Perceptions and Attitudes
Running head: PERCEPTIONS AND ATTITUDES OF OVERWEIGHT INDIVIDUALS
Jennifer Holmes
Capella University
December 2009
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Perceptions and Attitudes
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ABSTRACT
The prevalence of obesity in continuously rising in the United States, and has become more
common among all individuals including children and adults of different ethnicities. Any
individual battling weight problems will encounter some negativity from others, which can be
frustrating and at times demeaning. However, many steps have been made to offer help to these
particular individuals to reduce the increase of obesity. In this paper, perceptions, attitudes and
appearance, as well as socioeconomic statuses are examined among overweight and obese
individuals. Although many of these individual try to lose weight on their own, it is sometimes a
difficult task to do alone. In the research provided, many overweight and obese individuals
encounter negative attitudes and are also perceived in a negative manner according to his/her
appearance. And, many of these individuals have been found to have a lower socioeconomic
status, and possibly battle the psychological disorder of depression.
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Perceptions and Attitudes of Overweight Individuals
Women have always been seen as the backbone of the family and as the one to take care of the
home and children. As time has continued to move forward, society has also made it known as to
what is appropriate or inappropriate in regards to weight and style. The subject of weight can be
a very sensitive subject to discuss, especially when women, and some men, are at the center of
attention. Many individuals feel self conscious of themselves when the discussion of weight is
surfaced. Society, in particular the American society, has placed emphasis on being a certain
weight, and at the same time viewing a person who is over a specific size as overweight and
undesirable, as well as having a low socioeconomic status (SES). In comparison to the American
society, in the African society, an individual’s weight is viewed as being part of a medium-tohigh socioeconomic status in which they are able to purchase food, unlike some who may be able
to only receive the necessities to live. However, as society continues to change, the idea of
beauty is also changing. In the fashion industry, a thin woman has always been seen walking the
runway, or posing in magazines or store ads; however, it has been called to many individuals’
attention that most of these women are going to extreme measures to remain thin, such as
developing an eating disorder. Many individuals perceive overweight and obese individuals as
someone is lazy, or lack will power, and the attitudes toward the overweight individuals can be
devastating as well as heart breaking, as these individuals are discriminated against because of
their weight and appearance.
A woman’s weight fluctuates throughout her life, and these changes may take place as
she goes through puberty, have children, metabolism slowing down after a certain age, and when
going through menopause. Along with the fluctuation of weight, emotions may also come into
play which can affect the individual’s stress level; which can also lead to gaining weight.
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According to Kim, Stein and Martorell (2006), “the prevalence of overweight (body mass index
(BMI) > 25 kg/m) among women is high in developed countries; in the U.S. 62% of women age
20-74 years are overweight. In developing countries, the prevalence of overweight is highest in
the Middle East and North Africa, estimated at 45.9%, followed closely by Latin America and
the Caribbean, 42.5% and Central Europe, 42.1% (15-49 years)” (p. 805). In the United States,
people are given a variety of choices especially when it comes to selecting fatty foods. With a
wide variety of food choices, an individual can choose what and how much to eat. For many
individuals living in poor neighborhoods, or on welfare with three or more children, many single
parents may not have the luxury of choosing food with less fat or purchasing healthy snacks.
Instead, these single parents may decide to buy food they feel will last longer among the family
and possibly cost less according to the financial budget. The nutrition transition has resulted in
increased food security, the availability of inexpensive, high-fat sources of energy, urbanization
and decreased physical activity, leading to the emergence of overweight and obesity (Kim, Stein,
and Martorell, 2006, p. 807).
In the article written by Kim et al. (2009), their research focused on analyzing the
association between parity and overweight. In the research, women between 15-49 years were
analyzed and interviewed and their residences, urban or rural, were also taken into consideration.
