Running head: TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
Tracking the Trajectories of Peer Victimization and Negative Self-Cognitions in Children:
A Longitudinal Approach to Approximating Causality
Maysa Kaskas
Dr. David Cole lab
1
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Abstract
This study investigates the effect of targeted peer victimization (TPV) on negative selfcognitions as a function of victimization type through a three-wave longitudinal study. Measures
of TPV and cognitions were collected from 956 students equally distributed through grades three
through eight. Two types of TPV were analyzed: physical peer victimization, which occurs when
a person is controlled or injured by physical means, and relational peer victimization, which
includes acts or statements intended to harm peer relationships and social acceptance. Obtained
results are as follows: (a) both negative self-cognitions and TPV have high rates of stability over
time; (b) while both genders experience higher levels of relational victimization than physical
victimization, females experience more relational victimization than males do, and males
experience more physical victimization than females do; and (c) relational victimization was
more related to changes in depressive self-cognitions than was physical victimization. However,
neither type of PV was significant after controlling for prior levels of the cognitive variable.
Implications and avenues for future research are discussed.
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Introduction
Targeted peer victimization, or bullying, is defined as “the experience among children of
being a target of the aggressive behavior of other children” (Hawker & Boulton, 2000, p. 441).
This experience is relatively common, with around 30-60% of schoolage children falling victim
each semester, and it can have adverse effects on a child’s thoughts and emotions (Rigby, 2000).
Research has shown that there are academic, social, emotional, and psychological consequences
of peer victimization from social anxiety to an increased risk of suicide has been linked to
bullying (Malti, Perren, & Buchmann, 2010). However, current research on peer victimization
has failed to show effects over time across middle childhood and early adolescence, the period
when rates of victimization peak (Crick, Casas, & Ku, 1999). This study will investigate the
persistence and stability of physical and relational peer victimization and its effects on selfesteem over time.
There are two main types of peer victimization. Overt or physical peer victimization
occurs when a person is controlled or injured by physical means. This includes acts of violence
such as punching, kicking, and hitting, but it also includes threats of future or potential physical
harm (Cole et al., 2010). While the second type of peer victimization may not leave visible
bruises, covert or relational peer victimization may have a stronger and more enduring effect on
a child’s sense of self and mental health. This type of peer victimization includes acts or
statements intended to harm peer relationships and social acceptance, typically involving
exclusion from social groups or activities and rumor spreading. Relational peer victimization
behaviors often take a more subtle form than physical types of bullying, making its detection
harder and its long-term impact more insidious and less studied than physical peer victimization
(Sinclair et al., 2012). This type of bullying also may have a stronger effect on internalizing
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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problems like depression and shape the way children think about themselves (i.e., selfcognitions), as it involves victims receiving negative self-relevant information from peers on
social status, competencies, and personal flaws (Hunter & Boyle, 2002).
The time period of middle childhood to early adolescence is critical as it has the highest
rates of peer victimization and is also the period where victimization has the strongest potential
to harm a child’s self-cognitions (Crick et al., 1999). One of the major developmental tasks
during this time is the construction of a self-concept, a task which can be seriously affected by
negative feedback from peers (Cole et al., 2010). The looking glass model suggests that
perceptions of the self are derived heavily from our perceptions of others’ views of us, and
support for this model is strongest in adolescents and children (Cooley, 1902; Cole, 1991). Some
children navigate the crucial task of developing a self-concept well and develop positive selfcognitions, which can serve as a protective factor against depression, while others develop
negative self-cognitions, which can predispose them to depression (Cole, Martin, Powers, &
Truglio, 1996; Burt, Obradovic, Long, & Martin, 2008). Not surprisingly, middle childhood to
early adolescence is also a key period for the emergence of depression, sealing its significance as
a period in need of more in-depth research (Cole et al., 2010).
