RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
Running Head: RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Levels and Fluctuation in Children of Depressed versus
Nondepressed Mothers
Alexa Curhan
Vanderbilt University
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RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that offspring of depressed mothers are at increased
risk for developing dysfunctional affect regulation, which is a risk factor for the onset of
depression and other psychopathology. One way in which depression may be transmitted from
mothers to their children is through dysfunctional neuroregulatory mechanisms, especially those
related to affect regulation. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) has been shown to be related to
affect regulation, and RSA level and fluctuation index an individual’s autonomic flexibility. The
present study investigated whether there were differences in RSA level and fluctuation in
offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers, as well as how RSA levels related to affect.
The study consisted of 92 mother-child dyads (37 mothers with a history of depression and 55
nondepressed mothers). Mothers and children completed questionnaires, and RSA data were
obtained from children while they watched brief video clips (neutral, negative, and positive).
RSA levels or fluctuation did not differ significantly between children of depressed and
nondepressed mothers, and RSA levels did not significantly predict children’s affect during the
mood induction videos. Exploratory analyses revealed a nonsignificant, trend for child sex and
mother’s level of depression symptoms to predict RSA during the mood induction videos.
Limitations of the current study and directions for future research are discussed.
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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Approximately 1 in 10 adults in the United States has experienced a major depressive
episode (MDE) in their lifetime (CDC.gov), which results in about 15 million children growing
up in a household with a parent who has had an MDE during their life (Forehand, Thigpen,
Parent, Hardcastle, Bettis & Compas, 2012). Children of depressed parents are 3 to 4 times more
likely to experience a depressive episode themselves (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999; Hammen &
Brennan, 2003; Weissman, Wickramaratne, Nomura, Warner, Pilowsky & Verdeli, 2006).
Offspring of depressed parents also are at increased risk of negative behavioral and emotional
outcomes, have increased levels of internalizing and externalizing problems, and experience a
narrower range of emotions (Connell, Hughes-Scalise, Klostermann & Azem, 2011 & Goodman,
Rouse, Conelll, Broth, Hall, & Heyward, 2011).
Maternal depression also has been shown to be associated with problems in affect in both
mothers and children. Affect refers to the display or experience of emotions and can be
categorized into negative and positive and high or low. Maternal depression has been related to
low levels of positive affect (Connell et al., 2011), and low positive affect in mothers has been
found to be associated with an increased likelihood of depression in children (Dietz et al., 2008).
Low positive affect in mothers also is related to low positive affect in their children, which
increases the chances of the children developing depression (Forbes & Dahl, 2005 & Lonigan,
Hooe, David & Kistner, 1999). Thus, children of depressed parents are at high risk for
developing depression and other negative outcomes. How might depression be transmitted from
parent to child?
Goodman and Gotlib (1999) proposed four ways in which parents likely transmit
depressive symptoms, including genes and exposure to negative maternal cognitions, behavior
and affect. A third means of transmission is through dysfunctional neuroregulatory mechanisms.
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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Ashamn, Dawson, and Panagiotides (2008) found that offspring of mothers with depression had
changes in psychophysiological systems that were related to emotion regulation. They also found
that children of depressed mothers had increased heart rate and decreased vagal tone as
compared to with offspring of nondepressed mothers. Dysfunctional psychophysiological
systems have been found to increase the risk for the onset of psychopathology and may be one
possible mechanism underlying affect dysregulation and depression.
What is Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia?
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) has been used to assess the functioning of
underlying systems of affect regulation, which indicate individuals’ ability to adaptively respond
to the environment and regulate their affect (Porges, Doussard-Roosevelt & Maiti, 1994).
According to Porges and the Polyvagal theory (1994, 1997, 2007), RSA level and fluctuation are
indicators of the functioning of the parasympathetic nervous system, and they quantify the effect
of the vagus nerve on heart rate. RSA is measured by assessing the extent to which respiration
creates variability in heart rate. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia is divided into an individual’s
RSA level and RSA fluctuation; each construct reflects a different aspect of the individual’s
autonomic flexibility (Salomon, 2005). Baseline RSA reflects an individual’s parasympathetic
activity while at rest, referred to as RSA level. When faced with a stimulus, the vagal pathway
combines cardiac autonomic activity with emotional behavioral processes to either augment or
suppress parasympathetic activity. When confronted with a new or evocative stimulus, RSA is
suppressed in order to mobilize an individuals resources, such as in the fight or flight response.
RSA augmentation occurs when the vagal brake is applied to allow for parasympathetic activity
and decrease energy expenditure (Porges, 1994, 1997). The augmentation and suppression of
RSA presumably index the autonomic flexibility of an individual.
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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RSA Level
RSA level is a measure of the influence of the vagus nerve on heart rate when an
individual is at rest. Past studies have shown that RSA level is related to temperament and
emotionality (Ashman et al., 2008; Beauchine, 2001). High resting RSA levels have been found
to be associated with social competence, adaptive coping, effective emotion regulation, and
resiliency to risks, such as maternal depression (Conell et al., 2011; El-Sheikh Harger &
Whitson, 2001; Morales, Beekman, Blandon, Stifter, & Buss, 2014; Rottenberg, 2007). Low
resting RSA levels in children are associated with depression, behavioral problems, emotional
inflexibility, increased internalizing and externalizing disorders, and dysregulated emotional
states (Boyce, Quas, Alkon, Smider, Essex & Kupfer,. 2001; Conell et al., 2011, El-Sheikh et al.,
2001; Field , 1995; Pine et al., 1998).
Previous research has revealed inconsistent findings regarding RSA level and affect.