Kim et al. (2009), analyzed data from resources such as the Demographic and Reproductive
Health Surveys, to identify women to be interviewed according to the standard of living of the
households, health status of women of reproductive age, and their children. The results of this
study indicated that “parity, age, wealth and urban residence were each positively associated
with overweight in most countries, as well as the associations with schooling were less
consistent” (p. 809). According to Kim et al. (2009), their results indicated that in many
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developing countries, reproduction is a contributor to being overweight in women of
reproductive age” (p. 809). Among the various women that were interviewed, it was found that
women from North America and West Asia held the strongest association between overweight
and their reproduction (particularly cumulative cycles of pregnancy weight gain and postpartum
weight retention) (p.810). With nutrition transition, this refers to the shifts in the structure and
composition of the diet toward high fat/ carbohydrate dense foods and animal products, usually
at the expense of grains, fruits and vegetables. The transition was usually accompanied by a
change from a agricultural to an industrial economy, resulting a greater proportion of the
population residing in urban areas, which was associated with decrease physical activity patterns
(p. 810). Even though, nutrition plays an important role in what an individual eats, it is
necessary to be physically active and remain active throughout life. Women have more body fat
than men; therefore, gaining weight easily happens for women, but unfortunately it takes even
longer to lose the weight.
The perception of being thin in American has been associated with beauty for many
years. Thinness in the fashion industry for women has always been a requirement, in which the
designer’s clothes would just hang off of the women as they walk down the runway.
“Historically, people, especially women, have tried to change their bodies to conform to the
specific era’s image of beauty. “One way to trace trends in ideal beauty is to examine various
depictions of beauty in the media, which range from art or portraits in the pre-camera age to
commercial advertisements and photographs in the present” (Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann and
Ahrens, 1992, p. 85). In the research by Wiseman et al. (1992), the focus was examining the
emphasis of thinness, looking specifically at hips and bust, and women having the ideal figure
eight shape in the media. Wisemann et al. (1992) quoted Gerner, Garfinkel, Schwartz and
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Thompson (1980) in which they “compared the “ideal” image of the female body as presented in
Play boy magazine and the Miss America Pageant with the average body size of women…and
there was an increase in the number of “diet-for-weight-loss” articles in women’s magazine, such
as Vogue, Good Housekeeping, Ladies Home Journal, etc” (p.86). Many times when women go
into the store, located at the check-out stands are many different magazines geared especially
toward women. Some of the magazines and even some how-to books found in book stores,
explain how a woman can lose weight in general, as well as lose weight or get toned in certain
areas of her body, such as the stomach and thighs. Not only can women find weight lost articles
in magazines or get tips out of weight lost books, but they can even access the internet to get this
information as well. According to Wiseman et al. (1992), they defined diet articles as “the only
articles promoting dieting specifically for the purpose of weight loss in women or people in
general. Diet/ exercise articles, were defined as articles that focused on both diet-for-weight loss
and exercise in a combined weight loss or maintenance program” (p. 86).
In order to weight loss to be successful, an individual must engage in an exercise
regiment, as well as eat a healthy, balanced diet. However, some people may want to lose a
significant amount of weight within an exceptionally quick time frame, but unfortunately it does
not happen that way. In the Wiseman et al. (2007) articles, it was found that “over the 10 year
period (1979-1988) 69% of the Playboy centerfolds and 60% of Miss American contestants, had
weights 15% more below the expected weight for their age and height. Also, according to the
DSM-III-R (American Psychological Association, 1987), maintaining body weight of 15%
below expected weight is one of the major criteria for anorexia nervosa” (p. 87).
Body mass index (BMI) is an index for relating a person’s body weight to their height,
and it is increasing in adults, particularly in the United States among women, men and children.
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With the increase of BMI, this can lead to a series of health problems within the individual,
especially those who are considered to be overweight or obese. According to Mack et al. (2004),
“the increase in the prevalence of diabetes in the United States, increased 39.8% in the 1990s for
adults aged 40-49 years” (p. 1019). Not only is the issue of weight becoming a problem, but the
cost of dealing with weight and the health issues associated with it, can be very expensive. Even
though obesity is on the rise for both men, women and children, women are more likely to be
noticed, when it comes to their weight. Every individual has his/her idea of what is healthy or
unhealthy, and some people who are looked upon as being unhealthy or overweight may not
view him/herself as such. “The impact of early adulthood may be felt decades later, decreasing
life expectancy and increasing premature mortality. Women who gained weight after age 18
years were at increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) later in life, compared with those
who maintained a steady weight” (Mack et al., 2004, 0. 1020). Being overweight at an early age
in life increase the chances of an individual to be obese as an adult, but this may not apply to all
individuals.
