The Affective and Social Needs of English Language Learners
Kelly N. Dillon
Master’s Capstone
Advisor: Dr. Robert Jimenez
September 12, 2008
Affective and Social Needs 2
Abstract
With a goal of exploring the impact of English language learners’ (ELLs) affective and social needs on
academic achievement, this paper examines the issue from four frameworks: the learner, the learning
environment, the curriculum and instructional strategies, and, finally, assessment. The framework of the
learner addresses issues such as self-confidence, inhibition, attitude, the need for positive adult models,
and the need to belong and contribute as they relate to language learning and academic achievement.
The section detailing the learning environment explores the critical role of the teacher, the importance of
high expectations, the influence of peers, the physical classroom arrangement, and the presence of native
languages. The critical need for comprehensible input, the use of cooperative grouping, providing
students with opportunities for success, and giving ample wait time are all issues examined in light of
curriculum and instructional strategies. In addition, this section briefly outlines and explains several
language instruction approaches including the Natural Approach, the Language-Experience Approach,
and the Counseling-Learning Approach, as well as bilingual instruction. The last framework of
assessment addresses the limitations of traditional paper and pencil assessment and emphasizes the need
for authentic assessment and continuous feedback. Finally, the essay concludes with a section describing
how the above insights impact practice.
Affective and Social Needs 3
INTRODUCTION
Imagine entering a completely foreign existence. There are different traditions, language, and
experiences. Almost everything is new. While initially there may be tremendous positive feelings of
excitement and interest, eventually feelings of being nervous, lonely, isolated, helpless, powerless,
afraid, and even paralyzed may begin to set in. What happens next? For many English language learners
(ELLs), who enter into an existence like the one described above, such negative and strong emotions,
when left without support or validation, negatively impact their school experience. In fact, “Minoritylanguage students, especially Hispanic and Native groups, have been characterized by high drop out
rates and poor academic achievement” (Cummins, 1981, p.19). Although many factors contribute to
poor academic achievement and high drop out rates, the affective and social needs of English language
learners in the elementary school classroom directly impact students’ academic achievement.
Affective needs, as used here, refers to the psychological and attitudinal side of learning. In
other words, it is emotion. Though difficult to define concretely, the affective domain refers to such
things as self-esteem, self-concept, empathy, anxiety, motivation, and attitude. Krashen (1981) bases his
affective filter hypothesis on the affective domain. He proposes that to the extent negative influences
such as anxiety, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, etc. are present the affective filter is increased,
thereby reducing comprehensible input. Conversely, the reduction of negative factors causes language
learners to feel more confident and assured in their environment, the filter lessens, and input is
comprehensible. Ultimately, the comprehensible input allows language learning to take place.
While affective needs primarily refer to the learner and how he feels about himself and the world
around him, social needs refer to how the learner interacts with the world around him. Social needs
include such things as acceptance, responsive audience, support, and encouragement. Without being
able to use language for meaningful communication with others, the language learner can only go so far.
This makes the social needs of English language learners of primary importance. Brown (1980) makes
this clear saying, “In second language acquisition the learner needs to be receptive both to those with
Affective and Social Needs 4
whom he is communicating and to the language itself, responsive to persons and the context of
communication, and to place certain value on the communicative act of interpersonal exchange” (p.
102). Interpersonal interaction, vital to language learning, makes meeting the social needs of ELLs
critical to success. Leaving social needs unmet can be detrimental to academic success. For example,
children of elementary school age that are not well accepted by their peers have less academic success
than more popular children (Austin & Draper, 1984) and seem to be more at risk for dropping out of
high school (Coie, Dodge & Kupersmidt, 1990). For ELLs, successful language learning determines
future success in many endeavors, and it is these two factors, affective and social needs, that Schumann
(1978) deemed the most critical for success in second language acquisition. What follows is a further
examination of these needs as they relate to the learner, the learning environment, the curriculum, and
assessment.
