. The analysis revealed that Malaysian
Chinese ESL learners do make use of a variety of learning strategies in English vocabulary
learning. Learners most actively use meta-cognitive strategies, such as use of English language
media (internet, newspaper, TV etc.). Cognitive and memory strategies are also actively used in
learning English vocabulary. However, social strategies are the least used strategies type. In
learning English vocabulary, Chinese ESL learners commonly use English-language internet,
take note in/out of class, guess from textual context in reading, use a bilingual dictionary and use
English-language media. Both proficient and less proficient Chinese ESL learners most actively
use more meta-cognitive strategies while least actively use social strategies. In addition, less
proficient learners use a less number of strategies in learning English vocabulary. Factors that
affecting choice of Chinese ESL learners’ vocabulary learning strategies are learner’ proficiency
level, gender, age, programme (major) that learners enrolled in, and their first language.
Erten and Tekin (2008) reported on a study which investigated the effect on vocabulary recall
of introducing new words via two different methods. A one-group quasi-experimental research
design with alternating time series measures was employed. A group of 60 fourth graders were
taught 80 carefully selected words either in semantically related sets or semantically unrelated
sets. Also under investigation was the effect of these methods on test completion. The statistical
analysis revealed that learning words in semantically unrelated sets yields better results than
learning vocabulary in semantically related sets. The difference persisted in the long term.
Further, test completion time was much longer for the semantically related vocabulary items,
indicating a slower recall of vocabulary. The study indicated that, contrary to frequent practice in
many course books, presenting new vocabulary that belongs to the same semantic set together
may cause interference due to cross-association and may even hinder vocabulary learning. Such
practice needs to be questioned and alternative methods that involve presenting vocabulary in
unrelated sets need to be developed to facilitate vocabulary teaching and learning.
The present investigation aims to examine what types of vocabulary learning
strategies and how often vocabulary learning strategies were reported being used by
undergraduate English major and non-English major students. It also aims to explore
how five independent variables, namely, the student’s gender, major field of study,
previous language learning experience, type of academic programme of study, and
level of vocabulary proficiency, relate to vocabulary learning strategies. Specifically,
the purposes of the present investigation are:
1. to investigate types and frequency of vocabulary learning strategies which
undergraduate English major as well as science-oriented and non science-oriented
students at Rajabhat Universities reported employing to discover the meaning of new
vocabulary items, to retain the knowledge of the newly-learned vocabulary items, and
to expand the knowledge of vocabulary;
2. to investigate the relationships between frequency of students’ use of
vocabulary learning strategies and five independent variables: gender, major field of
study, previous language learning experience, type of academic programme of study,
and level of vocabulary proficiency; and
3. to examine patterns of significant variation in the frequency of students’ report
of vocabulary learning strategy use at different levels with reference to the five
independent variables mentioned. The
research subjects under the present investigation were 1,481 undergraduate students
studying at 12 Rajabhat Universities in academic year 2006, obtained through the
multi-stage sampling. Semi-structured interviews and a strategy questionnaire were
used as the main methods for data collection. The findings reveal that three main vocabulary
categories: the discovery of the
meaning of new vocabulary items (DMV), the retention of the knowledge of newlylearned
vocabulary items (RKV), and the expansion of the knowledge of vocabulary
(EKV), were discovered and examined. The findings
also reveal that frequency of students’ overall reported use of strategies varied
significantly according to the examined variables. The factor analysis results show
that seven factors were found strongly related to four examined variables, including
gender of the students, major field of study, previous language learning experience
and level of vocabulary proficiency. No factors were found to be related to type of
academic programme of study.