Oveis, Cohen, Gruber, Shiota, Haidt & Keltner (2009) reported that higher RSA level was
associated with higher stability of positive mood, level of positive mood in response to a neutral
stimuli, and tonic positive emotionality. Previous research on RSA level and negative emotions
has mainly focused on stress and anxiety, but these results also have been mixed (Oevis et al.,
2009). Regarding RSA level and sadness, Oevis and colleagues found no relation between RSA
level and tonic negative emotionality. Silvia, Jackson & Sopko (2014) compared RSA and a
multitude of assessments of dispositional positive emotions across two large data sets but could
not replicate any of the results of Oevis et al. and did not find any significant associations
between RSA level and positive affect. A third study found that higher baseline RSA was
associated with greater positive emotional reactivity and lower negative emotional reactivity
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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(Calkins, 1997). One purpose of the current study was to further explore the relation of RSA
level to affect in children at risk for depression.
RSA Fluctuation
RSA fluctuation is the measure of the augmentation and withdrawal of the vagal brake on
parasympathetic activity, and allows individuals to flexibly respond to changing environmental
demands. Beauchine (2001) suggested that previous research has shown that RSA fluctuation
may reflect an individual’s attention regulation, emotion regulation, and mood. Adaptive
fluctuations reflect an individual’s ability to physiologically respond in a way that allows
sufficient, but not excessive, mobilization of resources to meet the demands of the stressor.
Having an appropriate degree of RSA fluctuation in response to stressors can reduce the
likelihood of the onset psychopathology (Morales et al., 2014; Rottenberg, 2007), as well as
increase individuals’ ability to adaptively regulate their emotions (Blandon, Calkins, Keane &
O’Brien, 2008).
In contrast, maladaptive RSA fluctuation manifests itself in either insufficient or
excessive reactivity. Insufficient RSA fluctuation indicates that an individual did not suppress
parasympathetic activity enough, which in turn, would not allow for sufficient sympathetic
activity to help prepare the body to deal with the stressor. Excessive RSA fluctuation results in
the body suppressing parasympathetic activity too much, which would result in the body
spending a disproportionate amount of energy on a stressor. Insufficient or excessive RSA
fluctuation is associated with higher levels of anxiety, hostility, alexithymia, impulse control
disorders, internalizing disorders, Major Depressive Disorder and other psychopathology (Boyce
et al., 2001; Bylsma, Salomon, Taylor-Clift, Morris & Rottenberg, 2014; Friedman & Thayer,
1998; Morales et al., 2014; Nederhof, Marceau, Shirtcliff, Hastings, & Oldehinkell, 2014;
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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Rottenberg, 2007). A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that there was a moderate association
between lower levels of RSA suppression in response to stress and increased internalizing
problems (Hastings, Klimes-Dougan, Kendziora, Brand & Zahn-Waxler, 2014).
The current study focused on RSA fluctuation during film clips that elicit sadness and
happiness. Previous research has shown that during film clips that induce sadness, the typical and
adaptive response is moderate levels of RSA augmentation, which results in an increase in heart
rate variability (Hastings et al., 2014). Responses to sad stimuli that deviate from this patterns
pose a risk for dysfunctional emotional regulation, either in excessive or insufficient autonomic
reactivity. Studies have yielded mixed results for what the adaptive response to a happy stimulus
should be. In an earlier meta-analysis, Cacioppo, Berntson, Larsen, Pohlmann & Ito (2000)
concluded that positive stimuli evoke less fluctuation than negative stimuli. In contrast, Shiota,
Neufeld, Yeung, Moser, & Perea (2011) described a series of studies in which positive stimuli
evoked an increase in RSA, and attempted to clarify the previous inconsistent findings on RSA
fluctuation in response to positive stimuli. They found that RSA level decreased significantly
from baseline for the positive emotions of enthusiasm, attachment love, nurturing, love, and awe,
but they did not look at happiness. Another purpose of the current study was to further study
children’s responses to a happy stimulus.
RSA in Offspring of Depressed Mothers
RSA is particularly important in offspring of depressed mothers because one major risk
factor for depression is physiological inflexibility and poor affect regulation. Findings have been
mixed regarding RSA fluctuation in offspring of depressed mothers. Ashman et al. (2008)
reported that offspring of chronically depressed mothers exhibited increased RSA fluctuation in
response to happy and sad mood induction videos when compared to offspring of healthy
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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controls. In contrast, Forbes, Fox, Cohn, Galles & Kovacs (2006) found that offspring of
mother’s with a history of depression had reduced heart period flexibility in response to mood
induction tasks compared to children of healthy mothers. Another study found no significant
difference in either RSA level or fluctuation between offspring of depressed and nondepressed
mothers (Yaraslovsky, Rottenberg & Kovacs, 2014).
Interestingly within a sample of children of depressed mothers, Blandon et al. (2008)
found that children with higher levels of RSA had less ability to regulate their emotions as
compared to children with lower RSA levels. Others have found that higher RSA was related to
positive outcomes, such that children with higher RSA levels and adaptive levels of RSA
fluctuation were more likely to be buffered against the negative effects of marital conflict
between their parents (Katz & Gottman, 1997). Moreover, lower levels of RSA in children
exposed to marital hostility was associated with higher levels of behavioral problems.
A meta-analysis by Rottenberg, Clift, Bolden & Salomon (2007) found that adults with
Major Depressive Disorder exhibited lower levels of RSA. This finding is particularly important
given that one hypothesized mode of transmission of depression from mothers to children is
through dysfunctional neuroregulatory mechanisms (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). Thus, it is
possible that depressed mothers’ low levels of RSA is somehow transmitted to their offspring.
This literature review highlights four areas for which additional research is needed. First,
due to the small amount of studies of RSA in offspring of depressed mothers, further research is
needed to detect if there are differences in RSA while at rest between children of depressed and
nondepressed mothers. Second, research on RSA fluctuation has shown that maladaptive,
insufficient or excessive RSA fluctuation is related to negative outcomes, yet it is unclear
whether offspring of depressed mothers have atypical RSA fluctuation. Third, the research on
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS
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RSA fluctuation in response to a positive stimuli has been unclear, so further study of whether
problems in affect regulation also occur in response to positive stimuli is needed. Understanding
the underlying neuroregulatory mechanisms in affect regulation, especially in offspring of
depressed mothers, is important because it points to possible ways of decreasing the risk of
developing psychopathology. In addition, previous research has mainly focused on very young
children, so studying RSA in at risk children at an older age is important, especially during the
years leading up to the common age of onset for MDD.