LEARNERS AND LEARNING
The affective and emotional needs of students are deeply personal and influence language
learning and academic achievement. The first of these needs to consider is self-confidence. Without
some belief in oneself and abilities it easy to become anxious, frustrated, and discouraged. Work by
Brown (1977) and Krashen (1981) reveals that traits related to self-confidence such as lack of anxiety,
outgoing personality, and self-esteem are predictive of second language learning. The more confidence
a student has about his abilities, the easier it is to participate in language learning activities, eventually
leading to further language learning success. Conversely, when students lack self-confidence they tend
to become overly anxious. This can have detrimental affects on language learning success as described
by Gopaul-McNicol and Thomas-Presswood (1998): “A high anxiety level interferes with learning a
second language because it not only impairs memory but it also decreases the learner’s willingness to
take risks and practice the new language” (p. 68). In addition, as anxiety increases frustration tolerance
decreases; this causes students to become much more susceptible to giving up or quitting.
Affective and Social Needs 5
A second affective need necessary for language learning is lowered inhibition. While influenced
by internal and external factors, a language learner’s inhibition, like self-confidence, affects how willing
the learner is to participate in language learning activities. As Krashen (1981) expresses, a student’s
inhibition results in egocentrism, eventually causing self-consciousness. If a student is self-conscious
(highly inhibited) they will not participate freely in group discussions where they fear making mistakes.
The more students avoid situations due to inhibitions the more language practice they miss. A unique
study by Guiora et al. (1972) indicates the possible advantages of low inhibition in language learning.
For a Thai pronunciation test, subjects drank small amounts of alcohol to create lower than normal
levels of inhibition. The performance of these students was significantly higher than that of the control
group. While this is certainly not to suggest giving students alcohol, it indicates that the lower students’
inhibitions are, the more risks they are willing to take in language learning, ideally leading to further
success.
A third important affective factor is a positive attitude. First, it is important that students have a
positive attitude towards themselves in the form of self-confidence/esteem, as previously discussed.
This is an important affective need for all students, but particularly so for ELLs whose cultural identity
is changing (Canadian Teachers’ Federation, 1989). In addition to a positive attitude toward self, it is
critical that students have a positive attitude towards the second language and culture. Carrasquillo
(1996) states, “Favorable attitudes to learn the second language seem to correlate highly with measures
of achievement” (p.38). The opposite is also true; negative attitude towards learning a language
negatively affects achievement. Interestingly, it is not only a negative attitude towards language
learning, but also a negative attitude towards speakers of the target language that has a detrimental
affect. Very young children are not as susceptible to negative attitudes as school age children. This is
most likely because they have not yet internalized the attitudes of the adults around them (Brown, 1980).
This makes it all the more important that teachers and other influential adults create positive
Affective and Social Needs 6
environments and display positive attitudes towards other cultures and people groups. While ELLs
themselves need to have positive attitudes, they also need to experience a positive social environment.
The following paragraphs discuss this and other social needs.
One of the primary social needs for students, as previously indicated in the discussion on positive
attitudes, is positive adult role models. While the peer group is a critical component of the social sphere,
and contributes greatly to students’ social needs, adult role models are also essential to meeting students’
affective and social needs. This is particularly true for language minority students, as indicated by
Coelho (1994), “In their [minority students’] new environment they may be presented with few positive
images of people like themselves and be in contact with few people of their own background who are in
positions of respect and authority in the mainstream society. This can have a very negative impact on
self-esteem and damage a child’s motivation to learn” (p.308). Therefore, not only is it important for
teachers to act as positive role models for students, it is also beneficial to invite community members
into the classroom, when possible, to help meet this social need.
A second social need for students is to experience empathy and acceptance in their classroom
community. Of the various social needs, this is of particular importance. As Fillmore eloquently
addresses it, “Although young children neither know nor care about prestige and status, they do care
about belonging and acceptance” (p.342). Without first meeting this critical social need it is very
difficult to make gains in language learning. This need for acceptance affects academic achievement
because acceptance or rejection by the peer group contributes to students’ participation in learning
activities and desire to academically achieve (Wentzel and Asher, 1995). Not only is it critical that
ELLs feel accepted into the classroom community, it is important that they be accepted despite what
may seem like inappropriate behaviors. For what seems inappropriate in the classroom culture, may be
acceptable in the ELLs’ native culture. It is this discrepancy that often raises social-emotional issues
(Smith, 1992). While teachers cannot force students to accept another, it is important that they
Affective and Social Needs 7
themselves demonstrate acceptance and encourage it in the classroom community, not tolerating any
overt rejection or bullying.
