The History Classroom for English Language Learners
Abstract
This essay seeks to contribute to the body of knowledge of how to successfully engage
language minority students in the study of history. It is separated into four distinct sections,
each containing findings from research-based publications, as well as discussions of how these
findings can be reflected in history classrooms. The first, “learners and learning,” deals with
three points. First, it will identify the ideal goal of successful teachers: formulating exercises
that give diverse students from differing backgrounds an opportunity to comprehend historical
content. Next, it will discuss the four phases of language acquisition. Lastly, it will briefly
describe the idea of incorporating students’ native languages into classroom activities. The
second section, “learning environment,” covers two main topics. First, it will describe skills
that history teachers should attempt to cultivate in their students: critical thinking, cultural
appreciation, and sophisticated communication techniques. Then it will discuss how teachers
can go about emphasizing these skills, mainly by modifying traditional classroom practices and
adjusting communication practices. The third section is “curriculum and instructional
strategies,” will outline four strategies. First, it will discuss the K-W-L method and explain its
benefits. It will also state the benefits of source work for English language learners. Third, this
section states that the aim of effective curriculum is to relate historical content to students’
current circumstances. Lastly, it will devote time to explaining why and how reading should be
emphasized for English language learners in history classes. The forth major sub-topic of this
essay, “assessment,” states the goal of meaningful assessments. It goes on to explain how
assessments can vary in form, as well as how grading policies can be adjusted in favor of
English language learners. It will also discuss informal and formal assessments. The final
section, “implications,” which serves as a brief recap of the essay, centers on three concepts:
education, collaboration, and innovation.
Scott Summerlin
Vanderbilt University
Capstone Essay
February 20, 2008
1
The History Classroom
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Classrooms in the United States are more diverse today than ever before. Places that
were previously unaffected by immigration are now seeing major demographic shifts in their
populations. It was once the case that major cities, such as New York City and Chicago, were
the main concentrations of immigrants in the United States. However in the past five years,
numerous counties throughout the United States have become “majority-minority,” meaning
more than half of their residents are non-white. Illustrating the geographic dispersal of this
phenomenon, these traditionally non-minority counties include Denver, Colorado; East Baton
Rouge Parish, Louisiana; Blaine, Montana; and Manassas Park, Virginia (Roberts, 2007).
Naturally this has led to an increase in the number of students in American schools who are not
native English speakers. This increasingly diverse student population has made it imperative that
educators be able to teach students from a wide variety of backgrounds effectively. Throughout
this essay, the term “diverse” refers to language minority students as well as immigrant students.
The statistics about American students’ academic success are not alarming at first glance.
In fact, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences claims that more people are completing
primary, secondary, and postsecondary degrees than ever before (Cohen, Bloom, & Malin,
2007). About three quarters of students who enter high school graduate. Of these graduates,
sixty-five percent enter college the following school year (Barton, 2007. When vocational
opportunities, the armed forces, and delayed college enrollment are taken into account, the
number of students enrolling in college is not unreasonably low. However, analysis of the
academic success of language-minority and immigrant students is startling. Research has shown
that two-thirds of language-minority students drop out of high school (Garcia, 2005). In an era
where there are increasing numbers of students attending college, it is shameful that such a high
number of language minority students are not making more academic progress.
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English language learners are often first generation or recent immigrants. Analysis of
immigrants’ living situations is startling, especially for Hispanics. Around the turn of the
twenty-first century, forty percent of Mexican immigrant students were living in poverty, and
seventy percent of them had parents who did not graduate from high school. An examination of
parents’ occupations reveals that Cuban students’ parents were most likely of Hispanic
nationalities to have professional jobs. However, this was only thirty-one percent of the time
(Jensen, 2001). Students whose parents did not experience much academic achievement often go
without support systems necessary to succeed at school. Furthermore, when parents are unable
to provide financially for their families, as is often the case with non-professional employment,
their children can feel pressured to drop out of school and enter the workforce. These factors,
combined with housing patterns, healthcare, and many other things, often limit the academic
opportunities of English language learners. This essay attempts to educate history teachers on
how to give these diverse students opportunities to experience academic success.