The overarching purpose of this study is to examine the reciprocal relations of physical
and relational peer victimization with negative self-cognitions over time by analyzing a dataset
that spans three years and follows the victimization and cognition patterns of almost one
thousand third through eighth grade students. How time plays a moderating role in the frequency
of peer victimization and in the development and maintenance of negative self-cognitions is
unclear. Tran, Cole, and Weiss (2012) found that symptoms of depression predicted changes in
physical and relational peer victimization but neither type of peer victimization predicted
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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changes in depression symptoms; however, negative self-cognitions are inherently internal
experiences, unlike symptoms of depression, which are expressed and observable to others. A
child showing outward symptoms of depression may be viewed as weak and perceived as an
easy target for bullies; this theory is supported by Tran et al. (2012) results, as they found that
boys were particularly likely to be victimized physically if they showed symptoms of depression,
perhaps due to gender role expectations. The finding that peer victimization does not predict
changes in symptoms of depression contradicts previous studies, suggesting a need for more
research with careful attention to moderators.
Most of the previous research on the effects of peer victimization is cross-sectional (Cole
et al., 2010; Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Without conducting a longitudinal study, prior levels of
victimization and self-cognitions cannot be statistically controlled, resulting in poor models for
studying the relation between peer victimization and cognition, and larger trends cannot be
tracked over time. A longitudinal study is needed to see whether (a) cognitions can worsen or be
repaired with varying levels of peer victimization over time, (b) how stable peer victimization is
for individuals and for the cohort through the course of middle childhood to early adolescence,
and (c) whether changes between subtypes of peer victimization occur. Existing longitudinal
studies have not been able to answer these questions, as they either ignore the subtype of peer
victimization, duration of the victimization, grade level of the victims, or look at depression
rather than self-cognitions (Sinclair et al., 2012; Tran et al., 2012).
The specific goals of this study are (1) to track the trajectories of peer victimization over
the course of the three wave longitudinal study, (2) to track the trajectories of negative selfcognitions over the period of three years, (3) to evaluate their relation to each other over time,
and (4) to evaluate the possible moderating effects of gender and grade level on the formation
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and maintenance of negative self-cognitions. In light of recent research on the harmful effects of
peer victimization on self-esteem, negative self-cognitions are predicted to be more prevalent,
stronger, and more stable across the three time points in children who are experiencing relational
peer victimization than in those experiencing physical peer victimization and their nonvictimized peers. Once established, negative self-cognitions are expected to remain stable or
worsen if peer victimization becomes more frequent or intense over time. However, if peer
victimization diminishes between any of the waves of data, negative self-cognitions may be
replaced by healthier self-cognitions. Children experiencing peer victimization at a prior time
point will, on average, continue to experience peer victimization for the following time points.
In addition, we also expect moderating effects of gender and grade level. As boys are less
likely to seek social support when stressed and girls tend to be more invested in social networks
(Rose & Rudolph, 2006), we anticipate that girls will be more likely to suffer overtly when their
social status declines and support system weakens, perhaps reporting more frequent negative
self-cognitions. However, the problems of boys might be compounded by their hesitance to seek
help or support from others, perhaps causing them to self-report more persistent negative selfcognitions. A gender difference has been shown between the types of peer victimization most
commonly experienced; boys are more likely to experience physical victimization than girls, but
gender differences in relational victimization are found to be less consistent, though it is
generally agreed that girls experience more relational peer victimization than do boys (Cole et
al., 2010; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).
Not many studies have been done on the moderator of grade level or age on the
experience and effects of peer victimization. This study hopes to find a sensitive period for
occurrence of peer victimization as well as the development and maintenance of negative self-
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cognitions. Peer victimization is expected to peak around fifth or sixth grade then decrease by
eighth grade, with a peak occurring slightly earlier for girls than for boys. Negative selfcognitions are anticipated to be persistent if peer victimization consistently occurs by the sixth
grade. These hypotheses will be tested through a three-wave longitudinal study with self-report
measures of peer victimization and self-report measures of cognitions.
Method
Participants
We recruited participants from two suburban elementary schools and one middle school
in middle Tennessee. Parental consent forms and letters describing the project were distributed to
626 third, fourth, fifth, and sixth graders. 421 returned completed consent forms giving us
permission to include them in the study; of these students, 95% (400) were present on the day of
data collection and were able to participate. At Time 2 (the next year), we returned to the same
schools and sent home 656 consent forms to parents of children in grades four through seven.
