THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH
ESSAY
A classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essay. It is not the only
format for writing an essay, of course, but it is a useful model for you to keep in
mind, especially as you begin to develop your composition skills.
Introduction:
Introductory Paragraph
The introductory paragraph should also include a statement, a kind of mini-outline for the
essay: it tells the reader what the essay is about. The last sentence of this paragraph must also
contain a transitional "hook" which moves the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the
paper.
Body:
Body — First paragraph:
The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant
example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The topic for this paragraph
should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the essay statement in the
introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to
tie into the second paragraph of the body.
Body — Second paragraph:
The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second
most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first
paragraph in the body . The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence.
This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in
this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.
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Body — Third paragraph:
The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example,
weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The topic for
this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis
statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a
transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final major point being made
in this paper. This hook also leads into the last, or concluding, paragraph.
Conclusion:
Concluding paragraph:
This paragraph should include the following:
1. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,
2. a restatement of the essay statement, using some of the original language or language that
"echoes" the original language. (The restatement, however, must not be a duplicate to essay
statement.)
3. a summary of the three main points from the body of the paper.
4. a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end. (This
final statement may be a "call to action" in an persuasive paper.)
A Sample Paper
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Stephen King, creator of such stories
as Carrie and Pet Sematary, stated that
the Edgar Allan Poe stories he read as a
child gave him the inspiration and
instruction he needed to become the
writer that he is. 2Poe, as does Stephen
King, fills the reader's imagination with
the images that he wishes the reader
to see, hear, and feel. 3His use of vivid,
concrete visual imagery to present
both static and dynamic settings and to
describe people is part of his
technique. 4Poe's short story "The TellTale Heart" is a story about a young
man who kills an old man who cares
for him, dismembers the corpse, then
The introductory paragraph includes a
paraphrase of something said by a
famous person in order to get the
reader's attention. The second
sentence leads up to the thesis
statement which is the third sentence.
The thesis statement (sentence 3)
presents topic of the paper to the
reader and provides a mini- outline.
The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery.
The mini- outline tells the reader that
this paper will present Poe's use of
imagery in three places in his writing:
(1) description of static setting; (2)
description of dynamic setting; and (3)
description of a person. The last
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goes mad when he thinks he hears the
old man's heart beating beneath the
floor boards under his feet as he sits
and discusses the old man's absence
with the police. 5In "The Tell-Tale
Heart," a careful reader can observe
Poe's skillful manipulation of the
senses.
sentence of the paragraph uses the
words "manipulation" and "senses" as
transitional hooks.
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The sense of sight, the primary sense,
is particularly susceptible to
manipulation. 2In "The Tell-Tale Heart,"
Poe uses the following image to
describe a static scene: "His room was
as black as pitch with the thick
darkness . . ." Poe used the words
"black," "pitch," and "thick darkness"
not only to show the reader the
condition of the old man's room, but
also to make the reader feel the
darkness." 3"Thick" is a word that is not
usually associated with color
(darkness), yet in using it, Poe
stimulates the reader's sense of feeling
as well as his sense of sight.
In the first sentence of the second
paragraph (first paragraph of the
body) the words "sense" and
"manipulation" are used to hook into
the end of the introductory paragraph.
The first part of the second sentence
provides the topic for this paragraph-imagery in a static scene. Then a
quotation from "The Tell-Tale Heart" is
presented and briefly discussed. The
last sentence of this paragraph uses
the expressions "sense of feeling" and
"sense of sight" as hooks for leading
into the third paragraph.
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The first sentence of the third
paragraph (second paragraph of the
body)uses the words "sense of sight"
and "sense of feeling" to hook back
into the previous paragraph. Note that
in the second paragraph "feeling"
came first, and in this paragraph
"sight" comes first. The first sentence
also includes the topic for this
paragraph--imagery in a dynamic
scene. Again, a quotation is taken from
the story, and it is briefly discussed.
The last sentence uses the words "one
Further on in the story, Poe uses a
couple of words that cross not only the
sense of sight but also the sense of
feeling to describe a dynamic
scene. 2The youth in the story has been
standing in the open doorway of the
old man's room for a long time, waiting
for just the right moment to reveal
himself to the old man in order to
frighten him. 3Poe writes: "So I opened
it [the lantern opening]--you cannot
imagine how stealthily, stealthily-until, at length, a single dim ray, like
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the thread of the spider, shot from out
the crevice and fell full upon the
vulture eye." 4By using the metaphor
of the thread of the spider (which we
all know is a creepy creature) and the
word "shot," Poe almost makes the
reader gasp, as surely did the old man
whose one blind eye the young man
describes as "the vulture eye."
blind eye" which was in the quotation.
This expression provides the
transitional hook for the last paragraph
in the body of the paper.
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The reader does not know much
about what the old man in this story
looks like except that he has one blind
eye. 2In the second paragraph of "The
Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes the
young man's obsession with that blind
eye when he writes: "He had the eye of
the vulture--a pale blue eye, with a film
over it."3This "vulture eye" is evoked
over and over again in the story until
the reader becomes as obsessed with
it as does the young man. 4His use of
the vivid, concrete word "vulture"
establishes a specific image in the mind
of the reader that is inescapable.
In the first sentence of the fourth
paragraph (third paragraph in the
body), "one blind eye" is used that
hooks into the previous paragraph.
This first sentence also lets the reader
know that this paragraph will deal with
descriptions of people: ". . . what the
old man looks like . . .." Once again Poe
is quoted and discussed. The last
sentence uses the word "image" which
hooks into the last paragraph. (It is less
important that this paragraph has a
hook since the last paragraph is going
to include a summary of the body of
the paper.)
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The first sentence of the concluding
paragraph uses the principal words
from the quotations from each
paragraph of the body of the paper.
This summarizes those three
paragraph. The second and third
sentences provide observations which
can also be considered a summary, not
only of the content of the paper, but
also offers personal opinion which was
logically drawn as the result of this
study. The last sentence returns to the
Edgar Allan Poe-Stephen King
"Thick darkness," "thread of the
spider," and "vulture eye" are three
images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale
Heart" to stimulate a reader's
senses. 2Poe wanted the reader to see
and feel real life. 3He used concrete
imagery rather than vague abstract
words to describe settings and
people. 4If Edgar Allan Poe was one of
Stephen King's teachers, then readers
of King owe a debt of gratitude to that
nineteenth-century creator of horror
stories.
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relationship which began this paper.
This sentence also provides a "wrapup" and gives the paper a sense of
finality.
How to Write an Essay
On this page you will find some guidance on how you should write an essay.
There are then model answers on the following pages for different types of essay and
different questions, with some brief guidance on each.
It is important to analyze model answers for IELTS essays because there are different
essay types, and these will require different ways to answer them.
However, as you will see from the guidance on this page, they can all follow the same
basic structure.
These are some of the types of IELTS essay we will look at:
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

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Agree / disagree
Discuss two opinions
Advantages & disadvantages
Causes (reasons) & solutions
Causes (reasons) & effects
Problems & solutions
Compare & contrast
Not every essay will fit one of these patterns, but many do. You may get some of these
tasks mixed up. For example, you could be asked to give your opinion on an issue, and
then discuss the advantages or disadvantages of it.
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The golden rule is to ALWAYS read the question very carefully to see exactly what
you are being asked to do.
How do I Write an Essay?
In order to answer this, lets first look at a sample question:
You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.
Present a written argument to an educated reader with no specialist
knowledge of the following topic.
In the last 20 years there have been significant developments in
the field of information technology (IT), for example the World
Wide Web and communication by email. However, these
developments in IT are likely to have more negative effects than
positive in the future.
To what extent do you agree with this view?
Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your
own experience or knowledge.
You should write at least 250 words.
An IELTS essay is structured like any other essay; you just need to make it shorter.
There are three key elements:
1. Introduction
2. Body Paragraphs
3. Conclusion
We will look at each of these in turn, using the essay question above as an example.
1) Introduction
You should keep your introduction for the IT essay short. Remember you only have 40
minutes to write the essay, and some of this time needs to be spent planning.
Therefore, you need to be able to write your introduction fairly quickly so you can start
writing your body paragraphs.
You should do just two things:

State the topic of the essay, using some basic facts (that you may be able to take
from the question)
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
Say what you are going to write about
Here is an example introduction for the above essay question about IT:
The last two decades have seen enormous changes in the way people's lives
are affected by IT, with many advances in this field. However, while these
technological advances have brought many benefits to the world, it can be
argued that these developments in IT will result in more negative impacts
than positive.
As you can see, the first sentence makes sure it refers to the topic (IT) and uses facts
about IT taken from the question. Note that these are paraphrased - you must not copy
from the rubric!
The second part then clearly sets out the what the essay will be about and confirms the
writers opinion (some questions may not ask for your opinion, but this one does).
2) Body Paragraphs
For an IT essay, you should have 2 or 3 body paragraphs - no more, and no less.
For your body paragraph, each paragraph should contain one controlling idea, and have
sentences to support this.
Let’s look at the first paragraph for the essay about IT. The essay is about the benefits
and drawbacks of IT, so these will need to be discussed in separate paragraphs.
Here is the first body paragraph:
To begin, email has made communication, especially abroad, much simpler and
faster, resulting in numerous benefits for commerce and business. Furthermore,
the World Wide Web means that information on every conceivable subject is
now available to us. For example, people can access news, medical advice,
online education courses and much more via the internet. It is evident that these
improvements have made life far easier and more convenient for large numbers
of people and will continue to do so for decades to come.
The controlling idea in this first paragraph is the 'benefits of IT', and there are two
supporting ideas, which are underlined. No drawbacks are discussed as the paragraph
would then lose coherence.
Most of the essay will focus on the negative aspects of IT, as the writer says there are
more negative effects in the introduction. So the next two paragraphs are about these.
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The topic sentence in the next paragraph therefore tells us we are changing the focus to
the negative points:
Nevertheless, the effects of this new technology have not all been
beneficial. For example, many people feel that the widespread use of email is
destroying traditional forms of communication such as letter writing, telephone
and face-to-face conversation. This could result in a decline in people's basic
ability to socialize and interact with each other on a day-to-day basis.
The final body paragraph gives the last negative effect:
In addition, the large size of the Web has meant that it is nearly impossible to
regulate and control. This has led to many concerns regarding children
accessing unsuitable websites and viruses. Unfortunately, this kind of problem
might even get worse in the future at least until more regulated systems are set
up.
3) Conclusion
The conclusion only needs to be one or two sentences, and you can do the following:


Re-state what the essay is about (re-write the last sentence of your introduction in
different words)
Give some thoughts about the future
Here is an example:
In conclusion, developments in IT have brought many benefits, yet I believe
developments relating to new technology are likely to produce many negative
effects in the future that must be addressed if we are to avoid damaging impacts
on individuals and society.
The full Essay:
The last two decades have seen enormous changes in the way people's lives are
affected by IT, with many advances in this field. However, while these technological
advances have brought many benefits to the world, it can be argued that these
developments in IT will result in more negative impacts than positive.
To begin, email has made communication, especially abroad, much simpler and faster,
resulting in numerous benefits for commerce and business. Furthermore, the World
Wide Web means that information on every conceivable subject is now available to us.
For example, people can access news, medical advice, online education courses and
much more via the internet. It is evident that these improvements have made life far
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easier and more convenient for large numbers of people and will continue to do so for
decades to come.
Nevertheless, the effects of this new technology have not all been beneficial. For
example, many people feel that the widespread use of email is destroying traditional
forms of communication such as letter writing, telephone and face-to-face conversation.
This could result in a decline in people's basic ability to socialize and interact with each
other on a day-to-day basis.
In addition, the large size of the Web has meant that it is nearly impossible to regulate
and control. This has led to many concerns regarding children accessing unsuitable
websites and viruses. Unfortunately, this kind of problem might even get worse in the
future at least until more regulated systems are set up.
In conclusion, developments in IT have brought many benefits, yet I believe
developments relating to new technology are likely to produce many negative effects in
the future that must be addressed if we are to avoid damaging impacts on individuals
and society.
General Essay Writing Tips
Despite the fact that, as Shakespeare said, "the pen is mightier than the sword," the pen
itself is not enough to make an effective writer. In fact, though we may all like to think of
ourselves as the next Shakespeare, inspiration alone is not the key to effective essay
writing. You see, the conventions of English essays are more formulaic than you might think
– and, in many ways, it can be as simple as counting to five.
The Five Paragraph Essay
Though more advanced academic papers are a category all their own, the basic high school or college essay has the
following standardized, five paragraph structure:
Paragraph 1: Introduction
Paragraph 2: Body 1
Paragraph 3: Body 2
Paragraph 4: Body 3
Paragraph 5: Conclusion
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The Introduction
The principle purpose of the introduction is to present your position (this is also known as the " "argument") on the
issue at hand but effective introductory paragraphs are so much more than that. Before you even get to this essay
statement, for example, the essay should begin with a "hook" that grabs the reader’s attention and makes them want
to read on.
DO - Pay Attention to Your Introductory Paragraph
Because this is the first paragraph of your essay it is your opportunity to give the reader the best first impression
possible. The introductory paragraph not only gives the reader an idea of what you will talk about but also shows
them how you will talk about it. Put a disproportionate amount of effort into this – more than the 20% a simple
calculation would suggest – and you will be rewarded accordingly.
DO NOT - Use Passive Voice or I/My
Active voice, wherein the subjects direct actions rather than let the actions "happen to" them – "he scored a 97%"
instead of "he was given a 97%" – is a much more powerful and attention-grabbing way to write. At the same time,
unless it is a personal narrative, avoid personal pronouns like I, My, or Me. Try instead to be more general and you
will have your reader hooked.
The Body Paragraphs
The middle paragraphs of the essay are collectively known as the body paragraphs and, as alluded to above, the
main purpose of a body paragraph is to spell out in detail the examples that support your essay.
For the first body paragraph you should use your strongest argument or most significant example unless some other
more obvious beginning point (as in the case of chronological explanations) is required. The first sentence of this
paragraph should be the topic sentence of the paragraph that directly relates to the examples listed in the mini-outline
of introductory paragraph.
A one sentence body paragraph that simply cites the example of "George Washington" or "LeBron James" is not
enough, however. No, following this an effective essay will follow up on this topic sentence by explaining to the
reader, in detail, who or what an example is and, more importantly, why that example is relevant.
DO: Tie Things Together
The first sentence – the topic sentence - of your body paragraphs needs to have a lot individual pieces to be truly
effective. Not only should it open with a transition that signals the change from one idea to the next but also it should
(ideally) also have a common thread which ties all of the body paragraphs together. For example, if you used "first" in
the first body paragraph then you should use "secondly" in the second or "on the one hand" and "on the other hand"
accordingly.
DO NOT: Be Too General
Examples should be relevant to the essay and so should the explanatory details you provide for them. It can be hard
to summarize the full richness of a given example in just a few lines so make them count.
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A Word on Transitions
You may have noticed that, though the above paragraph aligns pretty closely with the provided outline, there is one
large exception: the first few words. These words are example of a transitional phrase – others include "furthermore,"
"moreover," but also "by contrast" and "on the other hand" – and are the hallmark of good writing.
Transitional phrases are useful for showing the reader where one section ends and another begins. It may be helpful
to see them as the written equivalent of the kinds of spoken cues used in formal speeches that signal the end of one
set of ideas and the beginning of another. In essence, they lead the reader from one section of the paragraph of
another.
The Conclusion
Although the conclusion paragraph comes at the end of your essay it should not be seen as an afterthought. As the
final paragraph is represents your last chance to make your case and, as such, should follow an extremely rigid
format.
One way to think of the conclusion is, paradoxically, as a second introduction because it does in fact contain many of
the same features. While it does not need to be too long – four well-crafted sentence should be enough – it can make
or break and essay.
Effective conclusions open with a concluding transition ("in conclusion," "in the end," etc.) and an allusion to the
"hook" used in the introductory paragraph. After that you should immediately provide a restatement of your essay
statement.
This should be the fourth or fifth time you have repeated your essay so while you should use a variety of word choice
in the body paragraphs it is acceptable idea to use some (but not all) of the original language you used in the
introduction. This echoing effect not only reinforces your argument but also ties it nicely to the second key element of
the conclusion: a brief (two or three words is enough) review of the three main points from the body of the paper.
DO: Be Powerful
The conclusion paragraph can be a difficult paragraph to write effectively but, as it is your last chance to convince or
otherwise impress the reader, it is worth investing some time in. Take this opportunity to restate your essay with
confidence; if you present your argument as "obvious" then the reader might just do the same.
DO NOT: Copy the First Paragraph
Although you can reuse the same key words in the conclusion as you did in the introduction, try not to copy whole
phrases word for word. Instead, try to use this last paragraph to really show your skills as a writer by being as artful in
your rephrasing as possible.
Taken together, then, the overall structure of a five paragraph essay should look something like this:
Introduction Paragraph