Lai 's (2005) study investigated the awareness, beliefs, and instructional practices with respect to
vocabulary learning strategies of Taiwanese EFL teachers in senior high school contexts. Over the
past two decades, vocabulary learning strategies have appeared to be of much concern in that the
pressing need of building up a repertoire of lexical words at hand is readily seen by L2 learners and
vocabulary acquisition has revived to play a central role in the language classroom. However, the fact
that the majority of L2 learners have traditionally been taught by methods paying insufficient
attention to vocabulary might lead on to an unfavourable scenario whereby vocabulary acquisition
continues to be neglected, since language teachers themselves have been mostly instructed toward
grammar-oriented language learning. Studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices have suggested that
the “13,000-hour apprenticeship of observation” in the classroom plays a significant role in teachers’
underlying assumptions and beliefs in language learning, which then exerts considerable influence on
their teaching practices. Thus, the present study attempted to elicit information about teachers’
awareness and beliefs based on individual learning experience, and further examine the correlations
between teachers’ beliefs and their teaching practices. A questionnaire was implemented to collect
data on the issues involved. The results have suggested that the English teachers studied were aware
of a range of vocabulary learning strategies, including both direct and indirect approaches to
vocabulary acquisition. Nevertheless, some teaching practices seemed not to conform to researchinformed orientation, implying the gap between the reality in the language classroom and
implications from empirical research. Overall speaking, there existed positive correlations between
the teachers’ beliefs and their instructional practices. Some minor discrepancies involved might be
attributable to various contextual factors. Thus, a need is seen to incorporate awareness-raising
activities in pre-service or in-service teacher education programs to inform language practitioners of
the state-of-the-art vocabulary pedagogy based on empirical research, as well as some practicable
approaches to dealing with contextual dilemmas.
In Liao's study, university freshmen in one university located in central Taiwan were surveyed
on their use of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) adopting a revised
version (Alpha= .91) of Schmitt’s (1997) vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire.
Totally, 625 freshmen were surveyed. Four research questions are: (1) What are the
most frequently used VLS by freshmen? (2) What are the least frequently used VLS
by freshmen? (3) What are the differences between males and females in their use of
VLS? (4) Are there any differences in their use of VLS between English-majors and
non-English majors? The results have shown that metacognitive and social
strategies are two least used strategy categories used by the subjects. Female
freshmen used more vocabulary learning strategies than male ones. Also,
English-majored students use VLS more frequently than non-English majoring ones.
Pedagogical implications for English teachers, textbook designers, and learners are
provided.
Using Oxford's SILL (1990 Version 7.0), Liu (2004) investigated EFL learning strategy use
among a group of 428 technological institute English majors in China and 6 factors affecting
their strategy choice. The paper here focused on the frequency of EFL learning strategy use and
its two affecting factors: gender and language proficiency. Descriptive statistics indicate that the
Chinese technological institute English majors were medium strategy users (Overall strategy use
M = 3.25, SD=.53); the most frequently used strategies were Metacognitive strategies (M =3.74,
SD=.64) and the least frequently used were Memory strategies (M=2.91, SD= .61). Independent
Sample T-test shows that learners with better EFL proficiency reported using the overall strategy
and each of the six categories of strategy significantly more frequently than learners with lower
EFL proficiency did. The study also revealed significant gender differences among Overall
strategy use, Memory strategies and Affective strategies with females surpassing males in each
case. In light of the previous research, the findings were discussed and recommendations
provided.
Chang et al (2007) designed a study to investigate the influence of gender and major on college
EFL learning strategy use in Taiwan. A total of 1758 Taiwanese college EFL learners took part
in this research study. The participants completed the two sets of self-reported questionnaires,
including Background Characteristics and Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1989). The collected data were
computed and analyzed via descriptive statistics, t-test, and one-way ANOVA. The
findings of the study were generalized as follows: (1) There was not a great difference
among the frequency of each strategy that Taiwanese college EFL learners report
using, all in medium-use level. (2) Statistically significant differences were found in
the use of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social strategies and overall
strategies with regard to gender. (3) Statistically significant differences were found in
the use of six subcategories of language learning strategies and overall strategies with
regard to major. In the end of this study, the pedagogical implications were provided.
Zhi-liang1's (2010) paper has investigated the pattern of English vocabulary learning
strategies used by the non-English major students in Chinese Independent Colleges:
their attitudes to vocabulary learning; the strategies they usually use; the problems of
vocabulary learning in English study; the most effective vocabulary learning strategies
they assume; differences among the students with different grades, genders, English
proficiency and so on. The survey has been done on the non-English majors from grade
1 to 3 in Beihai College of Beihang University. The aim of the paper is to help English
learners to improve their ability of vocabulary learning and develop their English
proficiency by providing some practical suggestions to both teachers and learners.