Hand in hand with the need for acceptance into the social group is the need to belong and
contribute to the group. In the very words of a student who feels as if he does not belong, “you
understand the content of the class, but when you have to find a partner and work on a group project,
you can’t get into a group. You feel too embarrassed to ask someone to be your partner” (Kanno &
Applebaum, 1995, p.40). Feeling like an outsider can also create anxiety, which, as previously shown,
negatively affects academic achievement. Not only do students need to be accepted into and belong to
the social group, it is important that they feel valued and needed as a contributing member of the group;
this is of critical importance to creating a successful literacy community (Kim and Turner, 2006). While
belonging, much like acceptance, cannot be forced, later addressed are ways that teachers can create
activities and design instruction in such a way that all members contribute.
Not only is it important for students to have a sense of acceptance, belonging, and contribution, it
is important to feel valued. Entering the classroom from an entirely different cultural and linguistic
background, it is important that students do not feel that they are inferior. Making sure the social group
has an appreciation for and value of other cultures assures this. Conversely, subtractive bilingualism,
which encourages the acquisition of the second language at the expense the first, has negative
consequences on children’s linguistic, cognitive, emotional, and academic development (Homel, Palif,
& Anderson, 1987). Language is intricately woven with one’s identity and when devalued or held
inferior, “It also denies or denounces what they [ELLs] hold most sacred: their rootedness, relationships
and often race” (Baker, 2001, p.197). Again, it is important that teachers model an acceptance of
diverse cultures and value of other languages, not allowing other students to bully or otherwise devalue
ELLs’ native language and culture.
Affective and Social Needs 8
While all students, ELLs and mainstream, share most of the affective and social needs mentioned
above (self-confidence, positive attitude, belonging, etc.) there are several other affective and social
needs and variables unique to immigrant and refugee ELLs. First, there is culture shock. The sheer
emotions, such as homesickness and loneliness, resulting from leaving everything familiar can have a
wide range of affects. While some students may adapt quickly to the new culture and be eager to learn
the language, others feel paralyzed by their emotions. Compounding the effects of culture shock, often
students have little or no choice in their culture change, often leaving them with a sense of
powerlessness or hopelessness. These negative feelings may cause students to have adjustment issues to
their new life (Coelho, 1994), which may influence student achievement and language learning. It is
important that teachers remain sensitive and patient with students during this period of adjustment,
encouraging students to do the same.
There are also familial issues that, while not directly related to school, still cause affective and
social challenges for ELLs. These challenges distract from schoolwork, leading to decreased academic
achievement. First, immigrant students possibly have more family responsibilities than those of their
mainstream counterparts. While many high school ELLs have to work an outside job to help support the
family, many elementary school ELLs have many household chores to do (Townsend & Fu, 2001). In
addition, many immigrant ELLs, like Paw in Townsend and Fu’s case study (2001), “live in a state of
fear and anxiety that they might say something wrong, get in trouble, and possibly be deported” (p.106).
Again, this type of fear and anxiety regarding traditionally “adult” concerns results in lowered academic
achievement.
While the abovementioned issues relate to immigrant and refugee ELLs, there are two more
affective challenges that refugees, in particular, face. First, for many they must readjust to their parents.
After potentially years of separation from their parents, they must reestablish family relationships,
culture, discipline, etc. This period of change can create tremendous problems in school as they face
Affective and Social Needs 9
cultural conflict not only at school, but also at home (Goldstein, 1990). In addition, many refuges face
the extra challenge of post-traumatic stress as, “the intrusion of memories and insights connected to the
traumatic event can cause the child to be distracted from an academic task” (Thomas, 1991, p. 5). Posttraumatic stress often occurs with ELLs from war-torn countries and teachers need to be aware of the
symptoms. (Some symptoms include depression, withdrawal, hyperactivity, aggression, fearful
behavior and intense anxiety reactions to situations [sounds, smells, etc.] that trigger a traumatic event).
Teachers, aware of these symptoms in a student, may provide support by referring them to the school
counselor.