In addition, previous studies have examined how RSA level relates to different emotions,
but little is known about how RSA level relates to affect in offspring of depressed mothers, both
at a trait level and in response to stimuli. To address these issues, the current study examined
RSA level and fluctuation in children of depressed versus nondepressed mothers. The following
hypotheses were tested: (1) children of depressed mothers will have lower resting RSA at
baseline than children of nondepressed mothers; (2) children of depressed mothers will have
reduced RSA reactivity compared to children of nondepressed mothers during the mood
induction videos; (3) higher levels of resting RSA will be significantly associated with higher
levels of positive affect and lower levels of negative affect.
Method
Participants
Participants were 92 mothers-child dyads. Mothers either met criteria for a depressive
episode during their child’s lifetime (n=37) or had no history of a depressive disorder during
their child’s life (n=55). Children were ages 8, 9, or 10 years old (mean age = 9.39, SD = .83); if
the mother had more than one child in this age range, one child was chosen at random. The
sample of children was 55% female; 57% of the children were Caucasian, 25% African
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 10
American, 14% other, and 4% unreported. The mean income of the sample was $90,000$100,000. Mothers’ education levels were as follows: 52% completed all or part of graduate
school, 33% graduated college, and 15% completed part of college or less. Mothers’ marital
status was as follows: 80% married or co-habiting, 6.6% divorced, 13.4% other. Table 1 presents
the demographic data by group.
Participants were recruited through listservs, medical clinics, and birth databases at
Vanderbilt University and Emory University. Possible participants completed a phone screen to
assess eligibility and to determine whether the mother had a history of depression during the
child’s lifetime. Exclusion criteria were maternal psychosis, Bipolar I Disorder, Schizophrenia or
current substance abuse, or child developmental disabilities, autism, or psychosis.
Procedure for Psychophysiological Assessment
The current study was part of a larger study about positive affect in children of depressed
and nondepressed mothers. Mother-child dyads came into the lab for a 3-hour session. Upon
arrival, the mother and child were consented and assented, respectively. Children completed
questionnaires with a research assistant, while the mother completed questionnaires in a separate
room. Children went to a different lab to complete the mood task while psychophysiological
measures were recorded.
The researchers connected three cardiovascular electrodes to the child and a respiration
belt, which were all connected to a BioLog that recorded ECG output. Two electrodes were
placed on either side of the rib cage at heart level, and the third was placed centrally just under
the collar bone. The child was seated in a chair facing a video screen, and the researcher sat
beside the child to monitor the BioLog. Children were told that they would hear and watch a
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 11
series of audio and video clips, and were instructed to focus on their feelings while they viewed
the video segments.
The video segments were viewed in a fixed order and created six 4-minute sections:
baseline, negative mood, recovery, positive mood, recovery, and final baseline. First, a baseline
audio story that detailed facts about plants was played for four minutes in order to assess resting
RSA. Second, a negative video clip, from either Bambi, Lion King, or Land before Time (i.e., the
negative mood condition) was played for four minutes during which RSA was monitored. Third,
a neutral video (fish swimming) was played for four minutes to assess RSA recovery. Fourth, a
positive video clip, from either Happy Feet, Lion King, or The Princess and the Frog (i.e., the
positive mood condition), was played for four minutes during which RSA was measured. Fifth, a
different four minute neutral fish video was played to assess RSA recovery. Finally, a fourminute audio story detailing facts about birds was played. Immediately following each clip,
children were asked how they were feeling. The researcher placed an event marker on the
BioLog at the beginning and end of every video clip to signify the different conditions. The
electrodes were then removed from the child, and the child was reunited with their mother. At
the end of the study, mothers were compensated for participating and children were given the
opportunity to select a small toy from a “treasure chest.”
Computation of RSA
Scores for both RSA level and fluctuation were calculated at Emory University using the
CardioEdit and CardioBatch programs (Porges, 1985 & Porges & Bohrer, 1990). RSA level
during the audio story, neutral fish video, and mood induction videos was calculated by splitting
the data into 30-second epochs and taking the average score of all of the epochs in order to fully
capture what occurred during each four minute segment. RSA fluctuation for the negative video
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 12
was calculated by subtracting RSA level during the baseline audio story from the RSA level
during the mood induction video, and the positive fluctuation score was calculated by subtracting
RSA level during the neutral fish video from RSA level during the positive video.
Measures
Child Measures
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C; Laurent et al., 2009)
is a 30-item child report measure of positive and negative affectivity. The scale was administered
twice to the child with several other measures between administrations of the trait and state
versions of the PANAS. The trait PANAS asked children how often they feel each adjective in
general. The state version of the PANAS asked children how much they felt each adjective at
the present moment. Children rated on a 5-point Likert scale how much they felt that way,
ranging from 1 (not much or not at all) to 5 (a lot). Laurent et al. (2009) found that the PANAS-C
yielded high internal consistency as well as good convergent and divergent validity of the
positive and negative affect scale scores with reports of anxiety and depressive symptoms. In the
present study, internal consistencies for the PA and NA scales were .88 and .91, respectively, for
the trait questionnaire, and .92 and .70, respectively for the state questionnaire.
Smiley Faces Questionnaire measures children’s mood at the moment. First, children
were asked whether they felt happy/good or unhappy/bad during the previous four-minute
segment. Children then were asked whether they felt that way a lot, somewhere in between, or a
little, using a 3-point Likert scale. Each mood score could range from 1 to 6.
Feelings and Me Questionnaire (Kovacs, Rottenberg, & George, 2009) is a 67-item
questionnaire about emotion regulation. The measure asks children how true each statement is
for them using a 3-point Likert scale ranging from “Not true of me,” “Sometimes true of me” to
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 13
“Many times true of me.” Of the 67 items, 55 ask children about times when they are sad or
upset, which contains statements such as “When I feel sad or upset, I throw, kick or hit things”
and “When I feel sad or upset, I think about everything being my fault.” Four items ask children
about when they are angry or mad, which include statements such as “When I feel angry or mad
I break or kick things” and “When I feel angry or mad I have a fight with my family or friends.”