470 students returned consent forms, and 88% (412) of them participated in the study. The
consent form process was repeated at Time 3 (the third consecutive year); however, we were
only permitted to consent the children who had participated in a previous year, greatly reducing
our sample size. We distributed consent forms to 261 students in grades five through eight, 55%
(144) of whom returned consent forms and were present to participate. In this three-wave
longitudinal study, our total sample size of 956 contained two primary patterns of missing data:
those who participated at one or both of the first two years but not all three time points (dropouts, 15%) and those who missed one of the first two years but participated in a subsequent time
point (joiners, 12%). The primary reason for drop-outs was essentially the reverse of the primary
reason for joiners, as families moved out of and into the school district. Overall, participants did
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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not vary significantly from nonparticipants in comparisons of ethnicity, gender, and grade level.
At all time points, participants were evenly distributed among genders (53.9% female) and grade
levels (24.4% 3rd grade, 23.75% 4th grade, 27.63% 5th grade, 24.63% 6th grade, 24.95% 7th grade,
and 21.5% 8th grade). We will use full information maximum likelihood statistics to avoid
unnecessary sampling bias and to enhance the fidelity of parameter estimation, allowing us to
include all participants.
Measures
Targeted peer victimization. The self-report measure was a six-item questionnaire designed to
assess the occurrence and frequency of relational and physical peer victimization (created by
expanding on the items used by Ladd & Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2002). Children were asked to rate
the following relational items on a four-point scale [1 (never), 2 (rarely), 3 (sometimes), and 4 (a
lot)]: (a) Tell others to stop being your friend, (b) Say you can’t play with them, and (c) Say
mean things to other kids about you. The same process was used for the following physical
items: (d) Kick you, (e) Hit you, and (f) Push you.
Cognition. We used the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children (Kaslow, Stark, Printz,
Livingston, & Tsai, 1992), a 36-item self-report questionnaire evaluating children’s views of
themselves (e.g., "I'm a failure"), their world (e.g., "The world is a very mean place"), and their
future (e.g., "Nothing is likely to work out for me"). Responses are scored on three-point scales,
as children mark yes, no, or maybe for each item. However, the CTI-C is a triad in name only;
recent factor analysis indicates that a two-factor solution tends to emerge during middle
childhood: an overall positive cognitions factor and an overall negative cognitions factor, which
simplifies the measure to two subscales (Cole et al., 2010).
The Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale (Schniering & Rapee, 2002) assesses negative
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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self-cognitions in youth by asking children to rate the frequency in which they’ve had fifty-six
different negative thoughts in the previous week on a scale from “not at all” (1) to “all the time”
(5). CATS includes four subscales to gain a more comprehensive view of the possible range of
children’s self-cognitions: physical threat (such as “I’m going to get hurt”), social threat (e.g.,
“I’m afraid I will make a fool of myself”), personal failure (“It’s my fault that things have gone
wrong”), and hostility (“I won’t let anyone get away with picking on me”).
Procedure
The time interval between each of the three waves of data collection was approximately
one year. Prior to all three data collection times, we distributed consent forms to children in each
participating classroom and asked them to take the forms home to their parents. To compensate
participating classrooms, we offered a $100 donation to each classroom if 90% of the students
returned their signed consent forms, either granting or denying permission for participation.
Research assistants gathered consented students during regular school hours, separating them
into small groups to administer the questionnaires. For the third and fourth grade students, a
research assistant read the items aloud while allowing each participant time to answer the
questions on their individual forms. Older students were allowed to work at their own pace after
a research assistant introduced the measures. At all grade levels, research assistants circulated
through the groups to answer questions throughout the process. At the end of the survey,
participating students were given a decorated pencil and snacks for their participation.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Table 1 contains descriptive statistics for all study variables. Means and standard
deviations are similar to those reported in previous research with community samples.
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Table 1: Descriptive statistics
Variable
Mean
SD
Min
Max
Wave A
Relational PV
5.92
2.54
3
12
Physical PV
4.62
2.17
3
12
CATS
72.22
30.19
40
196
CTI-N
26.5
6.89
18
54
Wave B
Relational PV
6.06
2.29
3
12
Physical PV
4.6
2.23
3
12
CATS
69.45
29.44
40
188
CTI-N
25.99
7.29
18
52
Wave C
Relational PV
4.67
1.91
3
11
Physical PV
3.66
1.56
3
12
CATS
54.55
19.23
40
143
CTI-N
23.71
6.85
18
51
Note: PV=peer victimization; CATS=Children’s Automatic
Thoughts Scale; CTI-N=Cognitive Triad Inventory for ChildrenNegative subscale
Data analysis overview
The specific goals of this proposed study are (1) to track the trajectories of peer
victimization over the course of the three wave longitudinal study, (2) to track the trajectories of
negative self-cognitions over the period of three years, (3) to evaluate their relation to each other
over time, and (4) to evaluate the possible moderating effects of gender and grade level on the
formation and maintenance of negative self-cognitions. The first two goals were addressed
through a series of analyses including correlations and one-way ANOVA. The third and fourth
goals were jointly addressed through cross-sectional and longitudinal tests of interaction.
