Running head: AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
Perception of Affective Musical Elements and the Relation to Delusions in Schizophrenia
Rachel Nolan
Dr. Sohee Park
Vanderbilt University
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AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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ABSTRACT
Using prosodic, facial, and musical stimuli, this study probed the extent of emotion
recognition deficits in schizophrenic patients. Difficulties in the perception of emotional
material have been well documented in the literature. Here, we examined the perception of
emotion in music and whether or not schizophrenic patients show the same dysfunction in this
domain as they do in the domains of facial and speech emotion. 15 patients, and 15 healthy
controls listened to and rated 40 instrumental music clips expressing either a happy, sad, calm, or
scary emotion. Participants were also asked to choose which emotion they thought best
characterized the song as a whole. We then compared the ratings of each song across groups, as
well as overall accuracy on the task. Psychophysiological skin conductance data was collected,
but the results were shown to be inconclusive. Patients were significantly impaired in
determining the correct emotion of each song, showing specific deficits in recognizing scary
songs. In addition, patients significantly overrated the perceived happiness of each song type as
compared to controls. Overrating of the happiness of scary songs was highly correlated with
each subscale of the PDI in both patients and controls. Performance on the task was also shown
to be related to delusion scores in patients, and to schizotypal personality scores in controls.
These results suggest that the inability to extract affective information from sounds may result
from subjective misinterpretation of auditory cues, and may play a role in increasing delusions.
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INTRODUCTION
Schizophrenia is a serious and persistent mental disorder characterized by aberrations in
the perception of reality. Though it only affects approximately one percent of the U.S.
population, schizophrenia is of vital interest because of the heavy burden placed on patients,
families, and society. Only about 28% of schizophrenics are able to live independently, with the
rest either homeless, in jail, hospitalized, or in assisted living situations (Torrey, 2006). A total
of about $63 million dollars per year spent by families and society make it the most costly
mental illness in the United States (Wu et al., 2005). Schizophrenia also has a high cost on the
life of the patient. The quality of life of a schizophrenic person is often extremely poor due to
debilitating symptoms that make it difficult to function normally in society.
The symptoms of schizophrenia fall into two categories; positive symptoms and negative
symptoms. Positive symptoms are thoughts and behaviors that normal people rarely experience
such as hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behavior. Negative symptoms are those symptoms
that reflect a decrease in normal functions; for example, social dysfunction, anhedonia, poverty
of speech, blunted affect, and cognitive deficits (van Os & Kapur, 2009). Negative symptoms
are much more pervasive and chronic, and have been shown to have a larger impact on outcome
than positive symptoms (Kelley, Haas, & van Kammen, 2008). Positive symptoms can be
treated using antipsychotic drugs, but there are few treatments available for negative symptoms,
making negative symptoms a great interest for psychological research.
Social dysfunction is one of the most common characteristics of schizophrenia. These
impaired social skills most likely result from a debilitating mix of positive and negative
symptoms. If someone has trouble distinguishing hallucinations from reality, then they are going
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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to portray bizarre behavior that violates many social norms. One such trait is a decreased ability
to recognize emotional cues. People who cannot encode these cues are going to have major
difficulties interacting in social situations; for example, misinterpretation of the intentions or
mood of other people. In fact, schizophrenic patients have been shown to experience a deficit in
emotional processing in social domains such as facial expression and speech prosody. A study
by Norton et al (2009) investigated the ability of schizophrenic patients to recognize facial affect.
Subjects were shown two pictures at the same time, one that was neutral and one that showed an
emotion. Emotional intensity was manipulated by morphing the neutral face with the emotional
face at different percentages (Norton et al., 2009). Schizophrenic patients needed significantly
more powerful emotional stimuli than controls in order to discriminate the emotions of fear and
happiness in morphed faces. Although these patients showed deficits in the perception of
emotion in faces, they did not show any significant deficits in basic facial and visual processing
(Norton et al, 2009). Studies have shown that schizophrenic patients are just as good at
processing facial features and judging age as controls are (Morris et al, 2009). Therefore these
facial emotional processing deficits do not originate from a general perceptual deficit. Similar
studies have been done with auditory stimuli from voices. Bach et al (2008) demonstrated that
schizophrenic patients have a deficit in recognizing the emotional content of speech without any
semantic content. Therefore the difficulty with recognizing emotions from visual cues extends to
auditory cues as well in schizophrenia.