While teachers have less influence over these affective and social variables (homesickness, fear,
family responsibilities, etc.) unique to ELLs, than those common to most students, it is important to
remember that teachers can still be a consistent, positive force in these students lives. Providing a
listening ear or referral to necessary resources may be just the support that the immigrant or refugee
ELL needs to experience success. Many of the other affective and social needs of the ELL are met or
supported inside the classroom by creating a safe, supporting learning environment. The following
section details what this type of environment looks like and ways to implement it.
ENVIRONMENT
Students come to school under a variety of circumstances that teachers have no control over.
However, once a student enters the classroom the teacher takes on the great responsibility of creating a
safe and inviting learning environment. Without such environment, the affective filter increases. This
leads to a reduced amount of comprehensible input and, in turn, decreased academic achievement.
Largely, “students’ success and failure are considered to be the results of a match (or mismatch)
between the learning environment and their learning needs and characteristics” (Garcia & Ortiz, 2006, p.
65). In order for ELLs to experience success inside the classroom teachers must make an extra effort to
Affective and Social Needs 10
make the classroom a safe and comfortable place for students. The following paragraphs detail the
effects and elements of this type of positive learning environment.
Perhaps the most critical element to a positive classroom environment lies with the teacher. He
or she is the reliable, consistent adult that students look to for an example. It is largely up to him/her to
set the tone of the classroom environment. Teachers must consider several important things in creating
a comfortable, effective learning environment. First, are their own attitudes. Enthusiasm is contagious
and, in the opinion of McCormick (1994), it is the most important aspect of effective instruction.
Enthusiasm conveys a sense of excitement that encourages students’ own positive attitudes towards
learning. In addition to an attitude of enthusiasm, it is important that teachers like students. Although
this may seem obvious, it is crucial for academic success. Wentzel and Asher (1995), in explaining
some of their findings, state, “being liked by teachers is more important for the adoption of schoolrelated goals than is a high level of acceptance among peers” (p. 761). While it may not always be easy
to like all students, it is critically important that teachers make a genuine effort. Caring interaction
between teacher and students can often inspire students towards language learning and academic
success. A final important teacher-personality factor is an inviting and non-threatening attitude towards
students. Students must know that they are welcomed into the classroom as a valuable and capable part
of the classroom community. The simple act of remembering a child’s name and the correct
pronunciation conveys a powerful sense of belonging. As McCormick (1994) points out, “a person’s
name is to him or her the sweetest and most important sound” (p.12). In addition, teachers must use
inviting language that encourages conversation, communication, and risk taking. These various aspects
of a teacher’s positive attitude sets the stage for students to follow their example, creating a safe and
inviting classroom environment.
In addition to teachers’ attitudinal factors, an important environmental factor that teachers
determine is high, challenging expectations for students regardless of linguistic, cultural, or economic
Affective and Social Needs 11
variables. It is this “focus on designing accessible, inclusive, and equitable learning environments that
develop bicultural/bilingual competence among all students” (Garcia & Ortiz, 2006, p. 65). High
expectations for all students push them towards further academic achievement, perhaps more than they
first thought possible. As students achieve more, their self-confidence increases, thereby increasing
their attitudes and success in language learning.
In addition to the vital role of the teacher, one cannot overlook the role of peers in creating a safe
classroom community environment. First, it is important to consider the demographics of the
community of peers. Unfortunately, many ELLs face overcrowded classrooms. This can often be
detrimental to language development for at least two reasons. First, it drastically reduces access to
individual help from the teacher. Second, there are fewer opportunities for output when called upon by
the teacher. A second demographic consideration is the importance of placing students with peers their
own age. When placed with younger students, ELLs will not learn language more quickly. In fact, it
may result in a loss of self-esteem, causing them to withdraw and acquire less language (Coelho, 1994).
Although the classroom teacher alone cannot properly address these demographic considerations, they
are important factors for administrators and school board members to keep in mind during the creation
of programs for ELLs.
Beyond the make-up of it, the peer group has a tremendous effect on the classroom environment
and, in turn, language learning and academic achievement. If students feel a social wall between
themselves, they are likely to shut down and withdraw from classroom participation. As Schmuck
(1988) writes, “Students do not directly express their own ideas and opinions publicly until they have
learned that their peers and the teacher will not reject them” (p.46). In an effective classroom
environment that meets social and emotional needs, students feel safe in communication and are more
willing to take risks. In addition, a safe community where peers are encouraged to be constructive
critics provides a necessary added pressure to language learning (Brown, 1980). Overall, the peer group
Affective and Social Needs 12
is a critical element of the learning environment. Teachers must make an extra effort to encourage
cohesive and cooperative attitudes among peers. In doing so, this meets emotional and social needs,
leading to greater academic achievement and language learning.