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Goal 1
The aim of Goal 1 was to examine the stability of peer victimization over time. We took
two approaches toward this end. First was to examine the over-time correlations of different
types of peer victimization. Second was to examine the changes in mean-level victimization over
time.
Correlations. Pearson correlations appear in Table 2. Cross-wave stability correlations
for relational victimization ranged from .605 to .528. Cross-wave stability correlations for
physical victimization were somewhat lower, ranging from .393 to .291.
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Table 2: Pearson correlations.
Measure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. Physical PV (A)
1.00
2. Relational PV (A)
.380
1.00
3. Physical PV (B)
.393
.245
1.00
4. Relational PV (B)
.209
.528
.475
1.00
5. Physical PV (C)
.291
.316
.551
.400
1.00
6. Relational PV (C)
.237
.605
.462
.536
.431
6.
1.00
Note: A, B, and C denote the first, second, and third waves, respectively. PV=peer victimization.
Means. The means for physical and relational victimization appear in Tables 3 and 4,
respectively, broken down by grade and gender. We conducted one-way ANOVA tests to
evaluate the mean differences in each subtype of victimization by grade level. After a series of
these analyses, we determined that the mean differences between victimization scores for each
grade level were generally nonsignificant at the 0.05 level with the notable exception of the data
obtained from third grade students. The mean difference in both physical and relational
victimization scores between grades 3 and every other grade were significant at the 0.05 level.
The remaining mean differences between grade levels for physical victimization were not
significant. However, the mean difference between grades 4 and 6 (p-value: 0.045) and grades 5
and 6 (p-value: 0.022) for relational victimization were significant at the 0.05 level, suggesting a
need for additional analyses with closer attention to potential moderators.
Figure 1 depicts the mean physical victimization scores by cohort, and Figure 2 shows the
mean relational victimization scores by cohort. We further distilled the data by obtaining the
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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mean victimization scores for each grade level averaged across cohorts. See Figure 3 for physical
peer victimization and Figure 4 for relational peer victimization. In both sets of analyses, there is
a generally decreasing trend in both physical and relational victimization scores across the
genders and all four cohorts. These results support the first hypothesis.
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Table 3: Mean Physical Peer Victimization Score by Cohort
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
Cohort 3 boys
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
Cohort 4 girls
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
5.7841
5.1111
3.9231
4.7692
4.3137
3.6071
4.9362
4.4603
3.4615
3.8776
4.3036
3.8824
4.6304
5.2857
4.3529
3.9455
3.8182
3.4
4.6389
4.5854
3.6429
4.57
5.1364
3.1765
Figure 1: Mean Physical Peer Victimization by Cohort Scatterplot
Mean Physical Peer Victimization
by Cohort
8
7
6
Mean PPV Score
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
5
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
4
Cohort 3 boys
3
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
2
Cohort 4 girls
1
0
3
4
5
6
Grade level
7
8
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Table 4: Mean Relational Peer Victimization Score by Cohort
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
6.5444
5.8889
4.1538
7.8173
6.68
4.6429
5.2128
6.0317
4.2308
6.6327
6.7143
5.8235
4.8913
5.8182
4.8824
5.6
5.5091
4.44
4.9167
5.4146
3.6429
5.82
6.2955
5.2941
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
Cohort 3 boys
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
Cohort 4 girls
Figure 2: Mean Relational Peer Victimization by Cohort Scatterplot
Mean Relational Peer Victimization by
Cohort
8
7
Mean RPV Score
6
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
5
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
4
Cohort 3 boys
3
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
2
Cohort 4 girls
1
0
3
4
5
6
Grade level
7
8
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Figure 3: Mean Physical Peer Victimization Score
Mean Physical PV Score
Mean Physical Peer Victimization Score
8
7.5
7
Physical Peer Victimization
(Self-report) Means Male
6.5
6
Female
Physical
Peer Victimization
(Self-report) Means Female
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Overall
gender
mean
A
A and B A, B, and A, B, and B and C
C
C
C
Grade Level and Waves Involved
A, B, and
C
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Figure 4: Mean Relational Peer Victimization Score
Mean Relational PV Score
8
Mean Relational Peer Victimization Score
7.5
Relational
Male Peer Victimization
(Self-report) Means Male
7
6.5
Relational
Female Peer Victimization
(Self-report) Means Female
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Overall
gender
mean
A
A and B
A, B,
A, B, B and C
C
A, B,
and C and C
and C
Grade Level and Waves Involved
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Goal 2
The aim of Goal 2 was to examine the stability of negative self-cognitions over time. We
took two approaches toward this end. First was to examine the over-time correlations of different
types of negative self-cognitions. Second was to examine the changes in mean-level negative
self-cognitions over time.
