METHODS/ TECHNIQUES OF
COSTING
 JOB COSTING
 PROCESS COSTING
COST SHEET
MARGINAL
COSTING
According to Institute of Cost &Management
Accountants London Marginal Cost
represents “the amount of any given volume
of output by which aggregate costs are
changed if the volume of output is increased
by one unit”
For example:
 Cost of production of 1000 units =Rs.200,000
 Cost of production for 1001 units=Rs.200,150
difference= Rs. 150 (Marginal Cost)
ASSUMPTIONS:
 Elements of Cost: Production, Administration
and Selling Expenses are divided into fixed and
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variable cost
Variable cost fluctuates directly in proportion to
changes in volume of output.
Selling price remains constant
Fixed cost remains constant
Volume of production Influences cost
Volume cost are regarded as cost of the
products.
Break Even Analysis/Cost
Volume Profit Analysis
 According to Herman C. Heiser “ The most
important single factor in profit planning of
Average business is the relationship between
volume of business, cost & profit”
CVP Analysis
 Two aspects:
 Broad Aspect: Study of Relationship between
CVP
 Narrow Aspect: Technique of determining
level of operations where Total
Revenue=Total Expense
MAJOR CONCEPTS FOR BREAK
EVEN ANALYSIS
 CONTRIBUTION: Contribution is the excess
of selling price over variable cost is the
amount contributed towards fixed expenses
and profit.
 Contribution= Sales-variable cost
 Example: Selling Price: Rs.20 per unit
 Variable Cost : Rs 15 per unit
 Contribution Rs. 5 per Unit
For Example:
 Fixed Expenses : Rs 50,000
 Total units Sold : 8000 units
 Total Contribution : 8000*5= 40,000(in contin)(
not sufficient to meet Fixed Expenses)
 If increase total output by 10,000 units, total
contribution 50,000 ( No profit No loss)
 Any output beyond 10,000 Units will give profits
( total output increased by 15000 units, total
contribution 75,000)
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Contribution = sales – variable cost
Contribution = fixed cost +/- profit (loss)
Contribution per unit= selling price – variable cost per unit
We can derive marginal costing equation:
Sales-variable cost= contribution
Sales- variable cost= fixed cost +/- profit
In case three factors known fourth factor can be known:
 Example: sales: 2,40,000/
Profit : 50,000/
Direct material : 80,000/
Direct labor : 50,000/
Variable overheads : 20,000
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Variable cost: 1,50,000
 Sales – Variable Cost = Fixed Cost +/-
Profit
 2,40,000-1,50,000 -50,000 = 40,000
 Fixed Cost = 40,000
 Profit/ Volume Ratio (contribution Ratio)
 P/V ratio = Contribution/ sales
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= sales- variable cost / sales
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= Fixed Cost +/- Profit (loss) / sales
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= Change in profit or contribution / change
in sales
 This can be shown in the form of percentage by
multiplying by100.
 Example: selling price = 15/
Variable cost = 10/-
 P/V ratio = 15-10/15 = 1/3*100 = 33 1/3%
 It establishes relationship between contribution
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and sales:
High P/V ratio reflects high profit
Low P/V ration reflects low profit
Ratio can be increased by increasing
contribution:
Increasing selling price per unit
Reducing variable cost per unit
Switching the production to more profitable
products.
 For example:
 Sales: 100,000/
Profit: 10,000/
Variable Cost =70%
 Calculate PV ratio, Fixed Cost, Sales volume to earn profit
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of 40,000/70% *100,000 = 70,000
P/V Ratio= 100,000-70,000 / 100,000 *100 = 30%
Contribution = Fixed Cost +/- Profit (loss)
30,000 = Fixed Cost + 10,000
Fixed Cost = 20,000
Sales volume required to earn given profit : FC + Profit / pv
ratio
20,000+40,000 /30% = 60,000 /30% = 200,000
 BREAK EVEN POINT
 It is defined as that point of sales volume at which total revenue
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is equal to total cost. (No profit No loss)
Sales revenue at B.E.P. = fixed cost + variable Cost
Algebraic form
Break even point in units = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit
Break Even point in terms of money value =
Total sales= TFC = TVC
S= F+ VC
S-VC =FC
Dividing by S-VC
S-VC / S-VC = FC / S-VC
1= FC / S-VC (multiplying by S)
S= (FC / S-VC )*S
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break Even point as percentage of estimated capacity:
Fixed Cost / total contribution
For Example: Output : 3000 units
Selling price per unit : Rs. 30/Variable cost per unit : Rs. 20/Total fixed cost : Rs 20,000/Calculate B.E.P. in units and Sales value
B.E.P. (units) 20,000/ 30-20 = 2000 units
Sales = FC*S / S-VC = 20,000* 90,000 / 90,000-60,000
= 60,000
 Margin Of Safety: Excess of actual sales
over break even sales is known as Margin of
safety.
 MOS : Total sales – Sales at B.E.P.
 Angle of Incidence
 Angle between sales line and total cost line
formed at B.E.P. where sales line and total cost
line intersect each other. AOI indicates the profit
earning capacity of business.