Besides the concrete roles of teachers and peers in the classroom environment, there are several
important, more abstract, qualities to consider. These qualities include engagement, involvement, active
participation, invitation, and risk taking. While all these qualities are somewhat similar, each is crucial
in creating an environment that encourages communication, the critical element to language learning.
For example, ELLs need to talk about topics that are interesting to them. This encourages active
participation and engagement in academic dialogue, which leads to the development of social and
academic proficiency in English (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998). The language of the classroom environment
must also be inviting. ELLs begin to communicate better with both classmates and teacher when invited
to participate and communicate (Cary, 2000) at whatever level they are able. Inviting students towards
frequent participation, engagement, involvement and interaction with both teacher and peers conveys to
students that their contributions are valuable, respected, and important to the cohesive classroom
community. However, inviting students towards engagement and participation is only the beginning.
They must also be encouraged to take risks and make mistakes. Much of language learning consists of
trial and error. Students must feel safe enough in the classroom environment to be willing to take those
risks (Brown, 1980). As students grow in their confidence, self-esteem increases which, in turn,
continues to increase participation (opportunities to practice language skills) and academic achievement.
Therefore, these more abstract qualities (engagement, invitation, risk taking, etc.) are essential in the
development of an effective and successful ELLs’ classroom community.
Another, more impersonal, factor in the learning environment is the physical room arrangement
and daily routines. Although not typically considered in relation to the social and emotional needs of
students, room arrangement and routines play important roles, if set up effectively. For example,
Affective and Social Needs 13
rearranging traditional desk rows to a semicircle or small tables creates an atmosphere of intimacy.
MacLennan & Dies (1992) explain that frequently physical distance can convey feelings of emotional
distance, isolation, emptiness, anxiety or insignificance. This is exactly the opposite of what ELLs need
to experience in their classroom environment. In addition to the room arrangement, classroom routines
provide a grounding sense of order to the classroom environment. When following routines consistently
from the onset, students, even if they do not understand the language, know what to expect, can
participate, and have feelings of control over their situation. Although room arrangement and classroom
routines may appear to be insignificant details in the classroom environment, in actuality they can be
powerful tools in creating an emotionally safe and inviting place for ELLs.
Finally, one important aspect of the ELLs’ classroom environment is the presence of their native
language. Bound to the language that one speaks, in many ways, is identity. As students struggle
through the language learning process, they must know, for their own emotional security as well as
progress in language study, that their native tongue is not inferior. Unfortunately, this is not the case in
many classrooms. As Baker (2001) writes, “The language to learn is the language of power and
prestige. The language to forget is the language of servitude, stigma, and shame. This message is
loudly proclaimed without words” (p. 199). Simply the absence of the native tongue in the classroom
conveys this message. Small efforts such as labeling classroom objects in the various home languages,
including multi-cultural/multi-lingual books in the classroom library, or the teacher learning a few
phrases in students’ first language all demonstrate to students that they (and their cultures) are valued
and important aspects of the classroom community. These various aspects (teachers, peers,
participation, room arrangement, and native language) of classroom environment begin to address the
question of how to best meet the social and affective needs of ELLs. The following section further
addresses this question as it relates to curriculum and instructional strategies.
Affective and Social Needs 14
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
In addition to the learning environment, equally important to consider concerning the social and
affective needs of the ELL, is the curriculum and instructional strategies used inside the environment.
Principally, the goal of the curriculum and instructional strategies is to challenge students towards the
zone of proximal development in which they reach the point of growth, but not frustration. It is a great
balancing act. While this is true with all students, it is particularly true for students learning English. In
the ELLs’ classroom is vitally important that the curriculum and instructional strategies used are
comprehensible. If language learners cannot comprehend the language input they receive, often they
will become frustrated and “check-out”, no longer putting effort into the language learning process.