Correlations. Pearson correlations appear in Table 5. Cross-wave stability correlations
for the Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale (CATS) ranged from .421 to .351. Cross-wave
stability correlations for the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children-Negative subscale (CTI-N)
were less variable, ranging from .452 to .457.
Table 5
Pearson correlations
Measure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. CATS (A)
1.00
2. CTI-N (A)
.741
1.00
3. CATS (B)
.421
.347
1.00
4. CTI-N (B)
.403
.452
.745
1.00
5. CATS (C)
.351
.421
.602
.646
1.00
6. CTI-N (C)
.356
.457
.596
.689
.789
6.
1.00
Note: A, B, and C denote the first, second, and third waves, respectively. CATS=Children’s
Automatic Thoughts Scale; CTI-N=Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children- Negative subscale
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Means. The means for CATS and CTI-N appear in Tables 6 and 7, respectively, broken down
by grade and gender. We conducted one-way ANOVA tests to evaluate the mean differences in
each type of negative self-cognition by grade level. After a series of these analyses, we
determined that the mean differences between cognition scores for each grade level were
generally nonsignificant at the 0.05 level with the notable exception of the data obtained from
third grade students. The mean difference in both CATS and CTI-N scores between grades 3 and
every other grade were significant at the 0.05 level. The remaining mean differences between
grade levels for both CATS and CTI-N were not significant.
Figure 5 depicts the mean CATS scores by cohort, and Figure 6 shows the mean CTI-N
scores by cohort. We further distilled the data by obtaining the mean negative self-cognition
scores for each grade level averaged across cohorts. See Figure 7 for CATS and Figure 8 for
CTI-N. In both sets of analyses, there is a slight decreasing trend in both CATS and CTI-N
scores across the genders and all four cohorts. These results support the second hypothesis.
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Table 6: Mean Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale Score by Cohort
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
Cohort 3 boys
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
Cohort 4 girls
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
75.5619
66.8431
53.3846
89.7027
73.8952
50.8608
62.3731
67.4827
50.0907
71.7134
71.9133
64.9412
68.4938 74.44509876
59.4118
65.9446
65.0099
49.2746
67.0681
61.8937
48.9595
78.3079
73.3269
61.4133
Figure 5: Mean Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale Score by Cohort Scatterplot
Mean Children's Automatic Thoughts Scale Score
by Cohort
100
90
Cohort 1
boys
Cohort 1
girls
Cohort 2
boys
Cohort 2
girls
Cohort 3
boys
Cohort 3
girls
Cohort 4
boys
Cohort 4
girls
80
Mean CATS Score
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3
4
5
6
Grade level
7
8
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Table 7: Mean Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative Score by Cohort
Cohort 1 boys
Cohort 1 girls
Cohort 2 boys
Cohort 2 girls
Cohort 3 boys
Cohort 3 girls
Cohort 4 boys
Cohort 4 girls
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
28.4015
24.4941
22.3627
29.4508
25.8047
23.5948
25.3031
25.6120
22.2308
25.6783
26.6744
24.4118
25.5946
27.0252
25.6471
25.3995
25.4267
22.6471
25.6340
25.2250
21.4286
27.1635
27.3222
26.7889
Figure 6: Mean Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative Score by Cohort Scatterplot
Mean Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative Score by
Cohort
35
30
Cohort 1
boys
Cohort 1
girls
Cohort 2
boys
Cohort 2
girls
Cohort 3
boys
Cohort 3
girls
Cohort 4
boys
Mean CTI-Neg Score
25
20
15
10
5
0
3
4
5
6
Grade level
7
8
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Figure 7: Mean Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale Score
Mean Reported CATS Score
95
90
CATS Means Male
85
Female
Mean CATS Score
80
CATS Means Female
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
Grade 3
Grade 4
A
A and B
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
A, B, and C A, B, and C B and C
Grade Level and Waves Involved
Grade 8
Overall
gender
mean
C
A, B, and C