Although individuals with schizophrenia exhibit significantly diminished expressions of
emotion, patients actually report an emotional experience that is similar to that of controls
(Earnst and Kring, 1999). Additionally, researchers have found that physiological measures of
emotion in schizophrenic patients are similar to those of controls (Hempel et al, 2007). Hempel
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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et al. displayed emotion-eliciting pictures to schizophrenic patients and controls while
simultaneously measuring heart rate, skin conductance, blood pressure, and breathing rate. They
also had the subjects rate the valance and arousal of each of the photos. The researchers found no
significant differences between the two groups. Perhaps schizophrenic patients are capable of
experiencing a wide range of emotions both physically and subjectively, but simply lack the
tools to express it; however more research is needed on this topic. In controls, experience of
emotion and expression of emotion are very closely linked which is why we often have trouble
concealing our emotions. In schizophrenia, experience and expression of emotion may be
dissociated, which could partly explain why schizophrenic patients have such difficulty
recognizing emotion from social cues.
However, it remains to be seen if schizophrenic patients have difficulty recognizing,
experiencing and expressing emotion in all forms of stimuli and expression, for example in
regards to music. Although the definition of music will change depending on whom you ask, the
most useful definition for our purposes is an artistic arrangement of tones and rhythms. Music is
more than just patterns of noise. Music is capable of producing a large variety of emotions,
something that most other sounds fail to elicit (Gomez, 2004). This characteristic of music
makes it a topic of great interest in regards to the study of emotional processing. There is no
denying that music can suggest and affect our state of mind. However, it is difficult to study
music's emotional power because the emotional content of music can be very subjective. A piece
of music may be irrefutably emotional yet still be experienced in different ways. The emotion
felt by a piece of music may be affected by numerous factors including; memories associated
with that piece, the mood of the person listening and their personality, the environment it is being
played in, and even the culture they were raised in (Juslin, 2008). Under such circumstances, it is
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extremely difficult to discover what it is about music that makes it so emotional. Despite these
limitations, numerous studies have investigated the emotional properties of music.
Studies have shown that healthy people are very good at identifying emotion in music
without lyrics (Vieillard et al, 2008). Even more interesting, researchers have found there to be a
universal recognition of happy, sad, and fearful emotions in western and native African music
(Fritz et al, 2009). Fritz and his colleagues performed a cross-cultural study with subjects from a
native African population that were naïve to western music, and a western population that were
naïve to African music. They found that both westerners and the native African population
recognized happy, sad, and fearful expressions in music at rates that were above chance (Fritz et
al., 2009). This universal recognition in novel pieces of music leads us to believe that there are
certain structures in music that we innately recognize for emotional content. Perhaps similar
acoustic cues are used to present emotion in both speech and music and we may be
evolutionarily adapted to notice them (Fritz et al., 2009).
Additional studies have been done with music examining musical structures and their
relationship to emotional content. Some of the major findings were that; major mode was
associated with negative high arousal songs and minor mode was associated with positive high
arousal songs (Gomez, 2007). Minor mode is one that uses a minor scale pattern of whole notes
and half notes: whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half, whole. A major mode is one that uses the
major scale pattern of whole steps and half steps: whole, half, whole, whole, half, whole, whole.
Additionally, they found that consonance was highest for calming songs but it was lowest f or
threatening songs (Gomez, 2007). Consonant music was typically rated as pleasant, while
dissonant music was rated as unpleasant (Sammler, 2007). Additionally when paired with
physiological measures, music rated to be unpleasant evoked a significant decrease in heart rate
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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(Sammler, 2007). Preliminary data suggests that schizophrenic patients show no significant
preference for consonant music over dissonant music (Honea, Borden, Park, 2003). This is
significant because nearly everyone prefers consonant music to dissonant music (Sammler,
2007). In a study examining preference for consonance of music in 2-4 month old children, the
infants quickly learned that when they turned their head in a certain direction consonant music
would play, and when they turned their head in the opposite direction dissonant music would
play. Once the infants learned how to turn on the music, they would consistently choose to turn
on consonant music over dissonant music (Zentner et al, 2008). These results suggest an innate
preference for consonant music over dissonant music. So why don’t schizophrenic patients show
this preference? A recent experiment looked into physiological responses to dissonance (Blood,
1999). Music of varying dissonance was played for the subjects while their cerebral blood flow
was measured. It was found that the varying degrees of dissonance caused increased activity in
the paralimbic regions of the brain, which are associated with emotional processes (Blood,
1999). Perhaps schizophrenic patients cannot recognize the negative emotional content of the
music. If they cannot recognize the threatening tone of the piece then maybe they do not find it
unpleasant.