This frustration, if not addressed early on, becomes overwhelming and discouraging to students and, as
Duff (2001) reports, “frustration and failure may lead to higher than average drop-out rates among
immigrant students in high school, especially those whose home-country education or L1 literacy skills
are limited” (p.105). Therefore, teachers must make a concerted effort during instruction to assure that
language input is comprehensible to ELLs. Helpful suggestions for making input comprehensible
include pre-teaching vocabulary, providing study guides, and graphic organizers. With these tools,
teachers provide students with the scaffolding necessary to challenge but not frustrate them to the point
of overwhelming or discouraging.
In addition to providing students with comprehensible input, teachers must provide students with
opportunities to experience success. In order for students to be motivated in continuing the language
learning process, they must have enough self-efficacy, or confidence, to know that they are capable.
One way to help meet this affective need in students through curriculum and instruction is by planning
activities in which students can experience success. As students effectively use learning strategies, there
is a close association with the individual’s self-efficacy (Zimmerman, 1990). Although these activities
may not be necessarily ‘easy’, they must be tasks that students have tools and resources to complete with
Affective and Social Needs 15
a sense of accomplishment. In addition to these types of tasks, students also experience success when
they have choices (over texts, activities, small grouping, topics, etc.). In their case study of Paw,
Townsend and Fu (2001) believed that, “giving Paw some choice would have been one way to help
connect her school reading to her knowledge and previous experiences, and hence been relevant to new
learning” (p.112). As students experience academic success and connections to their own knowledge
and abilities, self-efficacy increases. With this affective need met, students are validated and more
willing to take on new challenges in the language learning process.
Though not curriculum or an instructional strategy, per se, two important considerations during
instruction that must not be overlooked in the ELLs’ classroom are wait time and over correction.
Though wait time (think-time after posing a question) is essential in all classrooms, it is particularly
important for the ELL. They need extra time to process, not only the solution, but also the language
required from teacher’s input and their own output in the form of a response. Kooy and Chiu (1998)
offer an interesting suggestion on how to help students in this process: “Formulating ideas and the
language to express them in a log before committing to discussion gives them precious time to think and
use language, to find something to say” (p.84). In order for language learners to fully participate in
classroom conversations and activities, they need to have sufficient time to think and respond. In
addition, language learners making attempts at language production can be incredibly discouraged when
constantly corrected. Again, they need to experience success; over-correction reminds them too
frequently of their errors. Perez and Torres-Guzman (2002) suggest that an effective and gentle way to
correct language learners is by using their own words to guide them into other ways of saying the same
thing. Insufficient wait time or over correction can often be incredibly discouraging to the language
learner; by not meeting the affective need of patience with the learner, there can be negative academic
consequences.
Affective and Social Needs 16
In the discussion of environment, as it relates to the affective and social needs of ELLs, one of
the strongest components is a solid, safe peer community. One important way to address this through
curriculum and instructional strategies is by the use of interactive, flexible, cooperative groups. Largegroup instruction can be very daunting for ELLs, particularly newcomers. Smaller groups’ or pairs’
activities provide for easier language exchange among a few people (Townsend & Fu, 2001). In
addition, students have the opportunity for more frequent language output as well. Research supports
two important claims regarding cooperative group work, particularly in the ELLs’ classroom. First,
minority students’ academic achievement increases with the use of cooperative learning activities
(Aronson & Gonzalez, 1998). Second, regarding the social and emotional needs of the learner,
cooperative learning increases self-esteem and student motivation (Slavin, 1985) and helps them
develop empathy (Aronson & Bridgemen, 1979). Repeatedly, research supports and encourages
cooperative grouping and interactive learning experiences throughout all types of classrooms, though the
possible benefits are particularly important for ELLs.
In considering the demographics and make-up of small groups, it is important to consider a
couple of things. First, contact with native English speaking peers is necessary in language development
and provides immigrant and refugee students a window into American culture. Therefore, when
possible, it is important to group ELLs with native speaking English peers as well as students of their
own native language background. An additional benefit suggested by research by Aronson and
Bridgeman (1979) is that, after participating in interracial cooperative groups, students are more likely to
make cross-racial friendships. When groups are flexible and often changing it allows students a variety
of interactions and experiences that help develop not only academic and language skills, but social skills
as well.