An attention-grabbing "hook"

An essay statement
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
A preview of the three subtopics you will discuss in the body paragraphs.
First Body Paragraph

Topic sentence which states the first subtopic and opens with a transition
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Supporting details or examples
An explanation of how this example proves your thesis
Second Body Paragraph

Topic sentence which states the second subtopic and opens with a transition
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Supporting details or examples
An explanation of how this example proves your essay.
Third Body Paragraph

Topic sentence which states the third subtopic and opens with a transition

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Supporting details or examples
An explanation of how this example proves your essay.
Concluding Paragraph
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
Concluding Transition, Reverse "hook," and restatement of essay.
Rephrasing main topic and subtopics.
Cohesion
The transition from one paragraph to another often presents some difficulty - but it is essential to
maintain continuity and give verbal signposts to your reader. Some common linking words and phrases
which can help you to do this are:
but, however, on the other hand,
yet
indicate
CONTRAST
for example, that is
indicate
ILLUSTRATION
similarly, moreover,
furthermore, in addition
indicate
EXTENSION
therefore, consequently, as a
result, thus
indicate
CONCLUSION
then, after that, ultimately
indicate
THE NEXT STEP
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Descriptive Essays
The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe
something—object, person, place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This
genre encourages the student’s ability to create a written account of a
particular experience. What is more, this genre allows for a great deal of
artistic freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and
moving in the mind of the reader).
One might benefit from keeping in mind this simple maxim: If the reader is
unable to clearly form an impression of the thing that you are describing,
try, try again!
Here are some guidelines for writing a descriptive essay.

Take time to brainstorm
If your instructor asks you to describe your favorite food, make sure that
you jot down some ideas before you begin describing it. For instance, if you
choose pizza, you might start by writing down a few words: sauce, cheese,
crust, pepperoni, sausage, spices, hot, melted, etc. Once you have written
down some words, you can begin by compiling descriptive lists for each one.

Use clear and concise language.
This means that words are chosen carefully, particularly for their
relevancy in relation to that which you are intending to describe.

Choose vivid language.
Why use horse when you can choose stallion? Why not
use tempestuous instead of violent? Or why not miserly in place of cheap?
Such choices form a firmer image in the mind of the reader and often times
offer nuanced meanings that serve better one’s purpose.
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
Use your senses!
Remember, if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to
the senses of the reader. Explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded,
tasted, or looked. Embellish the moment with senses.

What were you thinking?!
If you can describe emotions or feelings related to your topic, you will
connect with the reader on a deeper level. Many have felt crushing loss in
their lives, or ecstatic joy, or mild complacency. Tap into this emotional
reservoir in order to achieve your full descriptive potential.

Leave the reader with a clear impression.
One of your goals is to evoke a strong sense of familiarity and
appreciation in the reader. If your reader can walk away from the essay
craving the very pizza you just described, you are on your way to writing
effective descriptive essays.

Be organized!
It is easy to fall into an incoherent rambling of emotions and senses when
writing a descriptive essay. However, you must strive to present an
organized and logical description if the reader is to come away from the
essay with a cogent sense of what it is you are attempting to describe.
How to Write a Descriptive Essay
More than many other types of essays, descriptive essays strive to create a deeply
involved and vivid experience for the reader. Great descriptive essays achieve this
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affect not through facts and statistics but by using detailed observations and
descriptions.
What do you want to describe?
As you get started on your descriptive essay, it's important for you to identify exactly
what you want to describe. Often, a descriptive essay will focus on portraying one of the
following:
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a person
a place
a memory
an experience
an object
Ultimately, whatever you can perceive or experience can be the focus of your
descriptive writing.
Why are you writing your descriptive essay?
It's a great creative exercise to sit down and simply describe what you observe.
However, when writing a descriptive essay, you often have a particular reason for
writing your description. Getting in touch with this reason can help you focus your
description and imbue your language with a particular perspective or emotion.
Example: Imagine that you want to write a descriptive essay about your grandfather.
You've chosen to write about your grandfather's physical appearance and the way that
he interacts with people. However, rather than providing a general description of these
aspects, you want to convey your admiration for his strength and kindness. This is your
reason for writing the descriptive essay. To achieve this, you might focus one of your
paragraphs on describing the roughness of his hands, roughness resulting from the
labor of his work throughout his life, but you might also describe how he would hold your
hands so gently with his rough hands when having a conversation with you or when
taking a walk.
How should you write your description?
If there's one thing you should remember as you write your descriptive essay, it's the
famous saying: show don't tell. But what's the difference between showing and telling?
Consider these two simple examples:
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
I grew tired after dinner.
As I leaned back and rested my head against the top of the chair, my eyelids
began to feel heavy, and the edges of the empty plate in front of me blurred with
the white tablecloth.
The first sentence tells readers that you grew tired after dinner. The second
sentence shows readers that you grew tired. The most effective descriptive essays are
loaded with such showing because they enable readers to imagine or experience
something for themselves.
As you write your descriptive essay, the best way to create a vivid experience for your
readers is to focus on the five senses.
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
sight
sound
smell
touch
taste
When you focus your descriptions on the senses, you provide vivid and specific details
that show your readers rather than tell your readers what you are describing.
Quick Tips for Writing Your Descriptive Essay
Writing a descriptive essay can be a rich and rewarding experience, but it can also feel
a bit complicated. It's helpful, therefore, to keep a quick checklist of the essential
questions to keep in mind as you plan, draft, and revise your essay.
Planning your descriptive essay:
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

What or who do you want to describe?
What is your reason for writing your description?
What are the particular qualities that you want to focus on?
Drafting your descriptive essay:


What sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures are important for developing
your description?
Which details can you include to ensure that your readers gain a vivid impression
imbued with your emotion or perspective?
Revising your descriptive essay:
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
Have you provided enough details and descriptions to enable your readers to
gain a complete and vivid perception?

Have you left out any minor but important details?
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Have you used words that convey your emotion or perspective?
Sample Descriptive Essay
I have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me that average, ordinary people eagerly
trade in the serenity of the ground for the chance to be tossed through the air like vegetables in a food
processor. It amazes me that at some time in history someone thought that people would enjoy this, and
that person invented what must have been the first of these terrifying machines. For me, it is precisely the
thrill and excitement of having survived the ride that keeps me coming back for more.
My first experience with a carnival ride was a Ferris wheel at a local fair. Looking at that looming
monstrosity spinning the life out of its sardine-caged occupants, I was dumbstruck. It was huge, smoky,
noisy and not a little intimidating. Ever since that initial impression became fossilized in my imagination
many years ago, these rides have reminded me of mythical beasts, amazing dinosaurs carrying off their
screaming passengers like sacrificial virgins. Even the droning sound of their engines brings to mind the
great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with smoke spewing from its exhaust-pipe nostrils.
The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an instant rush of adrenaline. As the death-defying
ride started, a lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to walk the plank. As the ride gained
speed, the resistance to gravity built up against my body until I was unable to move. An almost
imperceptible pause as the wheel reached the top of its climb allowed my body to relax in a brief state of
normalcy. Then there was an assault of stomach-turning weightlessness as the machine continued its
rotation and I descended back toward the earth. A cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the wheel
reached bottom, and much to my surprise I began to rise again.
Each new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning machine. Every ascent left me elated that I
had survived the previous death-defying fall. When another nerve-wracking climb failed to follow the last
exhilarating descent and the ride was over, I knew I was hooked. Physically and emotionally drained, I
followed my fellow passengers down the clanging metal steps to reach the safety of my former footing. I
had been spared, but only to have the opportunity to ride again.
My fascination with these fantastic flights is deeply engrained in my soul. A trip on the wonderful Ferris
wheel never fails to thrill me. Although I am becoming older and have less time, or less inclination, to
play, the child-like thrill I have on a Ferris wheel continues with each and every ride.
17
Narrative Essays
To write a narrative essay, you’ll need to tell a story (usually about something
that happened to you) in such a way that he audience learns a lesson or gains
insight.
Tips for writing effective narrative and descriptive essays:

Tell a story about a moment or event that means a lot to you--it will
make it easier for you to tell the story in an interesting way!

Get right to the action! Avoid long introductions and lengthy
descriptions--especially at the beginning of your narrative.