There are numerous unanswered questions in regards to schizophrenia and music. How
does music succeed in prompting emotions within us? Why are these emotions often so
powerful? The simple answer is that no one knows. We are able to quantify the emotional
responses caused by music, but we cannot explain them. We are no closer with schizophrenia.
We know that schizophrenic patients often display a deficit in identifying emotion in social
situations, however we can only theorize as to why. We do not know if this is because an overall
social deficit, or because of an overall perceptual deficit. Schizophrenic patients are able to
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recognize emotion in some forms; for example their own experience. For all we know,
schizophrenic patients may actually be able to recognize emotion outside of a social context.
Music may be a good domain in which to explore this theory. Music, though written by humans,
can be played on a machine and still contain emotional content. If the emotion is separated from
the social aspect of processing then perhaps schizophrenic patients will be able to recognize it.
If schizophrenic patients are similar to controls in emotional music processing, then perhaps
music therapy could be a viable option for patients in the future.
METHODS
Participants
Fifteen clinically stable schizophrenic outpatients were recruited from a local
psychiatric hospital. Diagnoses were confirmed through the Structured Clinical Interview for
DSM-IV Axis 1 Disorders performed by a trained research staff member (SCID; First, Spitzer,
Gibbon, & Williams, 1995). One patient was un-medicated, one patient was taking typical
antipsychotic drugs, and the remaining patients were taking atypical antipsychotic drugs. The
un-medicated participant did not perform any differently from the other patients.
Healthy control participants were recruited by advertisements in the community, and then
demographically matched with the patients. They were also screened for psychosis-proneness by
using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (Raine, 1991). All participants were given
informed consent approved by the Vanderbilt University IRB and were paid twenty dollars for
every hour of their participation. Study exclusion criteria were; significant impaired vision,
impaired auditory acuity, head trauma, recreational drug use, comorbid axis I psychiatric
disorders, and any neurological condition. Clinical and demographic information are included in
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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table 1. The patient and control groups did not differ significantly in age, gender, IQ, race, or
education.
Twenty-seven Vanderbilt Undergraduate students were also used. They were not used
for the main part of the study, but rather for piloting purposes. They were recruited through
psychology classes and their participation was considered in the calculation of their grade. Their
mean age was 19.2, and their mean SPQ score was 19.04.
Measures
All participants filled out a number of questionnaires assessing their functioning
including the Social Functioning Scale interview (Birchwood et al., 1990), the Positive Affect
Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Watson et al., 1988), the Peters et al. Delusions Inventory
(PDI) (Peters et al., 1999), and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen &
Wheelwright, 2001) which assesses theory of mind. IQ was assessed using the National Adult
Reading Test (NART; Nelson, 1982). Handedness was assessed using the Edinburgh
Handedness inventory. For patients, clinical symptoms were assessed using the Brief Psychiatric
Rating Scale (BPRS; Overall & Gorham, 1962), the Scale for the Assessment of Positive
Symptoms (SAPS; Andreasen & Olsen, 1982), and the Scale for Assessment of Negative
Symptoms (SANS; Andreasen & Olsen, 1982). Control participants and Vanderbilt
undergraduates also completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) (Raine, 1991).
DANVA: Diagnostic analysis of nonverbal behavior
The Emory Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Behavior uses facial and prosodic stimuli to
assess emotion recognition ability. The adult facial expression task was created by having
participants were read a story that elicited a particular emotion, and then taking a photograph
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during which they were asked to make a facial expression that was appropriate for that emotion
(Nowicki & Carton, 1993). The prosodic task was created by having two professional actors
speak the neutral sentence "I am going out of the room now but I'll be back later" to reflect the
appropriate emotion at different levels of intensity (Baum & Nowicki, 1997). Participants were
presented with 24 faces and 24 voice clips an iMac desktop computer. The participants had to
choose whether each stimulus was expressing happy, sad, angry, or fearful emotion and to then
circle their choice on a pre-printed answer sheet.