Four items ask children about when they feel scared or nervous, which includes statements such
as “When I feel scared or nervous, I try to take deep breaths or breathe slowly” and “When I feel
scared or nervous, I get mom or dad to hold me.” Four items ask children about when they are
happy, and includes “When I feel happy, I play or have fun with friends” and “When I feel
happy, I think about how good I feel.” The internal consistency for each subscale were .92, .72,
.62, and .66, respectively.
Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ-Child Self-Report Short Version; Angold,
Costello, Messer, Pickles, Winder & Silver 1995) is a 13-item measure of how they were feeling
or acting over the past two weeks. Children report how true each statement was on a 3-point
Likert scale ranging from “Not true,” “Sometimes true,” to “True.” Items include “I felt unhappy
or miserable,” “I cried a lot,” and “I hated myself.” Internal consistency was .76.
Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED-Child Version; Birmaher, Brent,
Chiappetta, Bridge, Monga & Baugher, 1995) is a 41-item child report measure of anxiety
symptoms. The measure asks the child how true each statement was over the past three months.
Each item is on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from “Not true or Hardly ever true,” “Sometimes
true or Somewhat true” to “Very true or Often true.” The items include statements such as
“When I feel frightened, it is hard to breathe” and “I get headaches when I am at school”.
Parent Measures
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Parent Perception of Child Temperament is a 20-item measure of parents’ report about
their child’s temperament. Mothers reported how well each statement described their child on a
4-point Likert scale ranging from “Not at all like your child” to “Describes your child very well”.
Items include statements such as “My child tends to be shy” and “My child cries easily”.
The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD; Radloff 1977) is a 20item measure of depressive symptoms over the past week. Mothers reported how often they felt
each item using a 4-point Likert ranging from “Rarely or none of the time/Less than 1 day” to
“Most or all of the time/5-7 days”. The items include statements such as “I was bothered by
things that usually don’t bother me” and “I felt depressed.”
Results
Demographic Characteristics
Demographic characteristics are listed in Table 1. The depressed and nondepressed
mothers and their children did not differ significantly on demographic variables, except that
nondepressed mothers were more likely to be married, and to have a higher income.
Missing Data
Of the 92 participants, 6 high-risk and 9 low-risk children were missing baseline RSA
data (audio story 1); 6 high- and 6 low-risk children were missing RSA data during the negative
video, 4 high- and 5 low-risk children were missing data during the neutral video (Fish 1), and 4
high- and 8 low-risk children were missing RSA data during the positive video. Data were
missing due to editing problems, data collection errors, and problems with the data file.
Do offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers differ in resting RSA?
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 15
Level between groups. An Independent Samples t-test was run to test whether there was a
difference in resting RSA at baseline between offspring of depressed vs. nondepressed mothers
(See Table 2 & 3). No significant difference was found between the groups (p=.892).
Do offspring of depressed mothers have reduced reactivity to mood induction videos?
Negative Video RSA Fluctuation. An Independent Samples t-test was run to test for
differences in fluctuation during the negative video between offspring of depressed versus
nondepressed mothers (see Tables 2 & 3). The fluctuation score was calculated by subtracting
baseline RSA during the baseline neutral stimulus (audio story) from RSA during the negative
video. No significant differences were found between the groups (p=.731), indicating that
offspring of depressed mothers did not differ significantly in their RSA reactivity in response to
a negative video as compared to children of nondepressed mothers.
Positive Video RSA Fluctuation. An Independent Samples t-test was run to determine
whether there was a difference in fluctuation during the positive video between offspring of
depressed versus nondepressed mothers (see Tables 2 & 3). The fluctuation was calculated by
subtracting RSA level during the neutral video (fish) from RSA level during the positive video.
No significant difference in fluctuation was found (p=.609) indicating that offspring of depressed
and nondepressed mothers did not differ significantly in their RSA reactivity in response to the
positive video.
Is RSA level at baseline associated with affect?
Baseline RSA Level and Affect. A Pearson Correlation was run to examine whether RSA
level at baseline was correlated with scores on the PANAS (Laurent et al., 2009) and the Smiley
Faces Questionnaire (see Table 4). No significant correlations were found between scores on the
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 16
PANAS and baseline RSA levels. That is, baseline RSA levels were not correlated with positive
affect or negative affect on either the trait or state PANAS.
Pearson Correlations comparing baseline RSA level and the Smiley Faces Questionnaire
responses (see Table 4) revealed a significant, negative correlation between the baseline mood
rating and resting RSA levels (r=-.314; p=.006). Higher resting RSA levels were associated with
more negative mood ratings in response to the audio story. Resting RSA Levels were not
significantly correlated with the mood ratings in response to the negative, neutral, or positive
videos. Thus, baseline RSA was not correlated with the affect measures, except for the baseline
mood rating.
Baseline RSA Level predicting Affect. To further explore the relation between baseline
RSA levels and affect, linear regression analyses were conducted to examine whether RSA level
at baseline predicted scores on the PANAS state and trait (see Tables 5, 6, 7, & 8). RSA levels at
baseline did not significantly predict positive or negative affect on either the state or trait
PANAS measures. Linear regression analyses also were conducted to determine whether RSA
level at baseline predicted mood ratings in response to the baseline, negative, and positive
videos. Baseline RSA levels did significantly predict the mood ratings in response to the baseline
audio story (see Table 9), the negative video (p=.667), or the positive video (p=.335). Thus,
baseline RSA levels did not significantly predict affect when measured by the PANAS or the
mood ratings on the Smiley Faces Questionnaire, but baseline RSA level did significantly predict
the mood rating in response to the baseline audio story.