Learners and Learning
In order to teach history effectively, teachers must understand both academic content and
their students. This is especially true for teachers of English language learners. This section will
define the goal of effective history teachers, and then outline the four phases of second language
acquisition: pre-production, early production, speech emergence, and intermediate fluency. The
discussion of language acquisition will also mention classroom activities for each phase. Lastly,
this section will address the issue of using students’ home languages as resources to facilitate
their academic success.
Most aspiring teachers have limited experience with students from backgrounds different
from their own (Hollins and Guzman, 2005). Teachers tend to believe that their students have
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similar learning styles to their own. Simply stated, teachers tend to teach they way they were
taught as students. Therefore many immigrant and language-minority students find themselves
in classrooms that are not structured to facilitate their success. The goal for effective history
teachers is not to formulate a different lesson for each individual student, but rather to design
activities that will enable learners from varying cultural and linguistic backgrounds to access the
content effectively (Moran, Kornhaber, & Gardner, 2006).
Because language-minority students have to learn the English language as well as
academic content, history teachers ought to be familiar with the process of second language
acquisition. By understanding these students’ linguistic situations, teachers can alter their
instructional methods in order to present material to students more effectively. History teachers
can draw upon resources, such as the National Council of Social Studies, or professional
development opportunities to become informed about teaching English language learners.
Teachers ought to be familiar with the four phases of language acquisition that students go
through (Cruz, Nutta, O’Brien, & Feyten, 2003).
The first level, “preproduction,” refers to students with less than six months of exposure
to English. During this phase, language-minority students are normally hesitant to speak during
class. They usually prefer to listen, rather than talk. History teachers who observe students in
this phase should not pressure these students to join in class conversations. Pressuring a student
to participate would be very stressful if he or she is not ready to do so. Instead, it would be more
beneficial to give these students opportunities to express themselves non-verbally through
activities like journaling or drawing. Students in the second phase of language acquisition,
“early production,” have gained enough command of the English language to answer simple
questions with short answers. A history teacher who observes students functioning at this
The History Classroom
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linguistic level should attempt to involve these students more in classroom discussions.
Answering questions correctly in English, in front of their classmates, can increase students’
confidence in their English abilities.
The third phase, known as “speech emergence,” normally takes place after a student has
had at least a year of formal English instruction. During this phase, students are capable of
understanding much more than they could during the early production phase. Therefore, these
students can take a more active role in classroom activities. A student at this level of proficiency
is able to complete more complex tasks using the English language. In a history class, this might
manifest itself through the use of graphic organizers. For instance, students could be given a
concept or an event, such as the great depression, and asked to use their textbooks to make a list
of different causes of the event. The forth phase of language acquisition, “intermediate fluency,”
occurs when students are capable of participating in extended conversations with native-English
speakers. Students at this linguistic ability level are capable of doing short writing assignments,
but may lack grammatical proficiency. History teachers could ask these students to write onehalf to a full page essays. For instance, asking them to briefly explain the causes of World War
II would be appropriate. Teachers should be lenient when grading these types of written
exercises, focusing more on content knowledge than grammatical errors.
There should not be a conflict between what is taught and who is taught (Tomlinson &
Jarvis, 2006). Instead, teachers should adapt their methods in order to make sure that all students
can access the content. One way teachers can do this for English-language learners is to use their
native languages as resources. In a history class, this would be easy to implement. For instance,
allotting time in class for students to describe their lives in other countries would be more
effective for immigrant students than listening to lectures and trying to read their textbook. This
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would be an affirming exercise for the students who get to talk about their cultures, as well as an
informative learning activity for the language-majority students.
Learning Environment
A positive learning environment can help students succeed academically in the short
term, and aid in the development of skills that will benefit them in the future. This section will
outline three skills that history teachers should emphasize in their classrooms: critical thinking,
cultural appreciation, and sophisticated communication methods. It will go on to discuss ways to
include the parents of English language learners in the classroom. It will also explain ways of
modifying the traditional classroom environment in an effort to support the learning of languageminority students.
The world is becoming smaller. The increasing frequency of interactions among
individuals from all over the world, sometimes referred to as globalization, has made it necessary
for today’s students to acquire skill sets that previous generations may not have needed. While
competitiveness and individual competency were once the most necessary traits, globalization
has pushed them to the back of the line so-to-speak. Because of this globalization, the learning
environment should be a place where students can learn skills such as critical thinking, cultural
appreciation, and sophisticated communication (Suárez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007). These skills are
also vital for language-minority students’ academic success. Because of the increasing diversity
of classrooms in the United States today, all teachers have the opportunity to emphasize these
traits. As educators of social studies, history teachers have an obligation to teach them.