Music emotion recognition task
The stimuli used, were 40 instrumental music clips that have been selected through
amazon.com, songpeddler.com, sonnyboo.com, and incompetech.com. Music was chosen that
was thought to be unfamiliar to western listeners in order to eliminate the potential confound of
emotional experience with a song. Music clips were selected that were thought to fit into the
emotional categories of happy, sad, scary, and calm. Once collected, multiple experimenters
rated the song clips in order to ensure agreement on the emotional content of each song. In a
piloting phase, thirty Vanderbilt University undergraduates listened to each music clip, and then
were asked to choose whether each song was happy, sad, calm, or scary. There was no time limit
imposed for responding to each question. The mean accuracy on this task was determined to be
82.4%. This accuracy matched previous findings in the literature suggesting emotion recognition
in music to be 80%, so the task was deemed to be of appropriate difficulty for use with patients
and controls.
The healthy controls, and the schizophrenic patients completed a similar task using the
same music clips. The music clips were all ten second long aiff. Files that have been edited with
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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Audacity sound editing software. First the ten-second music clip was presented. Then the
participants were also asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 7 how happy, sad, scary, and calm they
perceived each piece to be, with 1 being neutral and 7 being very emotional. After rating the
songs, participants were also asked to choose which of those four emotions they thought best
represented the song as a whole. A final question asked participants if they had ever heard the
song before. In this task, participants were only given 7 seconds to answer each of the 6
questions. This was to ensure proper time synchronization for the acquisition of physiological
data. All music listening tasks were presented in a quiet room on a 12-inch Mac Book Pro
laptop, using PsyScope X B57 software. All participants used headphones, and the computer
volume was set to 6.
Psychophysiological recording
While the participants were listening to the music, physiological measures were also being
recorded. Skin conductance data was collected using Biopac System Inc. apparatus, with the
Gain levels set at 20 ’s/10 Hzs/ DC power linked to a Dell PC computer. The data was
recorded using AcqKnowledge software III for MP100WS with a sample rate of 200
samples/second. Electrodes of the TDE-426-Y-ZZ-S Ag-AgCl type was used with isotonic
electrode paste. The sites in which the sensors were applied were scrubbed with dry gauze for 20
seconds to remove any moisture. The white conductance paste was applied to the center of the
sensors, so that the paste was level with the surface of the sensor. The sensors were then applied
and taped to the left hand using medical tape; one sensor was placed at the bony part of the palm
underneath the pinky finger, and the other was placed on the fleshy part of the palm near the base
of the thumb. During the music task, acquisition of skin conductance data was taken only during
the ten-second interval in which each song was playing. In an attempt to avoid skin conductance
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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changes due to movement, participants were explicitly told to try to keep their left hand as still as
possible during the task. The mean, minimum, and maximum SCL frequency was extracted for
each ten-second period of time in which the participant was listening to a song. For each song,
the frequency of the mean was compared to the frequency of the max in order to investigate
emotional activation during this time period. Emotional activation was classified as the range
between the mean frequency and the maximum frequency. Participants were characterized as
either normal or low responders, and the two groups were analyzed separately A skin
conductance response scored for a magnitude increase greater than 5 was classified as a normal
responder.
Statistical Analysis
Accuracy on the face, voice, and music tasks was defined by percent correct out of total
answered. Emotional ratings were consolidated by song type and type of rating for each song,
and then averaged for each participant. The number of false responses for each type of emotion
was also calculated for each participant, as was total accuracy for each type of emotion.
Levene’s test for equality of variances was done, and between group differences for accuracy
and ratings were assessed using a one way ANOVA. Significance was determined individually
for each measure depending on whether or not equal variance was found. Relationships between
measures were assessed with Spearman’s rho bivariate measure of correlation. The groups were
compared on demographic and clinical variables using an independent samples T-test for
equality of means, with categorical variables made using chi-square analysis. A significance of
.05 was used for all statistical tests, and all tests were carried out with version 17.0 SPSS
statistical package.