Relation between RSA fluctuation and children’s affect
RSA Fluctuation and Affect. Pearson correlations of RSA fluctuation during the mood
induction videos indicated that neither state nor trait PANAS PA and NA were significantly
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 17
correlated with RSA fluctuation during the positive or negative videos (see Table 10). RSA
fluctuation during the mood induction videos also was compared to scores on the Smiley Faces
Questionnaire. No significant correlation was found with RSA fluctuation during the positive
video. The correlation between RSA fluctuation in response to the negative video and scores on
the Smiley Faces Questionnaire after the negative video yielded a nonsignificant trend (r=.226;
p=.051), indicating that RSA fluctuation during the negative video tended to covary with the
mood ratings in response to the negative video.
Relation between RSA (levels and fluctuations) and demographic variables
Sex. An Independent Samples t-test conducted to examine whether there was a difference
in RSA level between males and females revealed no significant sex difference (p=.688). The
Independent Samples t-test examining difference in RSA fluctuation between males and females
yielded a nonsignificant trend regarding fluctuation during the negative video (t(74)=1.757,
p=.083) indicating that girls tended to have reduced RSA reactivity in response to the negative
video as compared to boys. No significant sex difference was found for fluctuation during the
positive video [t(78)=.708; p=.481].
Children’s Age, Mother’s Depression Level, and Marital Status. Table 11 presents the
Pearson correlations among baseline RSA level, RSA fluctuation, and children’s age, mothers’
depression level (CESD), and marital status and indicate no significant correlations among
baseline RSA level, RSA fluctuation, and these demographic variables. There was a significant
correlation between fluctuation during the negative video and marital status (r=.237; p=.04) such
that children of currently married mothers showed greater reactivity during the negative video
than children of mothers who were not currently married. A linear regression analysis controlling
for the risk (i.e., offspring of depressed vs. nondepressed) demonstrated that marital status
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 18
significantly predicted RSA fluctuation during the negative video (p=.029), such that children of
married mothers had higher reactivity during the negative video (See Table 12). RSA fluctuation
during the positive video was not significantly correlated with children’s age, mothers’
depression levels or marital status.
Relation of RSA (level and fluctuation) to emotion regulation and anxiety
A Table 13 presents the Pearson correlations among RSA level, RSA fluctuation, and
measures of children’s emotion regulation (FAM-C & SMFQ), anxiety (SCARED), and
temperament (Parent Perception of Child Temperament). Neither RSA levels at baseline nor
RSA fluctuation in response to the mood induction videos were correlated with children’s
emotion regulation, anxiety symptoms, or parent report of the child’s temperament.
What factors predicted RSA during the mood induction videos?
Table 14 presents the results of a linear regression analysis testing predictors of RSA
during the positive video, including baseline RSA level, children’s age and sex, mothers’ CESD
total score, the interaction between children’s sex and mothers’ CESD, and the four subscales of
the measure of child temperament (PPCT). The interaction between the children’s sex and
mothers’ CES-D yielded a nonsignificant trend toward predicting RSA during the positive video
(p=.061). Girls whose mothers had higher scores on the CES-D tended to have lower RSA levels
during the positive video. Also, the shyness subscale on the PPCT had a nonsignificant trend
toward predicting RSA level during the positive video, where children with higher scores of
shyness had lower levels of RSA during the video (p=.051).
Table 15 presents the results of a linear regression analysis testing predictors of RSA
during the negative video, including baseline RSA level, children’s age and sex, mothers’ CESD
total score, the interaction between children’s sex and mothers’ CESD, and the subscales of the
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 19
PPCT. The interaction between the children’s sex and mothers’ CES-D yielded a nonsignificant
trend toward predicting RSA during the negative video (p=.074), indicating that girls tended to
have lower RSA levels than boys during the negative video.
Finally, because of the observed sex differences in RSA during both the negative and
positive video, further analyses were conducted to see if the mood ratings in response to the
mood induction videos we conducted independent samples t-tests to determine whether males
and females differed in their mood ratings in response to the mood induction videos. A
significant difference was found between males and females in their mood rating in response to
the positive video (p=.016), where females rated the video as significantly more positive than
males (see Table 16). A nonsignificant trend was found for mood ratings in response to the
negative video (p=.063), where girls rated the negative video as more negative than boys. Thus,
girls showed greater reactivity to the mood induction videos than did boys.
Discussion
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia level and fluctuation have been shown to be an index of
parasympathetic autonomic flexibility. High resting RSA level is associated with positive
outcomes such as social competence, adaptive coping, and resiliency, whereas low resting RSA
is associated with negative outcomes such as behavioral problems and emotion dysregulation
(Boyce et al., 2001; Conell et al., 2011; El-Sheikh et al., 2001; Field, 1995; Morales et al., 2014;
Pine et al., 1998; Rottenberg, 2007). Atypical RSA fluctuation also may be associated with
increased risk for the onset of MDD, anxiety disorders, and higher levels of internalizing
problems and impulse controls disorders (Boyce et al., 2001; Bylsma et al., 2014; Friedman &
Thayer, 1998; Morales et al., 2014; Nederhof et al., 2014; Rottenberg, 2007). Few studies,
however, have examined the link between RSA level/fluctuation and affect in offspring of
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 20
mothers with depression. The current study looked at differences in RSA in offspring of
depressed and nondepressed mothers, as well as how RSA related to affect.
The first hypothesis posited that offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers differ
in their baseline RSA level was not supported. One possible explanation for the failure to find
group differences is the relatively low sample size, resulting in low power to detect effects.
Moreover, the 15 participants who were missing data further reduced the already small sample of
children of depressed mothers.
The second hypothesis of reduced fluctuation in response to both positive and negative
mood induction videos in children of depressed versus nondepressed mothers also was not
supported. That is, there were not significant differences in RSA fluctuation between the two
groups during the mood induction videos. Regarding the fluctuation during the negative video,
the lack of significant findings may have occurred because children did not find the negative
mood video to be in fact negative. The average mood rating after the negative video was 2.97,
which represents the rating “Just a little sad”. In order to accurately assess RSA fluctuation in
response to a stressor, the stimulus must effectively induce the desired mood state. Second, as
noted with regard to baseline RSA, the lack of group differences may have been due to the small
sample size and missing data.