After identifying and exploring the importance of small groups and cooperative learning, it is
necessary to consider what types of curriculum and instructional strategies, used within these groups,
Affective and Social Needs 17
best meet the needs of the ELL. First, communication must be a primary goal for these groups. As
communication is enhanced more positive relationships form. If communication is a goal of small
groups, group tasks must focus on life-like communication. For example, students can interview one
another and then compare and contrast interests, families, traditions, etc. Also, students can “think, pair,
share” about a current topic of study or interest. Small book discussion groups provide students with the
opportunity to share their ideas and reflect upon a reading with others. Students can also find validation
and receive feedback on their own journal writing by sharing it aloud in a small group. Role-plays also
provide students with opportunities for meaningful interaction. Although these are just a few
suggestions of activities that can take place within cooperative groups, the objective is that students have
many opportunities to work together through meaningful, communicative interaction.
Simplified speech and visual and/or physical cues combined with meaningful interaction, as
mentioned above, makes up the Natural Approach to language learning. One technique important to the
Natural Approach is “total physical response” in which listening is combined with physical actions
(touching, acting, moving, looking, etc.) in order to help students engage the language. The Natural
Approach holds the position that more ‘natural’ instructional strategies lend themselves to language
learning more so than direct instruction of syntax and vocabulary. Through the Natural Approach the
affective filter is reduced, thereby making input more comprehensible.
In addition to the Natural Approach, there are two more instructional strategies worthy of
consideration concerning the reduction of ELLs’ affective filters. The first is the Language Experience
Approach in which students create reading materials based on their own interests and language
experiences (Van Allen & Allen, 1976). Students dictate their stories, allowing the teacher to write
them down. These stories then become reading material for the class. This is a highly motivating
activity as students can see their own words in print and participate in shared activities. It validates
students’ ideas and experiences and they come to see themselves as contributing members of the group.
Affective and Social Needs 18
A second powerful instructional strategy is the Counseling-Learning Approach. This approach
takes the form of a discussion group in which the teacher assumes the role of “counselor” (Carrasquillo,
1994). Students decide what topics they want to talk about and the teacher reflects students’ statements
back to them, using and modeling the target language. Each student contributes and advances according
to their own abilities. With this method, students have multiple opportunities for output and do so in a
safe environment, again coming to see themselves as a contributing member of the group.
Finally, one vitally important consideration to curriculum and instructional strategies is the use
of students’ native language. While not always feasible, a bilingual curriculum is one that will benefit
students both academically and emotionally. So often, the expectation is that students must learn the
target language at the expense of their first language, thereby producing identity conflict. Crawford
(1989) details the benefits of a bilingual-bicultural curriculum saying that, “merely recognizing the value
of a minority language and culture, can enhance a LEP child’s self-esteem and provide a more
comfortable environment for English acquisition” (p. 104). It is this type of environment that is the goal
of those trying to reduce students’ affective filter. Bilingual instruction is a powerful strategy that
enables students to make progress in the target language without neglecting their native language and
personal identity.
ASSESSMENT
Often overlooked in the discussion on assessment is how it influences the emotional/affective
aspects of students. Perez and Torres-Guzman (2002) emphasized this point well in the following quote:
Assessment must serve, not harm, each and every student. This means that each individual’s
intellectual, social, and emotional well-being must be considered…We must recognize that
assessment experiences, formal or informal, have consequences for students…Assessment
procedures have profound effects on students’ lives. Assessments may alter their educational
opportunities, increase or decrease their motivation to learn, elicit positive or negative feelings
Affective and Social Needs 19
about themselves and others, and influence their understanding of what it means to be literate,
educated, or successful. (p. 187)
Important to remember in the assessment of ELLs is that it must not be limited to traditional written
tests. These tests alone do not accurately reflect the scope of students’ abilities. One reason is the
anxiety that written exams can cause. In research by Garcia (1991), most of the bilingual students
interviewed reported needing more time on tests than their native English-speaking peers. This suggests
that possible ways to avoid some frustration and anxiety include allowing students more time on written
exams, providing practice tests, and teaching stress management tools.