To improve students’ critical thinking skills, history teachers can use an interdisciplinary
approach involving statistics. A statistical approach to history would be relatively easy to
incorporate into the curriculum. One way to do this is to use charts, graphs, and tables during
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instruction. For example, during a unit on World War II students could examine tables of
casualty and death rates in order to create graphs. Using numerical data to teach history
encourages critical thinking by causing students to make predictions and draw conclusions based
on statistics. Conveniently, mathematical skills are somewhat universal. That is to say that a
student who can perform mathematic functions in Spanish could conceivably perform the same
functions in English. On a minor level, this exercise would help students sharpen their
mathematic and statistical skills while reinforcing historical content. However, on a higher level
it serves to teach students how to analyze and manipulate information that is presented in formats
other than the written word.
On the same note, the sole use of a textbook does not encourage critical thinking.
Allowing students to examine multiple sources will also improve their critical thinking. This
examination will lead them to notice discrepancies among historical accounts. History teachers
can do this by supplementing the textbook with primary sources, and documentary films. These
varying mediums and accounts of past events will help students hone their skills of historical
inquiry. Therefore, giving students an opportunity to interpret sources and compare differing
viewpoints is beneficial in teaching students to think critically about historical information.
Cultural appreciation and sophisticated communication are closely related. In classrooms
with diverse make-ups, students can benefit from learning about one another’s heritage. This
could be accomplished through oral presentations, or even by discussing holidays and cultural
practices. However, in classrooms where students have similar ethnicities and backgrounds,
history teachers must be more creative. One way to incorporate a cultural element into these
history classes is through a long-distance correspondence, or pen-pal, program. This could take
the form of a type of international partnership between two schools. In some locations these
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partnerships are already in place. For instance, on the trail from Lexington to Concord,
Massachusetts, there is an unmarked grave of a British soldier who was killed during the
American Revolution. This gravesite is maintained by a school located in Massachusetts.
Likewise, there is an unidentified Colonial soldier’s grave in England that is maintained by
students at a school in England. The internet has made this type of international communication
very easy. Teachers who encourage students to use technology in order correspond with their
international counterparts through technology enable them to gain cultural understanding and
familiarity with complex communication techniques in an increasingly connected world.
High school classrooms can be adapted in order to help prepare students to succeed in
college-level history courses (Conley, 2005). However, these adjustments are helpful to English
language learners immediately. First, high school teachers’ syllabi should be reviewed by an
outside party, such as a department chairperson or fellow faculty member. This idea could be
extended to benefit language minority students. For instance, at the beginning of the school year,
history teachers could have their syllabi examined by a foreign language teacher or an ESL
professional. This joint effort will give the general education teacher a chance to modify or reword their syllabus in order to make it more clear to students who are not fluent in English. If
possible, it would be beneficial for history teachers to have their syllabi translated into students’
home languages. This would help include parents in their children’s academic experiences.
Teachers can also modify their communication patterns when dealing with English
language learners’ parents. One adaptation would be for teachers to send communications home
at the beginning of the school year, such as calendars and major assignment guidelines.
Providing parents with these materials and a copy of a translated syllabus, (when possible) are
helpful ways to adjust communication practices. Another communication modification for
The History Classroom
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language-minority students, especially those who are first generation immigrants, would be to
invite parents to visit the school. These parents are often unfamiliar with how American schools
operate. They may also be reluctant to actively participate in their child’s education because
they feel incapable of doing so. Inviting parents to school early in the year can be very
informative for both the educator and the parents.
In addition to altering their communication habits, teachers can also modify their
classrooms in order to appeal to language-minority students. Language minority students often
feel more comfortable speaking English in front of other English language learners than around
native speakers (Harklau, 1999). This is unfortunate because language-minority students are
often in the same classrooms as language-majority students. Teachers can take precautions to
ensure that language-minority students feel comfortable enough to actively participate in
classroom discussions. One way of doing this is to emphasize cooperative learning. By
participating in group activities, English language learners can become acquainted with their
classmates on a personal level, which will expand their social networks, thus increasing their
confidence levels. Students will be more inclined to speak up if they feel like they are among
friends.