The third hypothesis proposed that participants with higher levels of RSA at baseline
would have higher levels of positive affect and lower levels of negative affect. This hypothesis
was tested with regard to child’s state and trait levels of positive and negative affect as measured
by the PANAS, and with affect during the mood induction videos as measured by the Smiley
Faces Questionnaire. No significant associations were found between baseline RSA and state or
trait negative or positive affect (PANAS), or the mood ratings in response to both the positive
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 21
and negative videos. It may be that respiratory sinus arrhythmia is not associated with children’s
positive and negative affect. It also is possible that our operationalization of PA and NA in
children was not adequate here (discussed further below).
A significant association was found between the baseline RSA level and the mood rating
in response to the baseline audio story. This association showed that children who had higher
levels of baseline RSA reported feeling higher levels of negativity during the baseline audio
story. This finding is contrary to previous research showing that higher levels of resting RSA are
associated with positive outcomes, such as adaptive coping and resiliency, whereas these results
indicate that higher RSA level was associated with more negativity. One explanation may be that
there is a “disconnect” between the physiological reaction to a stimulus and individuals’ selfreport of mood in response to that stimulus.
Exploratory analyses also were conducted to examine whether RSA level or fluctuation
were related to demographic factors. No sex differences were found for baseline RSA level or
RSA fluctuation during the positive video. A nonsignificant trend was found for fluctuation
during the negative video where females were more likely to have reduced RSA reactivity in
response to the negative video. No significant associations were found between children’s age
and RSA, but given the small age range, significant age differences may not have been present. It
also is possible that RSA as an indicator of risk may not appear until later in development (e.g.,
after puberty.
In addition, no significant associations were found between children’s RSA and mother’s
depression severity, as measured by the CES-D. Although the sample included mothers with
histories of depression, very few mothers were currently depressed or had high scores on the
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 22
CES-D (mean = 7.8; SD = 6.4). Thus, the sample had a limited range on the dimensional
measure of depression.
There was a significant relation between mothers’ marital status and children’s RSA
fluctuation during the negative video. That is, having a currently married mothers significantly
predicted increased reactivity during the negative video. Thus, children coming from “intact”
families may develop more adaptive RSA fluctuation in response to stress.
Exploratory analyses also found no significant relations between RSA level and
fluctuation and children’s emotion regulation (FAM-C, SMFQ), anxiety (SCARED), and
temperament on the Parent Perception of Child Temperament. We next explored possible
predictors of RSA during the mood induction videos and found a nonsignificant trend for girls of
mothers with higher depression scores (CES-D) to have lower levels of RSA during the positive
video. Being female and having a mother with higher levels of depressive symptoms are both
risk factors for negative outcomes, such as developing depression. Lower RSA in response to
positive stimuli may be one factor contributing to this increased risk.
Higher scores on the shyness subscale of the Parent Perception of Child Temperament
questionnaire significantly predicted reduced RSA during the positive video. Previous research
has demonstrated that RSA is related to temperament; this result suggests that shyness may be
associated with a maladaptive parasympathetic regulatory pattern.
We next explored predictors of RSA during the negative video. There was a
nonsignificant trend for being female predicting lower levels of RSA during the negative video.
With a larger sample, the association among these variables might reach significance. One
implication is that interventions that improve parasympathetic flexibility in females may be one
means of reducing their risk of depression.
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 23
Interestingly, girls also reported that their mood was significantly more positive during
the positive video in comparison with boys, and there was a nonsignificant trend for girls to
report more negative mood than boys during the negative mood induction video. Thus, girls
reported greater emotional reactivity but less physiological reactivity to the mood induction
videos. Future studies should explore possible explanations for this apparent discrepancy
between the physiological level and the self-report of mood level.
Limitations and Future Directions
There were several limitations to the current study. First, the negative video during the
mood induction videos may not have been an effective way of inducing a negative mood due to
the high ratings on the mood rating scale after the video, which would mean that RSA fluctuation
during the negative video was not an accurate index of RSA in response to a stressor. Second,
the use of two different media forms for the two different baselines, an audio story and a video,
may not be a consistent baseline. This difference also may have complicated the fluctuation
scores since the RSA fluctuation during the negative video was calculated using the audio story,
and the RSA fluctuation during the positive video was calculated using the neutral video. A third
limitation of the study was that the video order was not counterbalanced, which would have
resolved the issue of having the mood induction videos following each type of baseline (audio
and neutral fish). In addition, the children may have became fatigued during the session, which
could have influenced their mood ratings. Fourth, the timing of the mothers’ depressive episodes
was not taken into account, nor were the duration or frequency of the episodes.
A fifth limitation was that the Smiley Faces Questionnaire was on a 6-point Likert scale,
and children could only choose one answer as their mood rating. A possibly better way of
assessing affect during the mood induction videos would have been to ask the children about
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 24
both their positive and negative affect during the film, as well as to increase the number of points
on the scale to allow for more variability. Also, at times the report of the child’s mood during the
video was influenced by whether or not the child expressed positive or negative feelings towards
the movie as a whole if they had seen the movie at a previous time. In the future, having the child
report whether or not they had seen the movie and their previous feelings about the movie may
be useful. Sixth, certain characteristics that may have influenced RSA were not taken into
account such as the child’s BMI, current medications, and any other illness that may affect RSA,
such as asthma. Finally, as noted previously, the small sample size, the difference in sample size
between depressed and nondepressed mothers, and the missing RSA data also were limitations.
Future research that addressed these various limitations is needed. With a larger sample,
researchers may be able to find significant differences between the groups, as well as explore
other predictors of RSA. Given the lack of significant findings with the negative mood induction
video, future studies should use an alternative way of inducing a negative mood that can better
capture the parasympathetic flexibility of children.
The current study observed some sex differences in RSA fluctuation that should be
examined further. Also, the discrepancy found in girls between physiological reactivity and selfreported mood needs further study. This discrepancy also was found in both sexes with resting
RSA at baseline and self-reported mood at baseline, which were inversely correlated.