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Figure 8: Mean Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative Subscale Score
Mean Reported CTI-Negative Score
30
29
28
Male
CTI-Negative
Means Male
Mean CTI-Negative Score
27
26
CTI-Negative
Female Means Female
25
24
23
22
21
20
Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Overall
gender
mean
A
A and B A, B, and A, B, and B and C
C
C
Grade Level and Waves Involved
C
A, B, and
C
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
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Goals 3 and 4
The overarching aim of Goals 3 and 4 was to examine the relation of negative selfcognitions to peer victimization over time. Toward this goal, we analyzed correlations and
conducted a series of regression analyses. In each analysis, a cognition measure was regressed
onto that measure at a previous time point, a measure of peer victimization, grade level, and the
PV x grade level interaction. These analyses were then repeated, replacing grade level with
gender.
Regressions. Regressions appear in Tables 8-11, with Pearson correlations appearing in
the first column of each table. The correlations for the Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative
subscale ranged from .146 for Physical PV to .255 for Relational PV. The correlations for the
Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale ranged from .181 for Physical PV to .322 for Relational
PV. Results indicated that relational victimization was more closely associated with negative
cognitive outcomes than was physical victimization. In the regression analyses, however, when
we statistically controlled for prior levels of each cognitive variable, the effect of both relational
and physical victimization on cognition was no longer significant. Tables 8-11 also show the
effect of grade level on the cognitive measures; however, grade did not have a significant effect
for either cognitive measure or type of victimization. In analyses not shown, we replaced grade
with gender. No main effects for gender were significant. In other analyses not shown here, we
also discovered that neither the gender x PV nor the grade x PV interactions were significant,
contrary to our hypotheses.
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
25
Table 8: Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative subscale and Relational Victimization Regression
Predictor
r
B
Intercept
11.458
CTI-N (A)
.452
.434
Rel PV (A)
.255
.343
Grade level .050
.527
Dependent variable: CTI-N (B)
SE (B)
2.566
.073
.512
.395
Beta
.430
.049
.084
t
4.465
5.982
.670
1.333
Sig
.000
.000
.504
.184
Table 9: Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale and Relational Victimization Regression
Predictor
r
B
Intercept
48.346
CATS (A)
.421
.318
Rel PV (A)
.322
2.091
Grade level -.070
-.828
Dependent variable: CATS (B)
SE (B)
8.575
.071
2.335
1.565
Beta
.370
.076
-.034
t
5.638
4.479
.896
-.529
Sig
.000
.000
.372
.597
Table 10: Cognitive Triad Inventory-Negative subscale and Physical Victimization Regression
Predictor
r
B
Intercept
10.981
CTI-N (A)
.452
.464
Phys PV (A) .146
-.072
Grade level .050
.460
Dependent variable: CTI-N (B)
SE (B)
2.554
.066
.451
.385
Beta
.459
-.010
.073
t
4.299
7.036
-.161
1.195
Sig
.000
.000
.873
.234
Table 11: Children’s Automatic Thoughts Scale and Physical Victimization Regression
Predictor
r
B
Intercept
47.307
CATS (A)
.421
.349
Phys PV (A) .181
.970
Grade level -.070
-1.102
Dependent variable: CATS (B)
SE (B)
8.460
.058
1.789
1.528
Beta
.406
.036
-.045
t
5.592
6.055
.542
-.721
Sig
.000
.000
.588
.472
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
26
Discussion
Three major findings emerged from this study. First, in a sample of children and
adolescents, levels of both peer victimization and negative self-cognitions showed high rates of
stability over time. Second, although both genders experience higher levels of relational
victimization than physical victimization, females experienced more relational victimization than
males, and males experienced more physical victimization than females. Third, relational
victimization was more related to changes in negative self-cognitions than was physical
victimization; however, neither type of PV was significant after controlling for prior levels of the
cognitive variable. Each of these results will be further discussed below.