According to Mack et al. (2004), “among older adults with medication-controlled
hypertension, obesity was related to lower physical functioning and well-being. Overweight and
obese persons have been found to report lower health related quality of life” (p. 1020). The costs
of being overweight, comes with having to pay a high price for prescribed medications.
Although obesity is prevalent, other eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia, are
also plaguing women, especially young women. Some of the health consequences of anorexia
nervosa include the risk of heart failure, reduction in bone density (osteoporosis), muscle loss
and weakness, severe dehydration and hair loss. Whereas dieting does not appear to induce
eating disorders or other psychological dysfunction in overweight/obese adults, these concerns
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have merit in normal and underweight women, especially those driven by psychosocial pressure
to achieve physical beauty” (Mack et al., 2004, p. 1020). Being overweight or obese can bring
about many health complications within the individual. Within the ten year span “between 1990
and 2000, the age adjusted prevalence of obesity increased from 22.9% to 30.5% and the age
adjusted prevalence for overweight increased from 55.9% to 64.5%, according to Meunnig,
Lubetkin, Jia and Franks, (2006, p. 1662). Mortality rate is also influenced and increased due an
individual being overweight. The more a person weighs, the higher the chances of his/her
decreasing their life expectancy, as well as contracting diseases such as type II diabetes,
hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, and many other diseases.
In the study provided by Meunnig et al. (2006), the burden of disease is the
United States adult general populations by body mass index (BMI) were examined. The
distribution of socio-demographic variables, selected chronic conditions, and the life expectancy
and quality-adjusted life expectancy for men and women were examined. It was found that for
the socio-demographic variables and selected chronic conditions, there were more overweight
men than women, but more obese women than men. In comparison to the normal weight
individuals, the overweight men and obese women reported having fair or poor health as well as
suffering with diabetes and hypertension. For the life expectancy and quality adjusted life
expectancy in this research, it was found that overweight men life’s expectancy was roughly
equal to men in the normal weight category, at 57 years; however, obese men had a shorter life
expectancy of 54.3 years. In contrast, the overweight women had a shorter lifespan of about 62
to 64 years, while obese women’s life expectancy was shortened to 60.7 years. The quality
adjusted life expectancy for both men and women were lower in comparison to normal weight
men and women. Living a healthy lifestyle can be rewarding and beneficial, provided that the
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individual maintains a physical activity regime and eat a balanced, healthy meal. Being
overweight or obese can be detrimental to the individual’s health, therefore it is important to
educate individuals about what it means to be healthy and not just thin or skinny.
In the research conducted by Mack et al. (2004), their work focused on examining data
from the 2000 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), in which random digit
dialing was used, and participants were asked questions. The questions that were asked related
to health, weight and height, the participants’ ideal weight, physical activity, level of education
and smoking status. Participants included 98, 387 white, black and Hispanic women, ranging in
age from 18-70 years. The results indicated that among the white, black and Hispanic women,
black women were more likely to have their current weight classified as obese, and to be
diagnosed with diabetes. However, in contrast to the black women, the white women were more
likely to desire an underweight body mass index, report having exercised enough to meet
recommended guidelines as well as more likely to smoke” (p. 1023). Regardless of the ethnic
group, majority of the women desired a lower weight, and very few wanted to gain weight,
especially those who were overweight.
Taking care of oneself is important, as well as engaging in some type of physical activity.