The sex differences in RSA might have implications for intervention. Programs to
increase adaptive RSA reactivity could be targeted at children of depressed mother, especially
girls. In addition, given that having a married mother significantly predicted RSA reactivity,
collecting more information about the home environment may provide hints regarding possible
mechanisms through which marital status and children’s RSA are related. This research could
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 25
lead to possible interventions focused on improving mother-child interactions, which in turn may
increase resting RSA level and create more adaptive RSA fluctuation in the child. Improved
RSA in at-risk children could serve as a buffer against the onset of psychopathology and other
problems later on in life.
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 26
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RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 33
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics
Offspring of Depressed
Offspring of Nondepressed
(N=37)
(N=55)
Age (M,SD)
9.31 (.78)
9.45 (.86)
% Caucasian
45%
65%
% Female
59%
53%
Mother's Education (M,SD)
6.42 (1.65)
6.61 (1.68)
Mother's Income (M,SD)
6.64 (4.1)
4.24 (3.4)
67%
87%
Variable
% Mother Married
Note. Education was assessed on an 8-point scale with education level increasing with each
number, where a score of 6 represents graduated a four year college. Income was assessed on a
14-point scale with incoming decreasing with each number, with a 4 representing $100,001$110,000 and 6 representing $80,001-$90,000
Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation of RSA Level and Fluctuation
Offspring of Depressed
Offspring of Healthy Control
Variable
(M, SD)
(M, SD)
RSA Baseline Level
6.43 (1.08)
6.39 (1.19)
RSA Negative Video
.023 (.365)
-.015 (.517)
RSA Neutral Video
6.45 (1.03)
6.48 (1.17)
RSA Positive Video
.117 (.500)
.172 (.450)
Table 3. Independent Samples T-Test by Risk of RSA at baseline and RSA fluctuations during
positive and negative videos
95% Confidence
Risk (Offspring of)
Interval
Depressed
Nondepressed
Variable
t
df
(N=32)
(N=48)
Lower
Upper
Baseline RSA
6.43 (1.08)
6.39 (1.19)
.136
75
-.496
.571
RSA Negative
.023 (.365)
-.015 (.517)
.345
74
-.179
.254
RSA Positive
.117 (.500)
.172 (.450)
-.514
78
-.269
.159
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 34
Table 4. Correlations between Baseline RSA and Affect Measures
Risk
RSA-Bsl
PA-Tr
NA-Tr
PA-St
NA-St
MR-Bsl
MR-Neg
MR-Neu
MR-Pos
-.016
-.176
-.133
.015
-.094
.109
.039
.120
.106
Risk
--.161
-.106
-.102
-.06
-.314** .050
.072
-.112
RSA-Baseline
-.006
.371** .091
.143
-.039
.087
.075
PA-Trait
--.222*
.336**
-.193
-.107
-.305**
-.198
NA-Trait
--.039
.137
.088
.327**
.348**
PA-State
--.158
-.034
-.158
.002
NA-State
-.291**
.377***
.173
MR-Baseline
-.293**
-.065
MR-Negative
-.269*
MR-Neutral
-MR-Positive
Note. Risk = Mother history of Depression (0 = No; 1 = Yes); RSA-L= RSA level at baseline; PATr= Positive affect score on the PANAS trait questionnaire; NA-Tr = Negative affect score on the
PANAS trait questionnaire; PA-St = Positive affect score on the PANAS state questionnaire; NASt= Negative affect score on the PANAS state questionnaire; MR-Bsl= Mood rating at baseline;
MR-Neg= Mood rating after negative video; MR-Neu=Mood rating after neutral fish video; MRPos=Mood rating after positive video
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Table 5. Linear Regression of Baseline RSA Predicting Positive Affect (PANAS-State)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Baseline RSA
B
3.454
Std. Error
.510
Beta
t
6.778
Sig.
.000
-.069
.079
-.102
-.883
.380
Dependent Variable: PANAS state positive affect
Table 6. Linear Regression of Baseline RSA Predicting Positive Affect (PANAS-Trait)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Baseline RSA
B
4.139
Std. Error
.320
Beta
t
12.936
Sig.
.000
-.069
.049
-.161
-1.400
.166
Dependent Variable: PANAS trait positive affect
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 35
Table 7. Linear Regression of Baseline RSA Predicting Negative Affect (PANAS-State)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Baseline RSA
B
1.323
-.015
Std. Error
.182
.028
Beta
t
7.261
-.546
-.063
Sig.
.000
.586
a. Dependent Variable: PANAS state negative
Table 8. Linear Regression of Baseline RSA Predicting Negative Affect (PANAS-Trait)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Baseline RSA
B
Beta
2.312
Std. Error
.430
t
5.376
Sig.
.000
-.061
.066
-.106
-.919
.361
a. Dependent Variable: PANAS trait negative
Table 9. Linear Regression of Baseline RSA Predicting Baseline Mood Rating
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Baseline RSA
B
6.477
Std. Error
.711
Beta
t
9.107
Sig.
