ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES
Reasons, Concessions, and Refutations
As soon as you have (1) completed your research schedule, (2) written your research proposal
(including your research question and tentative thesis), (3) researched your topic and collected
credible sources, you are ready to start structuring your argument. You might want to start with
some rough draft outlining of your line of reasoning and consider what argumentative strategies
will work best for you.
Recall that an argument is an assertion (thesis) plus reasoning. Three basic strategies for
constructing your line of reasoning are (1) reasons, (2) concessions, and (3) refutations.
Write body paragraphs that present reasons, concessions, and refutations as topic sentences
followed with your development and documented evidence.
REASONS
A reason is a claim expressing why you believe the way you do on an issue (or research
question, problem, debate, or controversy).
Issue: Should capital punishment be abolished in Texas?
Thesis: Capital punishment should be abolished in Texas..
Reason #1: Capital punishment does not deter crime.
(reason #1)
Reason #2: Capital punishment is expensive.
(reason #2)
Reason #3: Capital punishment is racist.
(reason #3)
Eventually, when you start writing your essay, each reason will become a topic sentence for a
body paragraph. In the body of each paragraph, you will develop your reason by supplying proof
and evidence. This proof and evidence will need to be documented through in-text citations and
works cited entries.
CONCESSIONS AND REFUTATIONS
When you concede, you acknowledge an opposing viewpoint (or viewpoints) to your own
reasoning. Also, when you concede, you anticipate objections from your opposition.
Conceding contributes to your ethos. You present yourself as fair and reasonable in that you have
examined both sides of the argument.
Use markers to signal your concessions: True, Certainly, Indeed, No doubt, Of course,
Admittedly, Undoubtedly . . .
When you refute, you attempt to prove wrong, discredit, invalidate, or diminish the reasoning
behind the opposing viewpoint (your concession). Another way to refute is to point out errors in
the opposition’s reasoning. One means of pointing out errors is to charge you opponent of
committing fallacies. Fallacies are errors in thinking.
Use markers to signal your refutations: But, However, Although, In spite of, Even though,
Regardless, Nevertheless, Nonetheless, Unfortunately, Instead, Whereas, On the contrary, But
this argument does not take into account . . .
Let’s look at an example:
Opposition’s main viewpoint: Capital punishment is necessary for society and must not be
abolished.
Reason from the opposition: Capital punishment gives the families of victims closure.
Your Concession: True, capital punishment does give the families of victims closure.
Refutation #1: However, the number of families that actually experience closure is small. (Here
you attempt to diminish the opposition’s reasoning. Add documented evidence in the body of
your paragraph.)
Refutation #2: Furthermore, those who advocate the closure argument attempt to oversimplify
the issue. (Point out the fallacy of oversimplification in opposition’s reasoning.)