In addition to realizing the limitations of written tests, it is important to consider the benefits of
native language assessment. Oftentimes native language assessments more accurately reflects what
students know because the language does not confuse students. Perez and Torres-Guzman reflect this in
research: “When they were given the opportunity to respond in their native language, the level of
comprehension that they demonstrated was considerably higher”(p.33). Finally, it is important to
consider assessment alternatives to the traditional written exam. Possible examples include task related
assessments, anecdotal notes, and portfolios. These types of assessment are often more authentic, fair,
and appropriate for ELLs than norm referenced tests Baker (2001).
Assessment, in many ways, guides instruction. Therefore, it is important that assessment be both
summative, at the end of instruction, and formative, during instruction. Assessment is a continuous
process and students need many diverse opportunities to reveal both what they know, and that which is a
struggle. In addition to the continuous process of assessment, students need continuous feedback from
assessment. In order for students to begin to self-regulate their learning, they occasionally need help in
recognizing what needs improvement. Feedback comes in many forms. Written comments on written
assignments, student-teacher conferences, verbal responses to in-class answers, and reflective comments
on discussions are all important examples of feedback. Carrasquillo (1994) describes an important trait
Affective and Social Needs 20
in teachers of ELLs saying they “must have the ability to induce in the students self-evaluation and selfcriticism as a condition for self-respect and self-expression” (p. 194). As students receive feedback,
both from the teacher and peers, they become more able self-evaluate and critique their own work and
behavior, increasing their own self-esteem, ideally resulting in greater academic achievement. However,
as important as consistent feedback is, it is equally important to remember, as previously discussed, that
over correction is frustrating and even detrimental to the ELL’s progress.
Error correction must be constructive and tailored to students’ individual needs. Examples of
ways to gently and effectively correct students’ errors include reflecting their statements back to them,
extending, and elaborating on statements. It is also important that error correction focus on mistakes
that impede communication (‘global errors’), rather than more minor grammatical errors (‘local errors’).
The teacher’s goal in error correction is a great balance. There must be enough positive feedback to
continue communication but not so much that critical errors go unacknowledged.
IMPACT ON PRACTICE
Overall, these findings regarding the affective and social needs of English language learners,
across the four content areas, call teachers, administrators, and all those involved in the school system to
take a second look at students. In order for them to reach their fullest potential, students must be treated
with respect, care, and concern. They are real people, not simply numbers in a system. Specifically,
each content area (learner and learning, environment, curriculum and instructional strategies, and
assessment) enlightens practice in various ways. Recognizing that the social and emotional needs of
English learners are more specific than those of mainstream students, special attention must be paid to
their needs and development in this area. Overlooking, shuffling aside, or expecting ELLs to behave
just like mainstream students is unacceptable to those concerned with their social and affective needs.
Secondly, attention must be given to the ELLs’ environment. Though all students need a safe and
cooperative learning community, this is particularly true for ELLs. Careful consideration of teachers’
Affective and Social Needs 21
own attitudes as well as fostering a safe community of peers is critical in addressing ELLs’ social an
affective needs. Concerning curriculum and instruction, the importance of authentic, communicative
tasks and assignments cannot be emphasized enough. Though done in a variety of methods, cooperative
group learning plays an essential role. Finally, in the assessment of ELLs it is important to remember
that assessment is often an intimidating experience. Written tests need balance with authentic assessment
and consideration for affective needs through native language tests, extended time, and careful error
correction. Acknowledging the relevance of social and emotional needs of English language learners in
relation to their academic and language development throughout these four areas is an important first
step to meeting these needs.
QUESTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION
Would offering pre-service teachers (and/or in-service workshop) courses on child and adolescent
counseling improve teachers’ awareness and treatment of ELLs’ social and emotional needs?
In considering the social and emotional needs of ELLs and how to meet those needs, it is
possible that many teachers and school administrators have simply not taken the time to consider this
aspect of teaching English to speakers of other languages. This question asks whether or not offering
teachers tools to deal with these needs would help them be more aware of, and hopefully more equipped,
to meet these needs.
Do positive affective classroom environments in the early years impact academic achievement
and/or dropout rates in high school?
In many aspects of life, the past plays a tremendous role in the outcomes of the future. It would
be interesting to see if this holds true regarding the affective and social needs of ELLs. If students
receive a strong foundation of safety and security in their formative years, does it have a lasting impact
on their later development and progress in high school?
Affective and Social Needs 22
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