.000
-.311
.109
-.314
-2.842
.006
a. Dependent Variable: Baseline Mood Rating
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 36
Table 10. Correlations among RSA and Affect Measures
RSA-N
RSA-P
PA-Trait
NA-Trait
PA-State
NA-State
MR-B
MR-N
MR-F
MR-P
RSA-N
--
RSA-P
.115
--
PA-T
NA-T
PA-S
NA-S
MR-B
MR-N
MR-F
MR-P
-.083
-.020
--
-.126
-.119
.006
--
-.062
.125
.371**
-.222*
--
-.070
-.100
.091
.336**
-.039
--
-.162
-.081
.143
-.193
.137
-.158
--
-.226~
-.066
-.039
-.107
.088
-.034
.291**
--
-.056
.140
.087
-.305**
.327**
-.158
.377***
.293**
--
.004
.126
.075
-.198
.348**
.002
.173
-.065
.269*
--
Note. RSA-N= Fluctuation in RSA from baseline to negative video; RSA-P= Fluctuation in
RSA from neutral fish video to positive video; PA-T= Positive affect score on the PANAS trait
questionnaire; NA-T= Negative affect score on the PANAS trait questionnaire; PA-S= Positive
affect score on the PANAS state questionnaire; NA-S= Negative affect score on the PANAS
state questionnaire; MR-B= Mood rating at baseline; MR-N= Mood rating after negative video;
MR-F=Mood rating after neutral fish video; MR-P=Mood rating after positive video
~p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Table 11. Exploratory Correlations between RSA Level/Fluctuation and Demographics
RSA-Bsl
RSA-Bsl
RSA-Neg
RSA-Neu
RSA-Pos
Sex
Age
CES-D
Marital St
--
RSA-Neg
.000
--
Sex
Age
CES-D
Marital St
.930***
RSA-P
.104
-.046
.109
.024
.163
.190
.115
-.200
.032
.009
.237*
--
-.039
--
-.079
-.080
.107
-.076
.037
-.147
.196
.001
--
-.067
--
.272*
-.035
--
-.056
-.108
-.231*
--
RSA-F
Note. RSA-L= RSA level at baseline; RSA-Neg= Fluctuation in RSA from baseline to negative
video; RSA-Neu= RSA level during the neutral fish video; RSA-Pos= Fluctuation in RSA from
neutral fish video to positive video; CES-D= Mother’s severity of depression; Marital St=
Martial Status (1= Currently Married, 0=Not Currently Married)
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Table 12. Linear Regression of Marital Status Predicting RSA Fluctuation during the Negative
Video
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 37
Coefficientsa
Model
B
Std. Error
Beta
1
(Constant)
-.291
.141
Risk Condition
.095
.111
.100
Marital Status
.310
.139
.262
a. Dependent Variable: RSA Fluctuation during Negative Video
t
-2.066
.850
2.229
Sig.
.042
.398
.029
Table 13. Correlations between RSA Level/Fluctuation and Questionnaires
RSA-Bsl
RSA-Neg
RSA-Neu
RSA-Pos
SCARED
SMFQ
FAM-CM
FAM-CA
PPCT-E
PPT-Sh
RSABsl
--
RSANeg
.000
RSA-F
SCA
RED
-.087
SMFQ
.93***
RSAP
.104
--
.190
.115
--
-.008
FAMCM
-.063
FAMCA
.-.168
PPC
T-E
.029
PPCTSh
.056
PPCTA
-.038
PPCTSo
-.010
-.052
.039
.017
-.007
-.069
.186
-.161
-.127
-.039
-.039
-.063
.011
-.155
.074
.060
-.068
-.025
--
-.009
.176
-.027
.157
-.155
-.187
.061
-.099
--
-.489**
.539**
.321**
.145
.043
.124
.086
--
-.566**
-.018
-.043
.002
-.157
-.068
--
.092
.178
.175
.028
-.064
--
-.053
-.037
-.052
-.063
--
.324**
-.200
-.031
--
-.433**
-.458**
--
.471**
PPCT-A
PPCT-A
--
Note. RSA-L= RSA level at baseline; RSA-Neg= Fluctuation in RSA from baseline to negative video;
RSA-Neu= RSA level during the neutral fish video; RSA-Pos= Fluctuation in RSA from neutral fish
video to positive video; SCARED= Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders; SMFQ= Short Mood
and Feelings Questionnaire; FAM= Feelings and Me, Maladaptive Emotion Regulation Subscale; FAMCA= Feelings and Me, Adaptive Emotion Regulation Subscale; PPCT-E= Parent Perception of Child
Temperament, Emotionality Subscale; PPCT-Sh=Parent Perception of Child Temperament, Shyness
Subscale; PPCT-A=Parent Perception of Child Temperament, Activity Subscale; PPCT-So=Parent
Perception of Child Temperament, Sociability Subscale
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Table 14. Linear Regression of Variables Predicting RSA during the Positive Video
Coefficientsa
RSA IN CHILDREN OF DEPRESSED VS. NON DEPRESSED MOTHERS 38
Model
B
Std. Error
1 (Constant)
1.416
.803
Child Sex
.260
.168
Child Age
-.024
.060
Mother’s CES-D
.027
.019
Sex X CESD
-.040
.021
Baseline RSA
.958
.049
PPCT-Emotionality
-.054
.077
PPCT-Shyness
-.181
.091
PPCT-Activity
-.019
.111
PPCT-Sociability
-.135
.118
Dependent Variable: RSA during Positive Video
Beta
.122
-.018
.156
-.255
.952
-.035
-.117
-.010
-.068
t
1.764
1.546
-.392
1.449
-1.905
19.642
-.701
-1.987
-.172
-1.145
Table 15. Linear Regression of Variables Predicting RSA during the Negative Video
Coefficientsa
Model
B
Std. Error
Beta
t
1 (Constant)
.957
.889
1.076
Child Sex
-.337
.185
-.158
-1.818
Child Age
.027
.070
.021
.395
Mothers’ CES-D
-.014
.021
-.080
-.687
Sex X CESD
.021
.023
.129
.898
Baseline RSA
.879
.053
.880
16.438
PPCT-Emotionality
-.094
.087
-.062
-1.079
PPCT-Shyness
.157
.103
.098
1.521
PPCT-Activity
-.085
.124
-.043
-.683
PPCT-Sociability
.025
.130
.012
.193
Dependent Variable: RSA during Negative Video
Sig.
.082
.127
.696
.152
.061
.000
.486
.051
.864
.256
Sig.
.286
.074
.694
.495
.372
.000
.285
.133
.497
.848
Table 16. Independent Samples t-test of Sex, Positive, and Negative Mood Rating
95% Confidence
Sex
Interval
Variable
Positive Mood
Rating
Negative Mood
Rating
Female
Male
t
df
5.53 (.793)
(N=49)
2.75 (1.20)
(N=51)
5.10 (.841)
(N=40)
3.26 (1.33)
(N=39)
2.46
-1.89
Lower
Upper
81.34
.083
.778
77.09
-1.05
.029