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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Skin conductance data was consolidated for each type of emotion and compared between
groups using mixed design analysis of variances (ANOVA). Friedman repeated measures
analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) was done to examine effect of emotional category.
RESULTS
Ratings of emotion in music
The results show significant group differences in the emotional ratings of the songs. As a
whole, schizophrenic patients were shown to overrate the positive emotions on all types of songs,
and to underrate the negative emotions for the negative valance songs. In particular patients
were found to significantly overrate the happiness of all song types as well as the calmness of
scary songs. The means were compared using a one way ANOVA, and are summarized in table 2
along with the standard deviation, F, and p-values. The degrees of freedom for the between
groups analysis of this test was 1. A graph of these rating differences is presented in figure 1.
In addition, a number of emotion ratings seemed to be correlated with both positive and
negative symptoms ratings, PDI, Social functioning, and SPQ (in controls only). Nonparametric
correlations were assessed using Spearman’s rho. These results are summarized in tables 3-6.
Emotion recognition
Patients were shown to be significantly impaired in recognizing emotion in music as
compared to controls, with specific deficits shown for the scary stimuli. Control participants
demonstrated an overall accuracy of 75.12%, while patients demonstrated an accuracy of 61.83%
(p=.013). These results of the one way ANOVA are summarized in table 7, and visualized in
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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figure 2. Interestingly, no significant group differences were found for accuracy on the DANVA
faces or voices task.
Accuracy on the music task was also shown be correlated to a number of additional
measures summarized below. Of particular note, performance on the task was highly negatively
correlated with a number of delusional subscales including paranoia, paranormal beliefs, and
negative self. The test was done using Spearman’s rho correlation. These relationships are
summarized in tables 8-12.
Although patients were not found to be impaired on either DANVA task, performance on
the faces task was shown to be correlated with certain measures summarized in table 13, and
accuracy on the prosodic task was shown to be negatively correlated to PDI negative self (r=.568, p=.034).
Psychophysiological results
The skin conductance data did not appear to differ significantly between controls and
patients. We were only able to analyze data from 9 controls, and 12 patients, and the results
were also spilt into two types of responders; high and low, so more participants may be needed in
order to increase statistical power. Overall the results were inconclusive
DISCUSSION
Our findings have both confirmed and extended knowledge of emotion recognition
deficits in schizophrenia. Patients performed significantly worse than controls in identifying the
emotional content of songs. In addition, a number of interesting relationships between total
accuracy, as well as accuracy for each individual emotion were apparent in patients (tables 7-12).
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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In patients, a higher level of paranormal belief delusions, and delusions of negative self were
related to poor overall performance (table 8). In addition, poor performance on happiness
recognition was related to a higher symptoms rating for SAPS formal thought disorder, and
SANS alogia (table 10). Sadness inaccuracy was related to paranoia delusions, thought
disturbance delusions, negative self delusions, and paranormal beliefs (table 11). Scariness
inaccuracy was also related to PDI thought disturbance, and PDI paranormal beliefs (table 12).
We were unable to replicate prior findings of affect recognition deficits in faces and
voices. Perhaps the DANVA faces and voices task was not difficult enough to produce
significant group differences or our group of patients were exceptionally high-functioning but
still showed differences in our music task.
Evidence of group difference in the emotional ratings of songs, may suggest that patients
are experiencing a unique subjective perception of music (Table 2). A previous study, using a
pitch perception task (Hooker & Park, 2002) has shown that patients do not demonstrate
impairments in tonal perception. However, patients have been shown to perform significantly
worse than controls on a distorted tunes task (Leitman et al., 2007), and patients show no
preference for consonant music over dissonant music (Honea, Borden, Park, 2003). It appears
that these differences stem from subjective, rather than perceptual impairments. Patients appear
to have a higher threshold for dissonance and distortion in music. My results also support this
explanation, as patients were most impaired in the recognition of scary music (table 7), which
was more likely to contain dissonant chords and uneven rhythms. Future studies should aim to
further dissect this subjective peculiarity, perhaps by quantitatively altering the rhythm, tonality,
and/or tempo of music to look at the effect of subjective emotionality.