 AOI and MOS indicate the soundness of
business.
MANGERIAL DECISION
 PRICING DECISION:
 Under normal conditions prices are based on total cost
of sales so as to cover both fixed and variable cost and
to certain extent profit.
 Other circumstances like stiff competition, exploring
new markets etc. Products are sold at price below total
cost.
 During depression prices can be reduced to an
extent which covers the variable cost and
contribute something towards fixed cost.
 Accepting bulk order and exploring foreign markets
is generally made to utilize the idle capacity. The
order from the local merchants should not be
accepted at a below normal price it affects the
relationship of the concern with the other
customers. In case of foreign markets goods may be
sold at prices below normal price.
 Operate or shutdown cost: Differential cost
analysis is used when the business is
confronted with the possibility of temporary
shutdown.. This type of analysis has to
determine whether in the short run a firm is
better off operating than not operating.
 For Example: an analysis of a possible
temporary shutdown ,assume that company
operating below 50% of its capacity expects that
the volume of sales will drop below the present
level of 10,000 units per month. Management is
concerned that further drop in sales volume will
create a loss and has under consideration, a
recommendation that operation be suspended
until better market condition prevail and also a
better selling price available. The present
operating statement:
 Sales revenue (10,000 units @30/-) 300,000
 Less variable cost@20 per unit
200,000
 Fixed cost
100,000
 (fixed cost at shut down is 40,000/-)
 Net Income :
0
 Make or Buy decision: the clear distinction
must be made between fixed cost and
variable cost. The variable cost must be
compared with the purchase price of the
product available in the market. If variable
cost is less than the purchase price it’s
preferred to make the product and if the
variable price is more than the purchase rice
its preferred to buy the product.
 For Example:: A machine manufactures
10,000 units of a part at a total cost of Rs21 of
which Rs 18 is variable. This part is readily
available in market at Rs 19 per unit. If the
part is purchased from the market then the
machine can either be utilized to
manufacture a component in same quantity
contributing Rs2 per component or it can be
hired out at Rs21000
 Key or Limiting Factor: Factor which puts
limit on production and profits of business
generally it is sales. Production can be limited
due to shortage of material, labor, and plant
capacity.
 Example: If there is a limited material which is
used on two products X and Y. 3 units used for
X and 5units of Y. Contribution per unit is 12
for X and 15 for Y. X gives contribution (12/3) 4
per unit and Y gives contribution(15/5) 3 per
unit. X makes more contribution per unit.
 Selection of suitable product or sales mix:
Best product mix which yield maximum
contribution should be retained and
production should be increased. This can be
done by comparing the PV ratio and break
even point of various alternatives.
 Effect of changes in sales price: Change in
sales price effect the profitability of the
concern.
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Example: Sales:60,000 per unit
Variable Cost : 30,000 per unit
Fixed Cost: 15,000
Calculate: a) pv ratio, BEP, MOS
b) effect of 10% increase in sales
c) 10% decrease in sales price.
a) PV Ratio: 50%
BEP: Fixed Cost / PV Ratio = 30,000
MOS: present sales- Sales at BEP=30,000
b) Sales= 60,000+10% = 66,000
PV Ratio = 54.55%
BEP = 27,500
MOS = 38500
Sales= 60,000-10% = 54,000
PV Ratio: 44.4%
BEP = 33,750
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MOS = 20,250
 Alternative Methods of Production :
Employing machine 1 or Machine 2, if to
choose among them marginal costing
technique can be applied highest
contribution can be adopted keeping in view
limiting factor.
 Determine the optimum level of activity. To
determine this activity contribution at
different levels of activity can be found.
 Can you name three consecutive days
without using the words Monday Tuesday
Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday or
Sunday?
 Runs over fields and woods all day Under the
bed at night sits not alone With long tongue
hanging out Awaiting for a bone.
 Bob was out shopping one day and had a look at
a few items as listed below.
Item 1.) Scribbled picture on a notepad
Item 2.) Portrait of a mouse
Item 3.) Da Vinci's "The Last Supper"
Bob decided on Item 3.) meaning, in rebus form,
he was interested in...?
 Hint
 Bob is the sort of person who isn't so concerned
with small details. People like Bob tend to be
C.E.O.'s or Directors of companies
 Answer
 The Big Picture
 What expression is represented in the
scenario below?
1 o'clock = FAIL
2 o'clock = PASS
3 o'clock = PASS
4 o'clock = FAIL
5 o'clock = PASS
 Answer
 Testing times.
 What is shown here?
H20ly
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 Answer
 Holy water
 What expression is this?
Ex = 20kg
pec = 10kg
tat = 5kg
ion = 30kg
65kg = ?
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 Hint
 If you are a seasoned teaser solver then you might
feel a little of this as you ponder an answer... it's k
like pressure.
 Answer
 The weight of expectation
 WHO IS IN THE PHOTOGRAPH?
 I am staring at a photo of someone. I don’t
have any brothers or sisters and yet that
man’s father is my father’s son. Who am I
looking at?
 I am looking at a photograph of my son
 If you have it, you want to share it. If you
share it, you don’t have it. What is it?
 A secret