First, the data supported our hypotheses that peer victimization and negative selfcognitions would be fairly stable over time. Relational peer victimization was more stable over
time than physical victimization. The two measures of negative self-cognition, CATS and CTIN, were highly correlated with each other (ranging from .789 to .741) and did not significantly
differ in cross-wave stability.
Second, multiple analyses lent support to the hypothesis that females would experience
higher levels of relational victimization than males would and males would experience more
physical victimization than females would. This result was found in the correlations, means
obtained in the cohort analyses, distilled means averaged across grade levels, and in the
regression analyses. The data also indicate that, on average, children and adolescents experience
more relational than physical victimization overall, regardless of their grade level or gender.
These results add longitudinal support to previous research (Cole et al., 2010; Tran et al., 2012).
A related result shows that at each time point, correlations between victimization and
self-cognition were consistently larger for the relational peer victimization measure, suggesting
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
27
that relational victimization has a stronger and more pervasive effect on measures of negative
self-cognition than does physical victimization. These findings provide additional support for the
harmful effects of relational victimization on a child or adolescent’s sense of self (Sinclair et al.,
2012). However, the effect of both types of peer victimization on cognition disappeared after we
statistically controlled for prior levels of the cognitive variable. While the correlations between
peer victimization and cognitions were significant, their significance dropped off when we
controlled for prior levels of the dependent variable.
The patterns of nonsignificance in this study are noteworthy. Contrary to our hypotheses,
grade level did not have a significant moderating effect on the interaction between either type of
peer victimization and measures of negative self-cognition. While there was a significant
difference between the scores of third graders and those of the remaining grades, this result may
be better explained by the limitations of using self-report in a sample of third grade students than
by any psychological principle. The overall nonsignificance of grade level is also related to the
high mean level stability of each of the variables, as both victimization and cognition were
strongly correlated over time. In a similar vein, the same patterns of nonsignificance were found
for the gender variable.
Implications and Future Research
The implications for these findings are varied and interdisciplinary: school systems could
benefit from the data on the rates and effects of peer victimization, and clinical psychology could
benefit from the data on possible precursors to childhood and adolescent depressive symptoms.
While this study yields results with interdisciplinary significance, there are a number of
limitations. Our longitudinal study did not collect information on the aggressors or bullies
themselves; therefore, we cannot distinguish between subtypes of aggressors, identify their
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
28
motivations, or target specific interventions to stop peer victimization. In addition, this is not an
experimental study. Without random assignment to treatment and control conditions, it is
difficult to determine cause and effect, as there are many unanticipated variables which can
affect outcomes. While strong correlations between peer victimization and negative selfcognitions were found, correlation does not imply causation. The current study also relies
heavily upon self-report for measures of cognitions, which can result in under-reporting (due to
stigma, worries about confidentiality, or biased recall) or over-reporting (due to negative
emotions at the time of the study, biased recall, or a desire to maximize support or sympathy).
Finally, we did not collect information on the children’s support system and resiliency
factors. The children who are experiencing peer victimization may not develop negative selfcognitions if they have other support systems such as family members, friends in their
neighborhood, or teachers. Certain children may have other resiliency factors such intelligence, a
sense of humor, or hobbies which diminish the impact of peer victimization. A future study
might ask children to complete a questionnaire with a Likert scale ranking the quality of their
friendships at school, their neighborhood, and among their family members. These subjects
could then complete a Likert scale ranking the importance of these peer and non-peer
relationships to them, allowing researchers to understand the value that victimized and
nonvictimized children place on these relationships. In addition, subjects could rank the
importance of nonsocial domains such as academics, sports, and hobbies; children who value
their academics, athletics, or other hobbies more than peer relationships may not be affected as
severely by peer victimization, regardless of the type or duration.
TRACKING VICTIMIZATION AND COGNITION
29
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