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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Of particular interest; is the subjective emotional ratings made by controls and their
relationship to SPQ (table 6). It seems that the tendency to overrate the positive emotions is
related to a number of schizotypal traits. It seems that the happiness rating for scary songs
presents the strongest and most numerous correlations. This evidence provides additional
support that schizotypy may be associated with abnormal subjective experience of affective
emotional cues. Perhaps controls with schizotypal traits also demonstrate a higher threshold for
dissonant or unnerving music.
Overall, the results of this study suggest an affect recognition deficit that may be highly
dependent on subjective preference. Patients may be missing auditory cues for affective
information because they are not encoding the perceptual characteristics (dissonance, rhythm,
tempo) in the same way as controls. This could also explain why performance on the task was
related to measures of delusion (Table 4, 8-12). Delusions arise from a subjective
misinterpretation of environmental information. If performance on the music task is linked to
subjective misinterpretation of perceptual information; than it may make sense that participants
with high levels of delusion have difficulty extracting affective clues from auditory information.
Music is a relatively novel modality in emotion research. We know that it is capable of
inducing emotions in listeners, and we know that control populations are very good at detecting
the emotional content of songs. However little is known about its effects upon the schizophrenic
population. Music is a good domain to explore because it does not have any explicitly social
content. The evidence that patients are impaired in a modality lacking any social cues, may
suggest an underlying perceptual deficit. In this case, a misinterpretation of the sensory
contributions of basic affective stimuli, that in turn affects the interpretation of social cues. It
would be interesting to do imaging studies of the auditory and prefrontal cortex during music
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
17
listening to examine any differential patterns of activation. Such studies could help us answer
the question of whether the emotion recognition deficit in schizophrenia is due to top-down or
bottom-up dysfunction.
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
18
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AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
23
FIGURES
Table 1. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Healthy Controls and Patients with
schizophrenia (Independent samples T-test and chi squared analysis)
Table 2. Rating differences for the emotional content of songs (ANOVA)
Figure 1. Mean rating differences for the emotional content of songs (ANOVA)
Table 3. Significant Spearman’s rho correlations of symptoms with emotion ratings
Table 4. Significant Spearman’s rho correlations of PDI with emotion ratings
Table 5. Significant Spearman’s rho correlations of social functioning with emotion
ratings
Table 6. Significant Spearman’s rho correlations of SPQ with emotion ratings
Table 7. Group differences in emotion recognition accuracy (ANOVA)
Figure 2. A graph of the group differences in emotion recognition accuracy (ANOVA)
Table 8. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with total accuracy
Table 9. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with calmness accuracy
Table 10. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with happiness accuracy.
Table 11. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with sadness accuracy
Table 12. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with scariness accuracy
Table 13. Spearman’s rho correlation: Significant relationships with DANVA faces
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
24
Table 1.
Characteristic
Controls (n=15)
Patients (n=15)
t-test
significance
Age
37.73+/- 10.546
42.73 +/- 7.824
-1.475
.152
Gender (M/F) :
(n=15)
8/7
(n=20
9/6
X2 =.136
.713
IQ
106.96+/- 7.764
102.79+/-11.38
1.169
.252
Years of education
16.13+/-2.031
14.13+/-3.378
1.965
.059
2
Ethnicity (white/black/asian)
11/3/1
7/8/0
X =4.162
.125
Edinburgh
86.33+/- 15.75
51.67+/- 60.46
2.149
.04*
CPZ equivalent dosage (mg)
378.74+/-396.5
BPRS total score (n=13)
15.23+/-7.661
SAPS (n=13)
17.69+/- 10.67
SANS total score (n=13)
22.54+/- 12.57
Duration of illness
17.8+/-9.01
PANAS PA
35.4+/- 8.192
31.73+/-7.815
1.254
.22
PANAS NA
19.33+/-8.789
21.13+/-8.262
-.578
.568
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
25
Table 2.
emotion being rated
happy
sad
calm
scary
happy
sad
calm
scary
happy
sad
calm
scary
happy
sad
calm
Scary
type of song
happy
happy
happy
happy
sad
sad
sad
sad
calm
calm
calm
calm
scary
scary
scary
Scary
SZ mean rating
6.102
1.408
2.932
1.18
2.702
4.347
4.653
1.971
4.101
3.103
4.927
1.487
3.146
2.773
2.357
4.257
SZ Std. dev.
