7/ 2014 Environmental Science Page | 1 Ch # 6 ECOSYSTEMS and COMMUNITIES Purpose : 6 – 1 Successions Terrestrial Primary Climax Communities Aquatic Primary Observing Aquatic Successions Secondary Successions Modern Concept of Succession and Climax. 6 – 2. Biomes determined by Climate 6 – 3. Major Types of Climax Communities Desert Grassland Savanna Tropical Dry Forest Tropical Rain Forest Mediterranean Shrub lands (Chaparral) Temperate Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forests (Boreal) Tundra. Temperate Rain Forest 6 – 4. Major Aquatic Ecosystems Characteristics Marine Ecosystems Pelagic Benthic – Abyssal Coral Reef Mangrove Estuaries Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems Fresh Water Ecosystems Characteristics Lakes- Eutrophic /BOD/ Oligotrophic Streams Swamps 1 Marshes Page | 2 Ch. 6 - ECOSYSTEMS AND COMMUNITIES PURPOSE. Describe the process of successions in both land and water ecosystems. To recognize differences between primary and secondary successions. Describe the kinds of ecosystems and their determining factors. Associate typical plants and animals with the various biomes Recognize the physical environmental factors that determine the kind of climax communities that will develop. Differentiate the forest biomes that develop based on temperature and precipitation. 6.1 Successions Ecosystems are dynamic (constantly changing) units. (Successions) Communities go thru a series of changes in structure, recognizable and predictable. The pace and direction of change depend on climate, seeds, disturbance frequency and organisms introduced from outside the area. The predictable community changes (in structure over time) is called a succession. The end is a CLIMAX community - stable and long lasting - determined by climate and soil. Two successions are recognized: 1. Primary starts with newly exposed surface (bare rock).Eg. glaciated areas, newly covered volcanic places, surface exposed by drop in sea level. 2. Secondary starts with destruction of an existing ecosystem, leaving behind some soil, seeds and roots. Primary Succession Terrestrial 2 It depends on the type of substrate (rock, sand or clay), spores, seeds or reproductive structures, and climate. Biodiversity is influenced by the type of plants. Page | 3 Pioneer stage Results from colonization by a pioneer community such as: Lichen a mutualistic relationship between Algae (or bacteria) and Fungus. Intermediate stage Soil development follows, which supports worms, bacteria, etc. Primary Succession is the replacement of the Pioneer Community. Later stages contribute to the organic matter dominated by Replacement, e.g. annuals by perennial grasses, herbs, woody shrubs, animals, and trees. Each replacement is a successional stage (SERAL STAGE). A “total” succession from Pioneer to climax community is a SERE . The successional community is not the same as a climax community. Climax Communities Can reproduce them selves and are in energy balance. They have a larger number of types of organisms and a trend towards increasing complexity and energy efficiency. Climax Community tends to have many specialized ecological niches, whereas, successional tend to have more generalized niches. Climax communities maintain their mix for a long time, while successional is temporary. Climax tends to recycle nutrients and maintain a constant biomass. Secondary succession starts with the destruction of an existing community. In Terrestrial Climax Communities, the biomes produced, depend on two abiotic factors: TEMP. (Constant or changing) PPT. How much and when Soil and Wind (dries out soil rapidly) Periodic fires. Aquatic Primary Succession Most aquatic successions are temporary, eventually to be replaced 3 by terrestrial ecosystems. (Receive soil particles and organic matter continuously from land). 1. Early stages - Aquatic Vegetation Page | 4 Aquatic vegetation (floating plants trap sediments, eventually forming a wet meadow. 2. Later stages – Transition to terrestrial communities Shallow lakes fill gradually. Accumulation of organic matter along with sediments. Eventually the wet soil dries; grass starts to grow (a bog stage) 3. Observing Aquatic Successions. In the deeper portion of the lake, there are submerged plants, algal mats and emergent vegetation. Next grasses that can tolerate wet soil adjacent to the shore. Secondary Succession Occurs when an existing community is destroyed but much of the soil and some organisms remain. The succession advances more rapidly. It is likely that the new climax community will resemble the earlier one. Modern Concept of Succession and Climax. The type of climax community which develops, depends on many factors other than climate, seeds and human activities. 