Another way that history teachers can create an emotionally safe learning environment
for language-minority students is to help these students understand American cultural references
and social vocabulary. Teachers can implement plans to teach American culture within the
confines of the curriculum. For instance, history can be linked to contemporary culture by
emphasizing phrases that English language learners are likely to encounter in social situations.
An example of this is from the Battle of Mobile, when Admiral Beauregard famously remarked,
“Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!” This often repeated phrase would be meaningless to a
The History Classroom 10
student who did not know its original context. Implementing current events discussions in a
history class is an easy way to help these students learn necessary vocabulary to participate in
social contexts. After they feel comfortable enough to participate socially, English language
learners may start taking part in academic discussions.
Curriculum and Instructional Strategies
In addition to understanding learners and cultivating a positive learning environment,
teachers must also be familiar with effective instructional strategies. This section focuses on
pedagogy, specifically the K-W-L method and source work. The discussion of these two
instructional techniques will include rationale for how they appeal to English language learners,
as well as specific instances of how they can be implemented. It will conclude with a brief
description of the emphasis of reading for English language learners in history classes.
It is not sufficient for a teacher to only provide information to their students. Teachers
should also instruct students on how to think about this information. They can accomplish this in
a history class by deliberately allotting time for students to reflect on the content they encounter.
One strategy that provides students an opportunity to reflect on content is the “K-W-L” method
(Olsen, 1995). This abbreviation stands for knowledge, wonder, and learn. In this strategy the
teacher introduces a unit, and asks students to brainstorm their prior knowledge about the topic.
This allows students to mentally organize information about a topic, while at the same time
giving the teacher a chance to measure students’ understanding in an informal manner. It also
gives students a sense of ownership in learning activities. Because this is an informal exercise, it
gives English language learners an opportunity to express themselves without the pressure of
giving a wrong answer. In order for this brainstorming activity to be effective, it is imperative
that the teacher accept each student’s input. Writing each student’s suggestion on the board is
The History Classroom 11
one way of valuing each student’s suggestions. By valuing their input and allowing these
students to feel a sense of ownership in the unit, teachers increase the chances of English
language learners these students participating in future class sessions.
During the second step, the teacher compiles a list of what students are wondering about
in regard to the topic. This step is helpful because it will aid the teacher in determining which
aspects of a unit to emphasize. Like the brainstorming activity, it also provides students with a
sense of ownership in the unit. This activity is helpful for English language learners both
academically and emotionally. In an academic sense, it gives them a structured opportunity to
ask questions. These questions will be vital to the planning of a unit by helping the teacher to
measure students’ prior knowledge. Emotionally, this step provides students an opportunity to
voice their conceptions of a topic without being criticized by their classmates. Essentially, if all
students are asking questions, then none of them should feel awkward about asking one. The
final step of the K-W-L method is a review of what the students have learned. Like the previous
two steps, this one benefits the students and the teacher. For students, it serves to reinforce to the
historical content and skills of the unit. For the teacher, it is a chance to learn what adjustments
need to be made in the future in order to more effectively meet appropriate learning objectives.
Many students, especially those who are not fluent in English, are unable to decipher
what type of text they are reading. As a result, they accept anything in print as factual. Students
often view material as generically produced facts, and are unable to effectively analyze texts
(VanSledright, 2004). In order for students to learn this skill of analysis, history classes should
teach students how to think like historians. Historians constantly compare different accounts of
past events; therefore it only makes sense that history classes require students to do the same
thing. Teachers can emphasize comparison by incorporating different types of historical
The History Classroom 12
documents into the curriculum, a practice often known as “source work.” Source work enables
history teachers to teach historical thinking, while at the same time emphasizing Englishlanguage skills. VanSledright has proposed three strategies involved with source work. First,
students must learn to identify what a source is. Simply having students describe a source is
helpful in doing this. Teachers can ask questions such as: Is this document a textbook, a journal,
or letter? When did the author live? After students have identified the source, they are more
capable of analyzing it effectively.