.5344
.4098
1.066
.268
1.088
1.361
.8131
1.024
.9598
.9228
.9415
.5817
1.09
.7982
.8129
1.522
CO mean rating
5.398
1.403
2.343
1.431
1.847
4.492
4.079
2.047
3.066
2.425
4.527
1.341
2.021
2.832
1.736
4.645
CO Std. dev.
1.075
.4261
.9581
.4378
.5354
.8854
1.042
.7527
1.12
.9329
.9881
.4496
.8068
.7222
.5268
.9888
F
5.161
.001
2.535
3.570
7.455
.121
2.83
.053
7.393
4.004
1.291
.585
10.332
.045
6.146
3.824
pvalue
.031*
.972
.123
.069
.011*
.731
.104
.819
.011*
.055
.266
.451
.003**
.834
.019*
.061
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
26
Figure 1.
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
27
Table 3.
SAP
hallucinations
SAPS bizarre
behavior
SAPS
delusion
.033
calm rating for happy p-value
.626*
r
.022
calm rating for scary p-value
happy rating for sad
p-value
r
happy for scary
p-value
r
scary rating for happy p-value
SANS
anhedonia
.593*
r
r
SAPS formal thought
disorder
.595*
.032
-.624*
.694**
.575*
.023
.009
.040
-.581*
.648*
.704**
.037
.017
.007
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
28
Table 4.
PDI
PDI
PDI
PDI
PDI
PDI
paranormal thought catastrophic. PDI idea
PDI
PDI
PDI
PDI total paranoia religiosity grandiosity beliefs disturbance
ideation
reference. distress preoccupation conviction
calm
r
rating
for
happy p-value
.428*
.390*
.405*
.366*
.439*
.490**
.018
.033
.026
.046
.015
.006
calm
r
rating
for
scary p-value
.485**
.368*
.598**
.546**
.523**
.383*
.515**
.528**
.007
.045
.000
.002
.003
.037
.004
.003
happy
r
rating
for
calm p-value
.421*
.366*
.413*
.384*
.365*
.376*
.395*
.455*
.020
.046
.023
.036
.047
.040
.031
.012
happy
r
rating
for
sad p-value
.599** .484**
.000
happy
r
for
scary p-value
.403*
scary
r
rating
for
calm p-value
*
.007
.027
.408
.025
.373
*
.042
.495**
.552**
.639**
.463*
.551**
.599**
.590**
.005
.002
.000
.010
.002
.000
.001
.374*
.364*
.380*
.390*
.390*
.473**
.042
.048
.038
.033
.033
.008
*
.375*
.032
.041
.421
*
.020
.381
*
.038
.391
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
29
Table 5.
Withdrawal/
social
engagement
r
Interpersonal
communication
-.361*
Prosocial
Employment
-.364*
.050
calm rating for scary p-value
.048
-.371*
r
.044
happy rating for sad p-value
-.527
r
happy for scary
.003
p-value
r
sad rating for calm p-value
**
-.438*
-.407*
.015
.025
*
-.516**
.047
.004
-.366
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
30
Table 6.
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
SPQ SPQ
SPQ
SPQ
no
SPQ constric
SPQ
positive negative cognitive interperson disorganiz SPQ idea social odd unusual
odd
close odd
ted suspicious
cluster cluster perceptual
al
ation.
reference anxiety beliefs perception behavior friends speech affect
ness
SPQ
total
.374*
r
calm rating
for happy p-value
.042
.405
r
calm rating
for sad
p-value
*
.026
happy for
scary
sad rating
for calm
.037
.414
.042
.450
*
.013
*
.383
*
*
.414
*
.037
.414
.023
.393
happy
rating for
sad
.383
*
.399*
.029
.450
*
*
.361 .473
*
.013
.050 .008
*
.371
.023
.385
*
.414
*
*
.044
.385
*
.420
*
*
*
r
p-value
.377*
.374*
.040
.042
.399
*
.029
*
**
.395*
.031
*
.384*
.022
.036
.409* .491** .441* .411* .406*
.413*
.469
*
.366 .410
*
.417
*
.032
.023
.036
.023
.036
.021
.446* .472**
.389*
.472**
.389*
.458*
.024 .032 .006
.481**
.497*
.009 .047 .024
*
.013
.009
.034
.009
.034
.011
.516** .566** .512**
.566**
.512**
.480**
.007
.005
.542** .492* .595*
*
r
p-value
*
.015
.410 .392 .487
r
p-value
.031
.441
r
p-value
.394*
*
r
calm rating
for scary
p-value
happy
rating for
calm
.374*
.004
.362
*
.049
.001
.004
.406
*
.026
.001
.004
.406
*
.026
.007
.403
.027
.026
.023
.481** .528** .512* .476* .541**
.501**
*
.002 .006 .001
*
.025
.006 .015 .024
*
.007
.380
*
.038
*
.003 .004 .008
.412
*
.024
.002
.377
*
.040
.005
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
31
Table 7.