Make sure your story has a point! Describe what you learned from
this experience.

Use all five of your senses to describe the setting, characters, and
the plot of your story. Don't be afraid to tell the story in your own
voice. Nobody wants to read a story that sounds like a textbook!
Using Concrete Details for Narratives
Effective narrative essays allow readers to visualize everything that's
happening, in their minds. One way to make sure that this occurs is to use
concrete, rather than abstract, details.
Concrete Language…
Abstract Language…
…makes the story or image seem
clearer and more real to us.
...makes the story or image difficult to
visualize.
…gives us information that we can
easily grasp and perhaps empathize
with.
…leaves your reader feeling empty,
disconnected, and possibly confused.
18
The word “abstract” might remind you of modern art. An abstract painting, for
example, does not normally contain recognizable objects. In other words, we
can't look at the painting and immediately say "that's a house" or "that's a bowl
of fruit." To the untrained eye, abstract art looks a bit like a child's fingerpainting--just brightly colored splotches on a canvas.
Avoid abstract language—it won’t help the reader understand what
you're trying to say!
Examples:
Abstract: It was a nice day.
Concrete: The sun was shining and a slight breeze blew across my
face.
Abstract: I liked writing poems, not essays.
Concrete: I liked writing short, rhythmic poems and hated rambling on
about my thoughts in those four-page essays.
Narrative Essays: To Tell a Story
In a narrative essay you tell a story, but you also make a point. So, it is like a story told
for a reason.
A narrative essay uses all the story elements - a beginning and ending, plot, characters,
setting and climax - all coming together to complete the story.
Essential Elements of Narrative Essays
The focus of a narrative essay is the plot, which is told using enough details to build to a
climax. Here's how:




It is usually told chronologically.
It usually has a purpose, which is usually stated in the opening sentence.
It may use dialogue.
It is written with sensory details and vivid descriptions to involve the reader. All
these details relate in some way to the main point the writer is making.
19
All of these elements need to seamlessly combine. A few examples of narrative essays
follow. Narrative essays can be quite long, so instead of a full length example of an
entire essay, only the beginnings of essays are included:
Examples :
Learning Can Be Scary
This excerpt about learning new things and new situations is an example of a personal
narrative essay that describes learning to swim.
“Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the hardest things I've ever had to
do was learn how to swim. I was always afraid of the water, but I decided that swimming was an
important skill that I should learn. I also thought it would be good exercise and help me to
become physically stronger. What I didn't realize was that learning to swim would also make me
a more confident person.
New situations always make me a bit nervous, and my first swimming lesson was no exception.
After I changed into my bathing suit in the locker room, I stood timidly by the side of the pool
waiting for the teacher and other students to show up. After a couple of minutes the teacher
came over. She smiled and introduced herself, and two more students joined us. Although they
were both older than me, they didn't seem to be embarrassed about not knowing how to swim. I
began to feel more at ease.”
The Manager. The Leader.
The following excerpt is a narrative essay from a story about a manager who was a great
leader. Notice the intriguing first sentence that captures your attention right away.
“Jerry was the kind of guy you love to hate. He was always in a good mood and always had
something positive to say. When someone would ask him how he was doing, he would reply, "If
I were any better, I would be twins!" He was a unique manager because he had several waiters
who had followed him around from restaurant to restaurant. The reason the waiters followed
Jerry was because of his attitude. He was a natural motivator. If an employee was having a bad
day, Jerry was there telling the employee how to look on the positive side of the situation.”
The Climb
This excerpt from the climb also captures your attention right away by creating a sense of
mystery. The reader announces that he or she has "this fear" and you want to read on to
see what that fear is.
20
“I have this fear. It causes my legs to shake. I break out in a cold sweat. I start jabbering to
anyone who is nearby. As thoughts of certain death run through my mind, the world appears a
precious, treasured place. I imagine my own funeral, then shrink back at the implications of
where my thoughts are taking me. My stomach feels strange. My palms are clammy. I am
terrified of heights. Of course, it’s not really a fear of being in a high place. Rather, it is the view
of a long way to fall, of rocks far below me and no firm wall between me and the edge. My
sense of security is screamingly absent. There are no guardrails, flimsy though I picture them,
or other safety devices. I can rely only on my own surefootedness—or lack thereof.”
Disney Land
The following narrative essay involves a parent musing about taking her kids to Disney
Land.
“It was a hot sunny day, when I finally took my kids to the Disney Land. My son Matthew and my
daughter Audra endlessly asked me to show them the dream land of many children with Mickey
Mouse and Snow-white walking by and arousing a huge portion of emotions. Somehow these
fairy tale creatures can make children happy without such “small” presents as $100 Lego or a
Barby’s house in 6 rooms and garden furniture. Therefore, I thought that Disney Land was a
good invention for loving parents.”
The Sacred Grove of Oshogbo by Jeffrey Tayler
The following essay contains descriptive language that helps to paint a vivid picture for the
reader of an encounter with a man.
“As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came
out from behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his
mouth, digging into the crevices between algae'd stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a
blue batik shirt known as a buba, baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked
him if he would show me around the shrine. Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of
his stick work and set off down the trail.”
Playground Memory
The first excerpt from, “Playground Memory”, has very good sensory details.
“Looking back on a childhood filled with events and memories, I find it rather difficult to pick on
that leaves me with the fabled “warm and fuzzy feelings.” As the daughter of an Air Force Major,
I had the pleasure of traveling across America in many moving trips. I have visited the
monstrous trees of the Sequoia National Forest, stood on the edge of the Grande Canyon and
have jumped on the beds at Caesar’s Palace in Lake Tahoe. However, I have discovered that
when reflecting on my childhood, it is not the trips that come to mind, instead there are details
from everyday doings; a deck of cards, a silver bank or an ice cream flavor. One memory that
comes to mind belongs to a day of no particular importance. It was late in the fall in Merced,
California on the playground of my old elementary school; an overcast day with the wind
blowing strong. I stood on the blacktop, pulling my hoodie over my ears. The wind was causing
miniature tornados; we called them “dirt devils”, to swarm around me.”
21
Tips on Writing a Narrative Essay
When writing a narrative essay, remember that you are sharing sensory and emotional
details with the reader.

Your words need to be vivid and colorful to help the reader feel the same feelings
that you felt.
 Elements of the story need to support the point you are making and you need to
remember to make reference to that point in the first sentence.
 You should make use of conflict and sequence like in any story.
 You may use flashbacks and flash forwards to help the story build to a climax.
 It is usually written in the first person, but third person may also be used.
Remember, a well-written narrative essay tells a story and makes a point.
Narrative Essay
As a mode of expository writing, the narrative approach, more than any other, offers
writers a chance to think and write about themselves. We all have experiences lodged
in our memories, which are worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes they are so
fused with other memories that a lot of the time spent in writing narrative is in the
prewriting stage.
When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essays are told from
a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and
often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence
of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and
that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last
sentence in the opening paragraph.
22
Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When
the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of
storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details
that are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details
relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make.
To summarize, the narrative essay

is told from a particular point of view

makes and supports a point

is filled with precise detail

uses vivid verbs and modifiers

uses conflict and sequence as does any story

may use dialogue
The purpose of a narrative report is to describe something. Many students write
narrative reports thinking that these are college essays or papers. While the information
in these reports is basic to other forms of writing, narrative reports lack the "higher order
thinking" that essays require. Thus narrative reports do not, as a rule, yield high grades
for many college courses. A basic example of a narrative report is a "book report" that
outlines a book; it includes the characters, their actions, possibly the plot, and, perhaps,
some scenes. That is, it is a description of "what happens in the book." But this leaves
out an awful lot.
What is left out is what the book or article is about -- the underlying concepts,
assumptions, arguments, or point of view that the book or article expresses. A narrative
report leaves aside a discussion that puts the events of the text into the context of what
the text is about. Is the text about love? Life in the fast lane? Society? Wealth and
power? Poverty? In other words, narrative reports often overlook the authors purpose or
point of view expressed through the book or article.
Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three principles in mind.
23
1. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much more interesting to actually
recreate an incident for readers than to simply tell about it.
2. Find a generalization, which the story supports. This is the only way the writer's
personal experience will take on meaning for readers. This generalization does
not have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can concern the writer, men,
women, or children of various ages and backgrounds.
3. Remember that although the main component of a narrative is the story, details
must be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the story.
Conventions of Narrative Essays
In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind.

Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is, using I. However, third
person (he, she, or it) can also be used.

Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details
should create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression. More information
on the use of specific details is available on another page.

Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including
setting and characters; a climax; and an ending.
Here are some popular essay topic examples for your narrative essay type:

First Day at College

The Moment of Success

A Memorable Journey

The Biggest Misunderstanding

The Difficult Decision

The Trip of Your Dreams

The Day You Decided to Change Your Life
The essay topic you choose should be interesting and important to you, because the
best essays are written on the topics that really matter to the writer.
24
How to Write a Narrative Essay
Narrative essays are commonly assigned pieces of writing at different stages
through school. Typically, assignments involve telling a story from your own
life that connects with class themes. It can be a fun type of assignment to
write, if you approach it properly. Learn how to choose a good topic, get a
solid rough draft on paper, and revise your narrative essay.
Steps
Choosing a Good Topic
1. Choose a story that illustrates some topic or theme. Generally,
narrative essays involve two main components: a story and some
analysis of that story. A narrative essay may be "about" a
particular issue, theme, or concept, but it uses a personal
story to illustrate that idea.
o Most of the time, narrative essays will involve no outside
research or references. Instead, you'll be using your
personal story to provide the evidence of some point that
you're trying to make.
o Narrative essays are a common school assignment used to
test your creative story-telling skills, as well as your
ability to connect some element of your personal life to a
topic you might be discussing in class.
2. Make sure your story fits the prompt. Often, narrative essays
are school assignments and they're written based on a prompt
you'll receive from your teacher. Even if you've got a crazy
story about the time you escaped from a deserted island on a hot
air balloon, read the prompt closely to make sure your story
fits the assignment. Common topics for narrative essays include
but are not limited to a description of some moment that:
o You experienced adversity and had to overcome
o You failed and had to deal with the consequences of that
failure
25
Your personality or character was transformed
o You experienced discrimination or experienced privilege
3. Choose a story with a manageable plot. Good narrative essays
tell specific stories with very vibrant and luminous details.
You're not writing a novel, so the story needs to be fairly
contained and concise. Try to limit it as much as possible in
terms of other characters, setting, and plot. A specific family
vacation or weekend with a friend? A disaster holiday, or night
out during high school? Perfect.
o Bad narrative essays are generally too broad. "My senior
year of high school" or "This summer" are examples of
stories that would be far too big to tell in the amount of
specific detail that a good narrative essay requires. Pick
a single event from the summer, or a single week of your
senior year, not something that takes months to unfold.
o It's also good to limit the number of characters you
introduce. Only include other characters who are
absolutely essential. Every single friend from your fifth
grade class will be too many names to keep track of. Pick
one.
4. Choose a story with vibrant details. Good narrative essays are
full of specific details, particular images and language that
helps make the story come alive for the reader. The sights and
smells in your story should all be discussed in particular
details. When you're thinking of stories that might make for
good essays, it's important to think of some that are rich in
these kinds of details.
o Let your imagination fill in the gaps. When you're
describing your grandmother's house and a specific weekend
you remember spending there, it's not important to
remember exactly what was cooked for dinner on Friday
night, unless that's an important part of the story. What
did your grandmother typically cook? What did it usually
smell like? Those are the details we need.
o Typically, narrative essays are "non-fiction," which means
that you can't just make up a story. It needs to have
o
26
really happened. Force yourself to stay as true as
possible to the straight story.
Writing a Draft
1.Outline the plot before you begin. Where does your story start?
Where does it end? Writing up a quick list of the major plot points
in the story is a good way of making sure you hit all the high
points. Every story needs a beginning, a middle, and an end.
o
o
o
It helps to limit things as much as possible. While it
might seem like we need to know a bunch of specific
details from your senior year, Try to think of a
particularly tumultuous day from that year and tell us
that story. Where does that story start? Not the first day
of school that year. Find a better starting point.
If you want to tell the story of your prom night, does it
start when you get dressed? Maybe. Does it start when you
spill spaghetti sauce all down your dress before the
dance? While that might seem like the climax of a story
you want to tell, it might make a better starting place.
Go straight to the drama.
You don't need to write up a formal outline for a
narrative essay unless it's part of the assignment or it
really helps you write. Listing the major scenes that need
to be a part of the story will help you get organized and
find a good place to start.
2.Use a consistent point of view. Generally, narrative essays
will be written in first person, making use of "I" statements,
which is a little unusual compared to other assignments you'll
be given in school. Whether you're giving us scenes with dialog,
or discussing what happened in past-tense, it's perfectly fine
to use first person in a narrative essay.
o
Don't switch perspectives throughout the story. This is a
difficult and advanced technique to Try to pull off, and
27
o
it usually has the effect of being too complicated. There
should only be one "I" in the story.
In general, narrative essays (and short stories for that
matter) should also be told in past tense. So, you would
write "Johnny and I walked to the store every Thursday"
not "Johnny and I are walking to the store, like we do
every Thursday."
3.Describe the important characters. Who else is important to
the story, other than yourself? Who else was present when the
story took place. Who affected the outcome of the story? What
specific, particular details can you remember about the people
in the story? Use these to help build the characters into real
people.
o
o
Particular details are specific and only particular to the
character being described. While it may be specific to say
that your friend has brown hair, green eyes, is 5 feet
tall with an athletic build, these things don't tell us
much about the character. The fact that he only wears silk
dragon shirts? Now that gives us something interesting.
Try writing up a brief sketch of each principal character
in your narrative essay, along with the specific details
you remember about them. Pick a few essentials.
4.Find the antagonist. Good narratives often have a protagonist
and an antagonist. The protagonist is usually the main character
(in most narrative essays, that'll be you) who is struggling
with something. It might be a situation, a condition, or a
force, but whatever the case, a protagonist wants something and
the reader roots for them. The antagonist is the thing or person
who keeps the protagonist from getting what they want.
o
Who or what is the antagonist in your story? To answer
this question, you also need to find out what the
protagonist wants. What is the goal? What's the best case
28
o
scenario for the protagonist? What stands in the
protagonist's way?
The antagonist isn't "the bad guy" of the story,
necessarily, and not every story has a clear antagonist.
Also keep in mind that for some good personal narratives,
you might be the antagonist yourself.
5.Describe the setting. Just as important to a good story as
the characters and the plot is the setting. Where does the story
take place? At home? Outside? In the city or the country?
Describe the location that the story takes place and let the
setting become part of your story.
o
o
Do a freewriting about the location that your story takes
place. What do you know about the place? What can you
remember? What can you find out?
If you do any research for your narrative essay, it will
probably be here. Try to find out extra details about the
setting of your story, or double-check your memory to make
sure it's right.
6.Use vivid details. Good writing is in the details. Even the
most boring office environment or the most dull town can be made
compelling with the right kinds of details in the writing.
Remember to use particulars–unique details that don't describe
anything else but the specific thing you're writing about, and
let these vivid details drive the story.
o
A popular creative writing phrase tells writers to "show"
not to "tell." What this means is that you should give us
details whenever possible, rather than telling us facts.
You might tell us something like, "My dad was always sad
that year," but if you wrote "Dad never spoke when he got
home from work. We heard his truck, then heard as he laid
his battered hardhat on the kitchen table. Then we heard
29
him sigh deeply and take off his work clothes, which were
stained with grease."
Revising Your Essay
1. Make sure your theme is clearly illustrated in the story. After
you've written your rough draft, read back over it with an eye
for your theme. Whatever the purpose of your telling us the
story that you're telling us needs to be made very clear. The
last thing you want is for the reader to get to the end and say,
"Good story, but who cares?" Answer the question before the
reader gets the chance to ask.
o Get the theme into the very beginning of the essay. Just
as a researched argument essay needs to have a thesis
statement somewhere in the first few paragraphs of the
essay, a narrative essay needs a topic statement or a
thesis statement to explain the main idea of the story.
o This isn't "ruining the surprise" of the story, this is
foreshadowing the important themes and details to notice
over the course of the story as you tell it. A good writer
doesn't need suspense in a narrative essay. The ending
should seem inevitable.
2. Use scenes and summaries. All narratives are made of two kinds
of writing: scenes and summaries. Scenes happen when you need to
slow down and tell specific details about an important moment of
the story. Scenes are small moments that take a while to read.
Summary is used to narrate the time between scenes. They are
longer moments that you read over more quickly.
o Scene: "On our walk to the store, Jared and I stopped at
the empty grass lot to talk. 'What's your problem lately?'
he asked, his eyes welling with tears. I didn't know what
to tell him. I fidgeted, kicked an empty paint bucket that
was rusted over at the edge of the lot. 'Remember when we
used to play baseball here?' I asked him."
o Summary: "We finished walking to the store and bought all
the stuff for the big holiday dinner. We got a turkey,
cornbread, cranberries. The works. The store was crazy30
packed with happy holiday shoppers, but we walked through
them all, not saying a word to each other. It took forever
to lug it all home."
3. Use and format dialogue correctly. When you're writing a
narrative essay, it's typically somewhere between a short story
and a regular essay that you might write for school. You'll have
to be familiar with the conventions of formatting both types of
writing, and since most narrative essays will involve some
dialogue, you should make formatting that dialogue correctly a
part of your revision process.
o Anything spoken by a character out loud needs to be
included in quotation marks and attributed to the
character speaking it: "I've never been to Paris," said
James.
o Each time a new character speaks, you need to make a new
paragraph. If the same character speaks, multiple
instances of dialog can exist in the same paragraph.
4. Revise your essay. Revision is the most important part of
writing. Nobody, even the most experienced writers, get it right
on the very first run through. Get a draft finished ahead of
time and give yourself the chance to go back through your story
carefully and see it again. How could it be improved?
o Revise for clarity first. Are your main points clear? If
not, make them clear by including more details or
narration in the writing. Hammer home your points.
o Was the decision you made about the starting place of the
story correct? Or, now that you've written, might it be
better to start the story later? Ask the tough questions.
o Proofreading is one part of revision, but it's a very
minor part and it should be done last. Checking
punctuation and spelling is the last thing you should be
worried about in your narrative essay.
Tips
31