Nemati (2009) attempted to compare the impacts of teaching through memory strategies on
experimental group comparison to control group, where students were taught the meaning of new
vocabulary items through giving synonyms and mini-contexts. The results are reflected in the
students' short-term and long-term retention. The participants of the study comprised 310 Indian
pre-university females. The results indicated that the students of experimental group
outperformed both in short-term
and long-term scores, portrayed the superiority of memory strategies in short-term and long-term
retention. As many learners do not develop sufficient mastery of the vocabulary explicit
instruction of memory strategies and giving strategy awareness can facilitate them to store and
retrieve new vocabulary items. Also, it was shown that being over-dependent on survey tools are
open to question, in spite of being widely used.
Prevost's (2009) investigated a vocabulary instructional strategy in a high school
biology class. The research questions focused on understanding the vocabulary
instructional strategy and student perception of the strategy. This was an evaluative
case study using a convenience sample of a college preparatory biology class of
special education students. Participants included eight males and two females who
were identified as having learning, emotional or health disabilities with average to
low average intelligence. Informal interviews, observations, school records, student
and teacher artifacts and rich description were used for data triangulation. Analysis
involved coding and grouping data by category, and identification of relationships
between categories. Three themes emerged from this study:
Students believed the strategy helped them to learn vocabulary, the strategy gave
direction to instruction, and the strategy can be difficult to implement. The skill
level of our future work force and the health of our society is linked to our nation’s
high school graduation rate. Development of instructional strategies that result in
student academic success will improve our high school graduation rate which will
result in positive social change.
Gidey (2008) conducted a study to investigate vocabulary-learning strategies used by
high and low achiever students. The focus was to see similarities and differences between
high and low achiever students in using vocabulary-learning strategies. To this end, a
questionnaire was designed using Schmitt (1997) model. The questionnaire was
administered to 30 students (15 high achievers and 15 low achievers) from Gondar
College of Teacher Education. The frequency and t-test were used to analyze the data.The
frequency was used to describe the information taken from the questionnaire. The t-test
(with significant difference level P<0.05) was applied to check if there was a statistically
significant difference between “high’ and ‘low’ achievers in using each sub-category of
vocabulary learning strategies. The finding shows that there was a relationship between
vocabulary learning strategy use and language learning achievement. The more successful
language learners (i.e.high achievers) use more vocabulary learning strategies than the
less successful learners (i.e. low achievers).
Sanaoui (1995) carried out a study to demonstrate the relationship
between vocabulary strategies use and success in acquiring and retaining
vocabulary items. The study demonstrates that adult learners of second language
vocabulary were likely to fall into two categories: Those who adopted a structured
approach to their vocabulary and those who did not. Learners in the first group
took control of their vocabulary learning. They did not merely rely on what the
language course provided with them. They used their own initiative in regular
creating opportunities for vocabulary learning by listening to the radio, watching
movies, reading and using selfstudy. They kept systematic record of vocabulary
they learned by using vocabulary notebooks and lists. They reviewed what they
had done several times a week. However, the learners in the second group who
followed unstructured approach relied mainly on course material. If they made
lists of vocabulary items, they did not review them and they occasionally lost
them. Sanaoui (1995) concluded that students who had a structured learning
approach were more successful in retaining the vocabulary items taught in their
classrooms than learners who had an unstructured approach
Xhaferi's (2008) study is to find out what types of vocabulary learning strategies are used
by female and male students at South East European University in learning highfrequency and low-frequency words. This is
an attempt to provide some insights in the strategy use among female and male students
studying at SEEU and to find out if the students who have received any strategy training
are more effective users that those who did not.
The study also aims to investigate the teachers' attitude towards teaching vocabulary in
their regular instruction and what approaches they use with students in their classes. This
could enable the researchers and teachers to find out if there is any difference in strategy
use between learners of different genders and the data drawn from the research will
enable teachers to find out
more about the preferred strategies used by their students and help them design more
attractive vocabulary activities. The purpose of the present study is to find out what types
of vocabulary learning strategies are used by female and male students at South East
European University in learning high-frequency and low-frequency words. This is an
attempt to provide some insights in the strategy use among female and male students
studying at SEEU and to find out if the students who have received any strategy training
are more effective users that those who did not. The study also aims to investigate the
teachers' attitude
towards teaching vocabulary in their regular instruction and what approaches they use
with students in their classes. This could enable the researchers and
teachers to find out if there is any difference in strategy use between learners of different
genders and the data drawn from the research will enable teachers to find out more about
the preferred strategies used by their students and help them design more attractive
vocabulary activities. The first instrument is a
background questionnaire, which aims to obtain some background information about the
participants and their English learning experiences (Appendix 1).