VanSledright’s second strategy is known as “attribution.” During this activity students
attempt to discover why a document was produced. Just like the identification process, history
teachers can do this through discussion. These source work discussions are most effective when
students are working in small groups. This way, a teacher can circulate the room and monitor
what the groups are discussing. Working in groups also allows language-minority students to
engage in conversations, in English with multiple people. Instead of sitting quietly and listening
to one person, which they would in a guided discussion, they are able to converse with several
classmates at once. Listening to multiple English speakers benefits language minority students
by increasing the amount of linguistic input they receive. Through their attribution discussions,
students should learn that the texts are produced for particular purposes such as speeches, books,
or personal correspondence. Once students learn the purpose of a document, they are ready to
compare one document to another.
During source work activities, history teachers should draw upon strategies from contentbased English as a second language programs. These programs teach academic content in
English, while using hand gestures, visual aids, and simplified vocabulary to help students
understand content. History teachers could use artwork, or video clips as visual aids to make the
The History Classroom 13
content more accessible for English language learners. Maps and globes would also be helpful
instructional tools. Employing these methods will help students to access history in a more
personal, contextualized way.
In diverse classrooms, various backgrounds and heritages are represented. Therefore
students’ frames of reference can vary greatly. In these environments, history teachers would be
well-served to adjust the focus of their lessons. For instance, instead of forcing students to
memorize the key facts and figures events such as the American Civil War, teachers should focus
on drawing parallels from the conflict to current circumstances instead. One method of doing
this would be to focus on a single aspect, such as the economic results of the war. After
introducing the Confederate idea that the Union would not be able to survive without their
cotton, a teacher could ask students to think about a product they feel is imperative to their wellbeing, such as electronics. Students could then do a brief investigation of where the electronics
they use come from. The teacher could then lead a hypothetical activity on how American
consumers might respond if for some reason a large exporter of electronics, such as Japan,
stopped exporting electronics. Tying historical events, such as the Civil War, to contemporary
circumstances through comparison will benefit all students. In doing so, teachers emphasize
students’ analytical skills.
History teachers often fail to emphasize reading comprehension strategies. Too often,
they see these strategies as English teachers’ responsibilities. Placing an emphasis on reading is
especially important for language-minority students, who do not have the linguistic background
that native English speakers do. Teachers who place an emphasis on reading start every class
period with some type of reading exercise (Bell, 2003). Teachers can also keep a classroom
library of books for their students. These two strategies fit into the content area of history very
The History Classroom 14
well. At the beginning of class, students could read a text or document that relates to the current
unit. Maintaining a classroom library for students of varying linguistic abilities would be
challenging, but not impossible. In this case, the teacher would need a wide variety of books in
order to appeal to different ability levels. It would also be important for the teacher to make sure
that there is no negative stigma associated with the books for students of lower reading levels.
By emphasizing students’ critical thinking, inquiry skills, and reading comprehension skills,
teachers can benefit students in the classroom, as well as in their futures outside of school.
Assessment
Assessment is a complex issue, especially when dealing with diverse linguistic abilities.
This section will address four aspects of assessment. First, it will briefly describe varying
methods of assessment. Then it will target the purpose of assessment. Third, it will explore
alternative grading policies that are beneficial for English language learners. Finally, it will
examine informal and formal assessments as well as standardized testing.
Educators can vary their assessment techniques in order to benefit diverse students. For
example, a teacher could give choices for how to display their knowledge at the end of a unit.
Some options are: writing an essay, giving an oral presentation, or creating a visual display of
some aspect of the unit. Allowing students to display their knowledge artistically prevents
language-minority students from being penalized for lacking English-language proficiency.
These artistic options also benefit students coming from backgrounds that emphasize oral
communication or artistic talent, but who struggle to write well in English. Teachers can also
choose to use these artistic- types of assessment informally. This would be a meaningful practice
because it allows teachers to observe students’ levels of understanding prior to formal
assessment, making it easier to identify and correct students’ misconceptions earlier. These
The History Classroom 15
options are not an attempt to let some students “off the hook” in regard to important historical
concepts. On the contrary, there are certain eras and occurrences, as well as skills that all
students should learn in history classes (Conley, 2005). Specific events like the rise and fall of
ancient civilizations, as well as the ability to make intelligent generalizations about recurrent
themes in history should be instilled in all students, regardless of linguistic background and
ability. Modifications of assessment do not modify what information is assessed, only how
information is assessed.