6.2 Biomes are Determined by Climate. Biomes are terrestrial climax communities with wide geographic distribution Precipitation and Temperature These are abiotic factors that have major impact on the developing climax community. Several other factors, namely: periodic fires, wind, soil type and currently living organisms. The Effect of Elevation on Climate and Vegetation. 4 As elevation increases, temperature decreases Climax communities are: 1. Able to maintain a mix in species 2. In energy balance Page | 5 3. Many kinds of organisms with different kinds of interaction 6.3 Major Types of Climax Communities (Biomes) of the World. DESERT: Climate Ppt.:Brief periods of infrequent rains less than 10”/y. Runoff in gullies. Very high evaporation rates. Windy, with high evaporation rates. Temp.: Variations are high, vary greatly in a 24 hr. period. Organisms - Biodiversity: Many small organisms have the ability to survive with little water. There are many species but few individuals. Plants have small leaves and are spiney, transpire very little water. Plants grow and blossom when moisture is available. Insects lizards, snakes, small mammals, grazers, carnivores and birds all avoid extreme heat. Human Impact. There is nomadic herding. Modern technology is changing that way of existence. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND: Climate Ppt.: Receives between 10 to 30” ppt/year. Temp.: Windy summers are HOT. Winters are cold to mild. Organisms - Biodiversity: Widely distributed; Grasses and other plants roots are intertwined, which binds the soil. Few trees are located along river valleys. There are herds of grazing animals, insects, and birds. Herbivorous mammals - mice and squirrels, foxes, coyotes and some reptiles are common. Human Impact: Steppes /prairies are converted to agriculture or grazing lands. 5 Page | 6 SAVANNA: in tropical parts of Africa, S. America and Australia Climate Ppt.: Tropical climate (heavy rains) with seasonal droughts. 60”/year. 20 to Organisms - Biodiversity: Grassland with occasional clumps of trees. Trees use bacteria for Nitrogen fixation. Grazers are kangaroos antelope, elephants, lions and llamas inhabit. Mound building termites are common. Human Impact : Ecotourism . There is now conflict of interest. MEDITERRANEAN SHRUB LANDS (Chaparral) Climate Temp.: Wet cool winters and hot dry summers. Located near the oceans. Ppt.: Rainfall is 15 to 40”/year. Organisms - Biodiversity: Vegetation is dominated by shrubby, woody plants. Fire is common. Insects, reptiles, birds and mammals are the primary inhabitants. Human Impact : Agriculture conversion due to irrigation practices. TROPICAL DRY FOREST: Climate Ppt.: 20 to 80”/year is seasonal in Central America, India. Organisms - Biodiversity : Many trees drop their leaves during the dry season. 6 Human Impact : Harvesting the forest and converting to agriculture and Habitats. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST: Climate Page | 7 Ppt.: abundant (> 80”/y). Temp: normally warm. Organisms - Biodiversity: Many species of trees (teak, Balsa) grow rapidly. Have an extensive root system close to the surface. Get their nutrients from decaying matter. Vines climb to the Canopy. Significant # of organisms depends on sound to communicate due to lack of light. Has a high diversity of species, greater than any other biome. Insects, birds, climbing mammals, lizards and frogs are common residents. Nutrients are recycled. Rain washes away nutrients, left with poor quality soils. Human Impact: Logging, Agriculture and Mining. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST Climate Temp: Mild winters. Ppt.: Rains all year 50”/year evenly distributed. Located in NE US, SE Canada, S. Africa,parts of Europe and Asia. Organisms - Biodiversity: There are few dominant trees, lose leaves in winter (maple, aspen, oak, birch, and wild spring flowers). Foxes, rabbits, squirrels, deer, badgers and Migratory birds (few residents, grouse, woodpeckers, turkeys) and large variety of insects inhabit. Human Impact : Trees cleared for farming and occasional logging. TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST Climate : More than 50”/year ppt. (up to 120”) evaporation, leaves a damp atmosphere. Cool climate slows 7 Organismms - Biodiversity : Evergreens up to 800 years old (Spruce, Fir, Western Hemlock) with mosses and ferns. Trees die and fall to the ground. They rot. Called “Nurse trees” Page | 8 Dwellers include Woodpeckers, chickadees, elk, deer, bear and Salmoon fish. Human Impact : Home of the endangered species Spotted Owl. Logging. CONIFEROUS FOREST (Boreal Forest; Northern Coniferous Forest; Taiga) Climate Temp: short cool summers and long cold winters. Begins where the Tundra ends. The area is dotted with lakes. Taiga (swamps) Soil freezes during winter. Organisms - Biodiversity: Trees are Evergreens, spruce, fir, etc. no snow damage. Animals (Deer, Caribou, Moose and wolves) are migratory. Few reptiles and amphibians. Ppt.: 10 to 40”/year. Humid climate. Typically dotted with lakes. Human Impact : Less severe than in other biomes. Logging and herding reindeer TUNDRA: Includes alpine. Climate Ppt.: 10”/y. Frozen soil - Permafrost. Damage is very slow to heal. Temp.: Cold, windy climate, less than 10” ppt/year. Organisms - Biodiversity: No trees (growth is short), reptiles nor amphibians. Migratory ducks, few permanent residents. (Arctic hares, lemmings, caribou, Reindeer, Musk Ox). Ptarmigan and snow owl are resident birds. There are clouds of insects. Human Impact : Few people live in this region. Relationship between high latitudes and elevation is evident in the distribution of the various biomes including Alpine Tundra. 8 6 – 4. Major Aquatic Ecosystems Page | 9 Owe their characteristics to: 1. Temp. 2. Amt. and kind of ppt. and indirectly on a) Ability of sunlight to penetrate b) Bottom substrate c) Water temp. d) Dissolved salt e) Soil type. Marine Ecosystems Influenced by amt. of dissolved salts and other nutrients. There are two types of marine ecosystems: 1. Pelagic ecosystems – swimmers, not attached to the bottom. Phytoplankton (algae) is the major food source in the euphotic zone. (Photosynthesis) The Zooplanktons live at lower depths, feed on the phytoplanktons at shallow depths at night in the delta regions and areas of high current activity. They are subsequently eaten by larger fish. 2. Benthic ecosystems - bottom dwellers, indirectly controlled by the nature of the substrate (sand, mud or rock) and temperature. a) Abyssal ecosystems accommodate scavengers, who depend on drifting dead material b) Coral reefs require warm, clean, marine water, exist in a mutualistic relationship with Algae. It is one of the most productive of systems. c) Mangrove swamps - near shore in areas of Tropical mud flats. Trees have an extensive root system through which they absorb CO2, and excrete salt thru leaves. (Not much wave action in area). Located in the Caribbean, South Florida, SE Asia. 1. Estuaries - shallow, brackish water in partially enclosed areas. A sediment and nutrient trap and fish hatchery. The salt content changes with the tide. A pollutant trap? Eventually becomes a salt marsh. 9 Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems Over-fishing has destroyed some traditional fishing grounds. A resulting consequence is farm fishing, which have caused additional Page | 10 nutrients to the water pollution and spread of diseases to wild fish. Fresh water Ecosystems Differentiated from marine waters by Salt content (Taste) Temp. Variations Oxygen content Downhill flow and organisms. Two categories, one relatively stationary: 1. Lakes - Littoral zones have abundant rooted vegetation – submerged plants, emergent plants protrude above the water (water lilies), algae and associated animals, fish and insects. Euphotic zone in large lakes, where light penetrates. Limnetic zones have NO rooted submerged plants Productivity depends on Temp Sunlight penetration (water depth) Nutrient content Oligotrophic lakes are deep, cold, without nutrients, have a low productivity. Eutrophic lakes are shallow, warm with abd. nutrients. Have a high BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) Organisms need molecular Oxygen (from the air or photosynthesis). Wave action or tumbling increases the oxygen content in the water. In contrast, human impact or plant die off causes a decrease in O2 and fish kills. 2. Streams and Rivers - are not very productive, because most nutrients come from the banks. Most algae grow on the rock bottom. The collection of algae, fungus, etc is called the Periphyton. Transition between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. 3. Swamps - are permanently flooded areas, a transition between 10 terrestrial and fresh water ecosystems. 4. Marshes - are dominated by grasses. Human Impact on Fresh water Ecosystems Page | 11 0.02% of the World’s water supply. All of it impacted by human activity. CASE STUDIES (1) Inupiat Eskimos consider themselves part of Nature. They have hunted the Bowhead whale for generations, use all of it and do not lose many catches. Today, they use modern equipment to hunt, have access to other foods. Are limited to 3/year (30 met. tons/whale) Should whaling be stopped because the Bowhead is an endangered species? (2) Salmon Fishing in Scotland: salmon is a pelagic, difficult to harvest commercially. Today, a net is spread across the bay and the fish is prevented from going out to sea. Fed by the fisherman and later harvested. Floating farms. Feed with steroids? (3) Farming in a Tropical Forest: slash and burn cause rapid erosion. Abandoned after a few years. Soil leached to produce a laterite, but the use of temperate farming methods is a failure. 11