The second instrument is a student survey which includes thirty vocabulary learning
strategies, and to add four more if they use but they are not included in the list. The third
instrument is a teacher questionnaire and the aim is to find more information about the
teachers' attitudes that they hold about teaching vocabulary and what techniques they use
Noor and Amir (2004) conducted a study to explore the strategy use of vocabulary learning among
a group of EFL learners. A sample of 35 respondents participated in the study. Data collection was
carried out through questionnaires. The results revealed that there were distinctive strategy uses to
vocabulary learning among the learners. To conclude, the paper will discuss the implications of the
findings and some pedagogical considerations for the teaching and learning of vocabulary within an
EFL context.
RANALLI (2003)The purpose of this study is to consider how vocabulary learning strategies are
treated in one area of endeavor in the field of ELT; namely, coursebooks. The goal is to
determine to what degree, if any, current coursebooks contribute to the development of learners’
skilled use of vocabulary learning strategies. Which strategies are in evidence in current
coursebooks? Are they presented implicitly or explicitly? Are they integrated into languagelearning activities, or treated in one-off supplementary sections? Are the steps involved in using
the strategy spelled out for learners, or is a more general approach adopted? To answer these
questions, a review of the literature of vocabulary learning strategies, as well as general learning
strategies and learner training, was conducted and a subset of ‘key’ strategies was identified.
Next, an analytic framework was developed on the basis of this review. Three popular upperlevel commercial coursebooks were selected and analyzed according to this framework. The
findings are presented here and their implications for teachers, materials writers and others
involved in ELT are discussed.
Schmitt (1997) investigated the vocabulary learning strategies of 600 Japanese
learners in four different age groups, using a questionnaire to determine which
strategies they saw as helpful and which they actually used. The results showed a
trend away from form-based strategies and towards meaning-based strategies as
learners got older. One striking finding was a strong preference for bilingual
dictionaries, which was the most commonly used strategy and also considered the
most helpful. In several other cases, however, a strategy which a majority of
learners perceived as helpful was actually used by less than half the sample,
leading Schmitt to conclude that “learners may be willing to try new strategies if
they are introduced to them and instructed in them” (1997:221).
In a study, Bernardo & Gonzales (2009) attempted to compare the strategies used by the subjects
across disciplines and to uncover if significant differences existed as regards the category and frequency
of the VLS. A researcher-designed inventory using Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy was used to gather
pertinent data. The data on the frequencies of use of the five identified VLS namely: Determination,
Social, Memory, Cognitive, and Metacognitive were compared to explore apparent differences
.Findings revealed statistically significant differences in the use of determination and social VLS across
the disciplines. Another finding exhibited non-significant differences in the employment of memory,
cognitive, and metacognitive VLS. The results also showed that the identified vocabulary learning
strategies converged with each other. Correlation analysis also showed significant positive association
between the VLS. This research could be best used by language faculty as means to improve students’
vocabulary learning and acquisition.
.
Tao (2006) conducted a study in which he investigated vocabulary learning
strategies used by non－English majors at North－West Minorities University. The
statistical results showed that rote learning strategies were most co m m only used
by the
students ,while most metacognitive strategies and context -oriented cognitive
strategies were seldom used．
Nemati's (2009) study was an attempt to compare the impacts of teaching through memory
strategies on experimental group comparison to control group, where students were taught the
meaning of new vocabulary items through giving synonyms and mini-contexts. The results are
reflected in the students' short-term and long-term retention. The participants of the study
comprised 310 Indian pre-university females. The results indicated that the students of
experimental group outperformed both in short-term and long-term scores, portrayed the
superiority of memory strategies in short-term and long-term retention. As many learners do not
develop sufficient mastery of the vocabulary explicit instruction of memory strategies and giving
strategy awareness can facilitate them to store and retrieve new vocabulary items. Also, it was
shown that being over-dependent on survey tools are open to question, in spite of being widely
used.
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Paula M. Winke
Michigan State University
Rebekha Abbuhl
California State University, Long Beach
Paula M. Winke (PhD, Georgetown University) is Assistant Professor of second Language
Studies at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan.
Rebefeha Abbuhl (PhD, Georgetown University) is Assistant Professor of Linguistics at
California State University, Long Beach in Long Beach, California.
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Vocabulary. See University.
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Education Students. PH.D. thesis , College Of Education Walden University
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