Be sensible while writing. It is necessary to stay on the topic
rather than moving away from it. Do not lose your focus.
Don't worry if you can't grip it at the beginning; writing a
great story takes drafting and revising. Get some second
opinions and input from others as you go.
Divide your essay into paragraphs, according to your limit: an
introduction, two body paragraph and one conclusion. Your
introduction can be either a shocker one, or one just describing
the setting; the conclusion can reveal a surprise, or end with
just a hint of the climax, keeping the final question to be
answered by the readers.
Using second-person or third person narration (you, she) can be
interesting rather than first-person (I, me).
Write only when you have a perfect story to tell. When a reader
finishes reading the story, he\she should feel all those
emotions seep right through his\her rib cage. Only then as a
narrator, have you succeeded .
Opinion Essays
An opinion essay exists to prove your main point – your essay. This should be
clearly stated in your opening paragraph. Don’t leave the reader to guess
what your position is on the issue – make a clear stand!
Next, develop your argument in the body of your essay. Each paragraph
should contain a single, clear idea that support your point of view. You can
use examples and illustration, cause-and-effect reasoning,
32
comparison/contrast or other methods of development to support your
argument.
Research: Any statements you make that would cause a reader to say, “Wait,
how do you know that’s true?” need to be backed up with documentation from
outside sources (“I saw something on TV about it one time” would not be
considered adequate documentation). Refer to the handout “What is
Research?” for further details.
Remember that a paragraph is three to five sentences that develop a single,
clear idea. A good paragraph often begins with a topic sentence that sums
up your main idea.



Paragraph One -- The introduction. Here you state the main idea of your
entire essay -- the point you are trying to make or prove. This paragraph should
include your thesis statement plus three reasons why you believe this
statement to be true.
Paragraphs Two, Three and Four. These are the body of your
essay. Remember back in Paragraph One, you gave three reasons for your
opinion? Three reasons, three body paragraphs. Each of the body paragraphs
should take one of your reasons and explain it in more detail, citing sources
where necessary.
Paragraph Five -- The conclusion. Former Newfoundland premier Joey
Smallwood once said about giving speeches: "First I tell them what I'm going to
tell them, then I tell them, then I tell them what I told them." That's how you write
an essay. In the conclusion, tell them what you told them. Sum up your
argument by restating your thesis statement and reminding the reader what your
three reasons were. In an argumentative essay, you can finish with a "call to
action" -- tell the reader what you would like them to do as a result.
33
Sample Five- Paragraph Opinion Essay
Subject: Should parents have their children vaccinated?
Title
Author’s Name
Paragraph One:
Introduction
Three reasons for my
opinion
Why You Should Vaccinate Your Kids
sample essay for student use by Trudy Morgan-Cole
Since Edward Jenner introduced the first successful smallpox
vaccine by injecting an eight-year-old boy with cowpox pus in 1796,
vaccines have been an important part of public health care around the
world (“Edward Jenner”). Yet today, many parents choose not to
vaccinate their children. Because vaccines are widely supported by
research, have few side effects, and have proven successful in
halting the spread of disease, I believe it is important that all parents
continue to vaccinate their children.
Thesis statement
Paragraph Two:
Develops the first
reason by giving
examples
Topic Sentence
Paragraph Three:
All major health organizations, including the Centres for
Disease Control and the World Health Organization, recommend
vaccination. The value of vaccination is supported by research from
around the world, and researchers are constantly working to improve
the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. Epidemiologists, the
scientists whose job is to study the outbreak of disease, all
recommend vaccination.
Many parents worry about the safety of vaccines. While side
effects do occur, they are usually minor, like redness or swelling
around the site of an injection. In Canada, only about one in a million
doses of vaccine leads to serious side effects (“Fact and Fiction”).
The most famous study linking vaccines to autism, one which got
many parents worried about vaccination, has been proven false and
the doctor who conducted the study has had his medical license
taken away (Triggle).
Topic Sentence
Develops the second
reason, giving facts
and statistics to
support the
Around the world, increased vaccination leads to better public
health. Diseases like smallpox and polio which once killed and
disabled millions of people are virtually unknown today thanks to
immunization programs. Yet in countries like Afghanistan and
Pakistan where the Taliban discourage immunization, rates of polio
34
statement.
are on the rise again (Nordland).
Paragraph Four:
If and when you have children, please get them vaccinated.
The risks are minimal and you’ll not only be following the best advice
of medical science and protecting your own child from disease; you’ll
be helping in the fight to eradicate infectious diseases in your
community and around the world.
Topic sentence
Develops third
reason, giving an
example
Sources Cited
“Edward Jenner (1749-1823),” BBC History: Historic
Figures.http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/jenner_edward.shtml
Paragraph
Five:Conclusion
Restatement of thesis
“Immunization Fact and Fiction,” Public Health Agency of
Canada.http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/im/iyc-vve/fic
Summary of reasons
Nordland, Rod, “After Year of Decline, Polio Cases in Afghanistan Triple in a
Year.” The New York Times, Jan. 17,
2012.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/18/world/asia/after-years-of-declinepolio-cases-in-afghanistan-rise.html
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Comparison and Contrast Essays
Comparing and Contrasting
WHAT THIS HANDOUT IS ABOUT
This handout will help you first to determine whether a particular assignment
is asking for comparison/contrast and then to generate a list of similarities
and differences, decide which similarities and differences to focus on, and
organize your paper so that it will be clear and effective. It will also explain
how you can (and why you should) develop a thesis that goes beyond “Thing
A and Thing B are similar in many ways but different in others.”
INTRODUCTION
In your career as a student, you’ll encounter many different kinds of writing
assignments, each with its own requirements. One of the most common is
the comparison/contrast essay, in which you focus on the ways in which
certain things or ideas—usually two of them—are similar to (this is the
comparison) and/or different from (this is the contrast) one another. By
assigning such essays, your instructors are encouraging you to make
connections between texts or ideas, engage in critical thinking, and go
beyond mere description or summary to generate interesting analysis: when
you reflect on similarities and differences, you gain a deeper understanding
of the items you are comparing, their relationship to each other, and what is
most important about them.
RECOGNIZING COMPARISON/CONTRAST IN ASSIGNMENTS
Some assignments use words—like compare, contrast, similarities, and
differences—that make it easy for you to see that they are asking you to
compare and/or contrast. Here are a few hypothetical examples:

Compare and contrast Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression.

Compare WWI to WWII, identifying similarities in the causes,
development, and outcomes of the wars.
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
Contrast Wordsworth and Coleridge; what are the major differences in
their poetry?
Notice that some topics ask only for comparison, others only for contrast,
and others for both.
But it’s not always so easy to tell whether an assignment is asking you to
include comparison/contrast. And in some cases, comparison/contrast is only
part of the essay—you begin by comparing and/or contrasting two or more
things and then use what you’ve learned to construct an argument or
evaluation. Consider these examples, noticing the language that is used to
ask for the comparison/contrast and whether the comparison/contrast is
only one part of a larger assignment:

Choose a particular idea or theme, such as romantic love, death, or
nature, and consider how it is treated in two Romantic poems.