Regardless of form, assessments must reflect the content and skills that were emphasized
during the unit. The comparison of varying historical accounts helps to convey academic
content, and, at the same time, emphasizes cognitive skills. Assessments should reflect these
comparative activities. For example, students could be given two or three documents and
instructed to write an essay on the credibility of the texts, or to simply compare them. In
classrooms with a large number of language-minority students, assessments that emphasize
vocabulary are beneficial. Teachers can ask students to match terms and concepts to their
definitions orally or on paper. This method of assessment holds English language learners
accountable for the content, and at the same time reinforces the English language skills they
need.
In addition to altering their assessment methods, teachers can also adjust their grading
policies to benefit English language learners. One such adjustment is the implementation of a
portfolio grading system. In this system, teachers withhold an assignment’s final grade until the
end of the grading term. Assignments still have due dates, but students have the opportunity to
edit and revise their work after receiving feedback from the teacher. This portfolio assessment
system benefits the teacher and the student. First, the teacher can easily track the student’s
The History Classroom 16
improvement over a long period of time by viewing revisions of the work. The student, on the
other hand, has ample opportunity to edit and improve their work, and therefore is more likely to
earn a good final grade.
Assessment does not always have to take place at the end of a unit. An effective history
teacher will periodically conduct informal assessments. This is crucial when teaching English
language learners. Reviewing periodically, and re-teaching content if necessary, will help keep
students from falling behind and being unprepared for a final major assessment. Informal
assessments can have a variety of forms. For instance, teachers may choose to do a short review
each class meeting to reinforce the previous lesson’s content. This can be as simple as asking,
“What did we talk about yesterday?” or making a list of key points on the board. Teachers can
also check for understanding while they are teaching a lesson. One strategy for doing this is to
periodically ask students to give a summary, either written or orally, of the day’s lesson.
Because this is an informal assessment, it gives language-minority students the opportunity to
use academic language without the pressure of being graded.
Of course, not all assessment methods are left up to the discretion of the teacher. In most
places, students undergo standardized tests that measure their academic progress. In order to
prepare language-minority students for these types of assessment, teachers can incorporate
vocabulary from standardized tests into the curriculum (Bell, 2003). For instance, many students
who are not fluent in English are unfamiliar with the vocabulary on standardized tests. They do
not encounter words like analyze, interpret, compare, and contrast prior to these tests, and as a
result score poorly. While it is not directly related to the content, history teachers need to spend
time teaching this vocabulary. Another way that teachers can prepare these students for
standardized assessment is by using class-time to teach test-taking strategies. Students who are
The History Classroom 17
recent immigrants may have never taken a standardized test before. Therefore, having a teacher
who administers practice tests and takes time to explain the format of these exams would be
beneficial for these students.
Implications
The implications of this work can be summarized in three words: education,
collaboration, and innovation. There are two major ramifications in the category of education.
First, history teachers must be committed to educating all of their students, regardless of
linguistic background and ability. Secondly, they must also dedicate themselves to continuing
their own educations. Taking advantage of professional development opportunities that deal
with diverse learners and spending time studying the language acquisition process are two ways
that history teachers can educate themselves in order to teach English language learners more
effectively.
Collaboration in this context refers to history teachers working in conjunction with ESL
professionals and foreign language teachers. This collaborative approach can occur either
formally or informally, and is beneficial in three capacities. First, it can broaden their knowledge
of their linguistically diverse students. Second, and more specifically, these ESL professionals
can be of service to general education teachers by doing things such as translating classroom
materials into students’ native languages. Finally, a collaborative approach is beneficial because
it gives students the benefit of having multiple teachers attempting to help them succeed at
school.
Finally, innovation must be a key component in all classrooms. In reference to teaching
history to English language learners, innovation is relevant to methods and assessment. First,
teachers should be innovative when it comes to how they convey content. If language minority
The History Classroom 18
students are not making progress, it is up to the teacher to alter the way content is presented.
Next, teachers need to be innovative in how they conduct assessment. Providing options for
students to display their knowledge, and altering the formats of tests are two ways of adjusting
traditional assessment types. Lastly, grading systems can be altered to benefit English language
learners. One such grading innovation is the portfolio system. Through education,
collaboration, and innovation history teachers can increase the academic success rates of English
language learners in their classrooms.
The History Classroom 19
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