All emotions
happy
sad
calm
scary
SZ mean accuracy
0.6183
0.8489
0.4376
0.5861
0.5395
SZ Std. dev
.1599
.1855
.2354
.2511
.2966
CO mean accuracy
0.7512
0.937
0.5541
0.7332
0.7643
CO Std. dev.
.085
.0884
.1866
.1812
.142
F
07.343.013*
2.76
2.256
3.387
7.006
P-value
.011*
.108
.144
.076
.023*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
32
Figure 2.
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
33
Table 8.
spearman's rho
p-value
Meaures
all
SZ
CO
all
SZ CO
IQ
0.447*
0.013*
DANVA faces % correct 0.583**
.666** 0.001**
.009**
PDI paranoia
PDI paranormal beliefs -475** -.634*
.008** .011*
PDI negative self
-.542*
.037*
PDI distress
-.361*
.05*
RSF IP
.37*
.044*
SPQ disorg
.623*
.013*
SPQ Odd behavior
0.668**
.006**
SPQ suspiciousness
-.544*
.036*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
34
Table 9.
spearman's rho
p-value
Measures
all
SZ
CO all SZ CO
DANVA faces % correct 0.405
0.029
PDI paranormal beliefs -448* -.541*
.013* 0.037
RSF IP
.43*
.018*
SPQ Odd behavior
.537*
0.039*
SPQ suspiciousness
-.538*
.039*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
35
Table 10.
spearman's rho
p-value
Measures
all
SZ
CO all SZ
CO
PANAS
.554*
.032*
PDI paranormal beliefs
-.448*
.013*
RSF rec
.384*
.589* .036*
0.021
RSF Interpersonal communication .43*
.018*
SAPS hallucination
.67*
.012*
SAPS formal thought disorder
-.62*
0.024*
SANS alogia
-.658*
0.015*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
36
Table 11.
spearman's rho
p-value
Meaures
all
SZ
CO all SZ
CO
IQ
.423*
.02*
PDI total
-.617*
.014*
PDI paranoia
-.517*
.048*
PDI thought disturbance
-.544*
.036*
PDI negative self
-.651** .516*
.009* .049*
PDI paranormal beliefs -.403* -.645**
.027* .009*
PDI preoccupation
-.583*
0.023*
PDI distress
-.403* -.62*
.027* 0.041
PDI conviction
-.533*
0.041*
SANS attention
-.623*
.023*
RSF IP
.43*
.018*
SPQ Odd behavior
.566*
.028*
SPQ suspiciousness
-.538*
.039*
PANAS PA
-.523*
.046*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
37
Table 12.
spearman's rho
p-value
Measures
all
SZ CO all
SZ CO
DANVA faces % correct .477**
.009**
PDI thought disturbance -.362*
0.049
PDI paranormal beliefs -.410* -.582* .024* 0.023
PDI conviction
-.391*
0.033
RSF employment
.397*
.03*
RSF withdrawal
-.545*
.035*
SPQ Odd behavior
.537*
0.039
SPQ suspiciousness
-.538*
.039*
AFFECTIVE MUSICAL PERCEPTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
38
Table 13.
spearman's rho
p-value
Measures
all
SZ
CO
all SZ CO
eyes
.406*
.036*
PDI paranormal beliefs
-.373*
0.046
RSF Interpersonal communication .429* .552*
.033*
RSF prosocial
0.417
.024*
SANS total
-.557*
.048*
RSF withdrawal
-.691**
0.006