How do the different authors we have studied so far define and describe
oppression?

Compare Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression. What does each
imply about women’s collusion in their own oppression? Which is more
accurate?

In the texts we’ve studied, soldiers who served in different wars offer
differing accounts of their experiences and feelings both during and after
the fighting. What commonalities are there in these accounts? What
factors do you think are responsible for their differences?
You may want to check out our handout on Understanding Assignmentsfor
additional tips.
USING COMPARISON/CONTRAST FOR ALL KINDS OF WRITING PROJECTS
Sometimes you may want to use comparison/contrast techniques in your
own pre-writing work to get ideas that you can later use for an argument,
even if comparison/contrast isn’t an official requirement for the paper you’re
writing. For example, if you wanted to argue that Frye’s account of
oppression is better than both de Beauvoir’s and Bartky’s, comparing and
contrasting the main arguments of those three authors might help you
construct your evaluation—even though the topic may not have asked for
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comparison/contrast and the lists of similarities and differences you generate
may not appear anywhere in the final draft of your paper.
DISCOVERING SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Making a Venn diagram or a chart can help you quickly and efficiently
compare and contrast two or more things or ideas. To make a Venn
diagram, simply draw some overlapping circles, one circle for each item
you’re considering. In the central area where they overlap, list the traits the
two items have in common. Assign each one of the areas that doesn’t
overlap; in those areas, you can list the traits that make the things different.
Here’s a very simple example, using two pizza places:
To make a chart, figure out what criteria you want to focus on in comparing
the items. Along the left side of the page, list each of the criteria. Across the
top, list the names of the items. You should then have a box per item for
each criterion; you can fill the boxes in and then survey what you’ve
discovered. Here’s an example, this time using three pizza places:
As you generate points of comparison, consider the purpose and content of
the assignment and the focus of the class. What do you think the professor
wants you to learn by doing this comparison/contrast? How does it fit with
what you have been studying so far and with the other assignments in the
course? Are there any clues about what to focus on in the assignment itself?
Here are some general questions about different types of things you might
have to compare. These are by no means complete or definitive lists; they’re
just here to give you some ideas—you can generate your own questions for
these and other types of comparison. You may want to begin by using the
questions reporters traditionally ask: Who? What? Where? When? Why?
How? If you’re talking about objects, you might also consider general
properties like size, shape, color, sound, weight, taste, texture, smell,
number, duration, and location.
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Two historical periods or events
When did they occur—do you know the date(s) and duration? What
happened or changed during each? Why are they significant? What kinds
of work did people do? What kinds of relationships did they have? What
did they value? What kinds of governments were there? Who were
important people involved? What caused events in these periods, and
what consequences did they have later on?
Two ideas or theories
What are they about? Did they originate at some particular time? Who
created them? Who uses or defends them? What is the central focus,
claim, or goal of each? What conclusions do they offer? How are they
applied to situations/people/things/etc.? Which seems more plausible to
you, and why? How broad is their scope? What kind of evidence is usually
offered for them?
Two pieces of writing or art
What are their titles? What do they describe or depict? What is their tone
or mood? What is their form? Who created them? When were they
created? Why do you think they were created as they were? What themes
do they address? Do you think one is of higher quality or greater merit
than the other(s)—and if so, why? For writing: what plot, characterization,
setting, theme, tone, and type of narration are used?
Two people
Where are they from? How old are they? What is the gender, race, class,
etc. of each? What, if anything, are they known for? Do they have any
relationship to each other? What are they like? What did/do they do?
What do they believe? Why are they interesting? What stands out most
about each of them?
DECIDING WHAT TO FOCUS ON
By now you have probably generated a huge list of similarities and
differences—congratulations! Next you must decide which of them are
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interesting, important, and relevant enough to be included in your paper.
Ask yourself these questions:

What’s relevant to the assignment?

What’s relevant to the course?

What’s interesting and informative?

What matters to the argument you are going to make?

What’s basic or central (and needs to be mentioned even if obvious)?

Overall, what’s more important—the similarities or the differences?
Suppose that you are writing a paper comparing two novels. For most
literature classes, the fact that they both use Calson type (a kind of
typeface, like the fonts you may use in your writing) is not going to be
relevant, nor is the fact that one of them has a few illustrations and the
other has none; literature classes are more likely to focus on subjects like
characterization, plot, setting, the writer’s style and intentions, language,
central themes, and so forth. However, if you were writing a paper for a
class on typesetting or on how illustrations are used to enhance novels, the
typeface and presence or absence of illustrations might be absolutely critical
to include in your final paper.
Sometimes a particular point of comparison or contrast might be relevant
but not terribly revealing or interesting. For example, if you are writing a
paper about Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey” and Coleridge’s “Frost at
Midnight,” pointing out that they both have nature as a central theme is
relevant (comparisons of poetry often talk about themes) but not terribly
interesting; your class has probably already had many discussions about the
Romantic poets’ fondness for nature. Talking about the different ways nature
is depicted or the different aspects of nature that are emphasized might be
more interesting and show a more sophisticated understanding of the
poems.
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ORGANIZING YOUR PAPER There are many different ways to organize a
comparison/contrast essay. Here are two:
Subject-by-subject:
Begin by saying everything you have to say about the first subject you
are discussing, then move on and make all the points you want to make
about the second subject (and after that, the third, and so on, if you’re
comparing/contrasting more than two things). If the paper is short, you
might be able to fit all of your points about each item into a single
paragraph, but it’s more likely that you’d have several paragraphs per
item. Using our pizza place comparison/contrast as an example, after the
introduction, you might have a paragraph about the ingredients available
at Pepper’s, a paragraph about its location, and a paragraph about its
ambience. Then you’d have three similar paragraphs about Amante,
followed by your conclusion.
The danger of this subject-by-subject organization is that your paper will
simply be a list of points: a certain number of points (in my example,
three) about one subject, then a certain number of points about another.
This is usually not what college instructors are looking for in a paper—
generally they want you to compare or contrast two or more things very
directly, rather than just listing the traits the things have and leaving it
up to the reader to reflect on how those traits are similar or different and
why those similarities or differences matter. Thus, if you use the subjectby-subject form, you will probably want to have a very strong, analytical
thesis and at least one body paragraph that ties all of your different
points together.
A subject-by-subject structure can be a logical choice if you are writing
what is sometimes called a “lens” comparison, in which you use one
subject or item (which isn’t really your main topic) to better understand
another item (which is). For example, you might be asked to compare a
poem you’ve already covered thoroughly in class with one you are
reading on your own. It might make sense to give a brief summary of
your main ideas about the first poem (this would be your first subject,
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the “lens”), and then spend most of your paper discussing how those
points are similar to or different from your ideas about the second.
Point-by-point:
Rather than addressing things one subject at a time, you may wish to
talk about one point of comparison at a time. There are two main ways
this might play out, depending on how much you have to say about each
of the things you are comparing. If you have just a little, you might, in a
single paragraph, discuss how a certain point of comparison/contrast
relates to all the items you are discussing. For example, I might
describe, in one paragraph, what the prices are like at both Pepper’s and
Amante; in the next paragraph, I might compare the ingredients
available; in a third, I might contrast the atmospheres of the two
restaurants.
If I had a bit more to say about the items I was comparing/contrasting, I
might devote a whole paragraph to how each point relates to each item.
For example, I might have a whole paragraph about the clientele at
Pepper’s, followed by a whole paragraph about the clientele at Amante;
then I would move on and do two more paragraphs discussing my next
point of comparison/contrast—like the ingredients available at each
restaurant.
There are no hard and fast rules about organizing a comparison/contrast
paper, of course. Just be sure that your reader can easily tell what’s
going on! Be aware, too, of the placement of your different points. If you
are writing a comparison/contrast in service of an argument, keep in
mind that the last point you make is the one you are leaving your reader
with. For example, if I am trying to argue that Amante is better than
Pepper’s, I should end with a contrast that leaves Amante sounding
good, rather than with a point of comparison that I have to admit makes
Pepper’s look better. If you’ve decided that the differences between the
items you’re comparing/contrasting are most important, you’ll want to
end with the differences—and vice versa, if the similarities seem most
important to you.
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Our handout on Organization can help you write good topic sentences and
transitions and make sure that you have a good overall structure in place for
your paper.
CUE WORDS AND OTHER TIPS
To help your reader keep track of where you are in the comparison/contrast,
you’ll want to be sure that your transitions and topic sentences are
especially strong. Your thesis should already have given the reader an idea
of the points you’ll be making and the organization you’ll be using, but you
can help her/him out with some extra cues. The following words may be
helpful to you in signaling your intentions:
like, similar to, also, unlike, similarly, in the same way, likewise, again,
compared to, in contrast, in like manner, contrasted with, on the contrary,
however, although, yet, even though, still, but, nevertheless, conversely,
at the same time, regardless, despite, while, on the one hand … on the
other hand.
For example, you might have a topic sentence like one of these:

Compared to Pepper’s, Amante is quiet.

Like Amante, Pepper’s offers fresh garlic as a topping.

Despite their different locations (downtown Chapel Hill and downtown
Carrboro), Pepper’s and Amante are both fairly easy to get to.
Cause and Effect Essays
Definition:
In this kind of essay, the aim is to explain the causes (reasons) or the
effects (results) of an event or situation.
e.g. Causes of air pollution (multiple factors leading to air pollution).
e.g. Effects of watching too much TV (many effects of a situation).
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Sometimes an event causes something to happen, and that situation leads
to another event, and it causes another event to happen. This is called the
causal chain or domino effect.
e.g. Use of deodorants will bring the end of the world.
There may be several causes or effects of a situation. However, in a student
essay, it is advisable to keep the number of major points to 2 or 3, which
form separate developmental paragraphs.
Organization:
Depending on the topic, there may be three patterns of organization:
1. Multiple causes-->effect
In this pattern, the organization is as follows:
thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases
from cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for
heating.
I. exhaust gases from cars
A. government does not have enough control
B. citizens are not conscientious
II. uncontrolled factory gases
A. no regular checks on gases released
B. factories are inside the borders of residential areas
III. burning of low-quality coal for heating
A. no governmental control
B. other forms of energy too expensive
Each developmental paragraph is devoted to one of the causes of air
pollution. Each cause is supported by two minor supports. While writing,
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these major and minor ideas should be adequately explained and
exemplified as well.
2. Cause-->Multiple effects
In this pattern, the effects of a certain situation are explained in separate
paragraphs, with the following organization:
thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major sociological issues of this
century, which has many effects on the physiology and psychology of people.
I. eating disorders
A. TV meals
B. obesity
II. communication problems
A. more violence
B. no interpersonal talk
Again, we have grouped related effects under two main points: physiological
and psychological. Then, we have supported each effect with two minor
supports (A and B). While writing, we should explain these major and minor
supports by giving examples and/or defining what we mean, as well.
3. Causal chain / Domino
In this pattern, the events lead to one another, as in the following
organization:
thesis statement: Using deodorants with chlorofluorocarbon gas will bring the end of
world.
I. Chlorofluorocarbon gases are contained in most deodorants and released by some
factories into the air.
II. This gas causes the ozone layer to become thinner and finally disappear in patches.
III. The unfiltered ultraviolet rays of the sun cause overheating in the poles of the earth,
where the icebergs start to melt.
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IV. The huge amount of water released from the poles leads to a rise in the sea-level.
V. The sea will cover the land and this will be the end of the world.
Again, each major point should be supported with examples, statistics that
show that there are some factories and deodorants that release
chlorofluorocarbons, that there is a rise in the sea-level, etc.
Language:
To explain reasons and results, we use:
As a result,
As a consequence,
Consequently,
So,
Since
As,
Because
One reason why ...
One of the most important reasons why ...
The main reasons why ...
There are other reasons, too, ...
Do not forget that using transitions enables the piece of writing to be
coherent; it is easier for the reader to follow our ideas when transitions are
used to link them together. However, overuse of transitions causes a traffic
jam and should be avoided. We should be using transitions sparingly (only
when necessary).
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Sample cause and effect essay
EFFECTS OF WATCHING TOO MUCH TV
Discoveries and invention of devices are always welcome till
we, humans, find a way to abuse its benefits and be adversely
affected by it. This was the case when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered
x-ray and within five years, the British Army was using a mobile xray unit to locate bullets and shrapnel in wounded soldiers in the
Sudan. TV was also invented with positive thoughts in mind – there
would be no national borders, education and communication would
be worldwide, etc. However, we are now trying to overcome its
physiological and psychological adverse effects on human beings.
One of the physiological effects of watching TV in excessive
amounts is eye-strain. It is true that there are specifications for
watching TV; TV should be 5 m. away from the eye, the room
should be adequately lit, TV should be placed at the same height
with our eyes, etc. However, these do not prevent our eyes from
getting tired if we keep watching TV for a long time. Another effect
is obesity, which is widely observed in people who like watching TV
and eating snacks everyday (there is even a term “TV snacks” to
refer to fast food that is suitable for eating in front of the TV). TV is
such a powerful machine that people cannot get away from it – it is
addictive.
Apart from the physiological effects, TV also causes psychological
effects. One is a result of being exposed to violence. After seeing so
many violent scenes on TV, people start considering violent actions
normal and they lose their sensitivity to their environment. Partly
connected to this effect, the interpersonal communication among
people decreases. Being insensitive to the suffering of other people
causes people to become alienated. Also, after coming home from
work people seek to relax in front of the TV, and generally people
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prefer watching TV to talking to each other. This issue is very
important since lack of interpersonal relationships mostly end with
divorces.
Shortly, inventions are meant to be beneficial for human beings, if
we know how to benefit from them. TV is one of such inventions
that need to be used for the right purpose only – being educated
and entertained for a reasonable (according to age) period of time.
We may, then, be safe from or at least reduce the adverse
physiological and psychological effects of watching too much TV.
Cause and Effect Essay
What is a cause and effect essay?
Cause and effect essays are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what
happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a common method of organizing and
discussing ideas.
Follow these steps when writing a cause and effect essay
1. Distinguish between cause and effect. To determine causes, ask, "Why did this
happen?" To identify effects, ask, "What happened because of this?" The
following is an example of one cause producing one effect:
Cause
You are out of gas.
Effect
Your car won't start.
Sometimes, many causes contribute to a single effect or many effects may result
from a single cause. (Your instructor will specify which cause/effect method to
use.) The following are examples:
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Causes
liked business in high school
salaries in the field are high
have an aunt who is an accountant
am good with numbers
Effect
choose to major in accounting
Cause
reduce work hours
Effects
less income
employer is irritated
more time to study
more time for family and friends
However, most situations are more complicated. The following is an example of a
chain reaction:
Thinking about friend…forgot to buy gas…car wouldn't start…missed math
exam…failed math course.
2. Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing causes,
effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms "cause" and/or
"effect."
3. Find and organize supporting details. Back up your thesis with relevant and
sufficient details that are organized. You can organize details in the following
ways:
o
Chronological. Details are arranged in the order in which the events
occurred.
49
o
Order of importance. Details are arranged from least to most important or
vice versa.
o
Categorical. Details are arranged by dividing the topic into parts or
categories.
4. Use appropriate transitions. To blend details smoothly in cause and effect
essays, use the transitional words and phrases listed below.
For causes
because, due to, on cause is, another is, since, for, first, second
For Effects
consequently, as a result, thus, resulted in, one result is, another is, therefore
When writing your essay, keep the following suggestions in mind:
o
Remember your purpose. Decide if you are writing to inform or persuade.
o
Focus on immediate and direct causes (or effects.) Limit yourself to
causes that are close in time and related, as opposed to remote and
indirect causes, which occur later and are related indirectly.
o
Strengthen your essay by using supporting evidence. Define terms, offer
facts and statistics, or provide examples, anecdotes, or personal
observations that support your ideas.
o
Qualify or limit your statements about cause and effect. Unless there is
clear evidence that one event is related to another, qualify your
statements with phrases such as "It appears that the cause was" or "It
seems likely" or "The evidence may indicate" or "Available evidence
suggests."
To evaluate the effectiveness of a cause and effect essay, ask the following
questions:
What are the causes? What are the effects? Which should be emphasized? Are
there single or multiple causes? Single or multiple effects? Is a chain reaction
involved?
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Choosing the essay topic for cause and effect essay type is not difficult, here are some
sample essay topics:

Effects of Pollution .

Causes and Effects of the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants .

Internet Influence on kids .
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