Often times, the individuals who were overweight as a child are more likely to continue to be
overweight. Many people, who are overweight, do not feel that he/she is unhealthy or
overweight until it is brought to his/her attention, which can cause the individual to be self
conscious of themselves, especially when in the presence of others. These overweight
individuals may have several reasons, either due to intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, to attribute
to why he/she is overweight, which may include emotional eating, being born with “big-bones,”
or just simply not motivated to join a gym, due to receiving stares from others. According to
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Mack et al. (2004), “determination of a desire to lose weight to prevent further weight is a step in
the Treatment Algorithm of the 1998 NH Clinical Guidelines for the Treatment of Overweight
and Obesity in Adults. In general, it is expected that those who say they are trying to lose weight
would require a different health promotion plan than women who say they are not trying to lose
weight” (p. 1029).
Obese people are typically characterized as physically unattractive, flawed in character,
and personally responsible for their overweight condition. They are described as “lazy, ugly,
stupid, lacking will-power, incompetent and indulgent” (Cossrow, Jeffery and McGuire, 2001, p.
208). Being overweight does not constitute a lazy, ugly stupid or incompetent person; however,
it is unfortunate that society labels an individual as such. An individual who is not overweight
can also be classified as such, but American society views that particular person as attractive,
competent and possessing will-power. According to Toriola, Dolan, Evans and Adetimole
(1996), it states that “in Westernized and industrialized countries, thinness has come to be
associated with competency, self-control, success, and beauty. Until recently, in some nonWestern cultures, plumpness has been considered attractive and associated with sexuality,
fertility and caring” (p. 85). Cossrow, Jeffery, and McGuire (2001) examined research by Frieze
et al., who found that “obese men earned less money compared to their non-obese counterparts;
the obese men did not report they thought they were discriminated against on the basis of their
weight” (p. 209). Being overweight can bring about other problems outside of personal health
issues, such as being denied benefits for health insurance, or even being fired or pressured to
resign due to being overweight.
Cossrow, Jeffery and McGuire’s (2001) research focused on the stigmatization that
overweight or obese individuals endure. In their research, participants included 32 men and
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women, ranging in age from 18-54 years, and were divided into six focus groups. In each of
these focus groups, men and women were allowed to discuss his/her issues, opinions and
emotions about their weight among individuals who endured the same thing. Two main sections
that were focused on were: perceptions of weight stigmatization in society and personal
experiences of being treated differently or poorly. In the section of perceptions of weight
stigmatization in society, individuals reported that “overweight people are negatively
stereotyped, treated with prejudice and discriminated against or avoided” (p. 210). It was
reported by one participant, in which he felt that an overweight person was judged more by their
looks and shape rather than actually judged upon the content of their character. According to
Cossrow, Jeffery and McGuire (2001), it was reported that “women are held to a leaner
acceptable body weight standard than men; and women are more accepting and tolerant of
weight and appearance in men, than men are in their acceptance and tolerance of weight and
appearance in women” (p. 211). Both men and women agreed that a woman can accept a man
being a few pounds overweight and some women may still be attracted to that particular man;
however, a man may negatively view a woman who is a few pounds heavier, and may never
consider dating her. In the section of personal experiences of being treated differently or poorly,
it was revealed that “participants received different or poor treatment from family, social and
work environment, service provider or generalized poor treatment” (p. 211). For an individual to
be treated differently or poorly by his/her family can be very devastating and may possibly lower
the individual’s self-esteem. Having a family member complain about the individual’s weight
can cause the individual to feel resentment toward that family member. It is unfortunate that an
overweight person has to deal with the pressures of society, along with having a family member
who always seems to make negative comments about the individual’s weight. Being surrounded
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by others in a social setting can also bring about “dirty looks, verbal slurs or disparagement, or
exclusion from a social situation” (p. 211). Many times when an overweight individual walks
into a store or gym, it is highly likely that he/she will receive many stares from others. For any
individual to receive obscene stares can be embarrassing and also devastating, and this in turn
can affect the individual’s feelings. For the overweight individual who decides to join a gym,
this can be a big step in his/her life, in wanting to make a healthy decision. Even though, the
overweight individual may feel out of place or uncomfortable due to the stares, they may also
feel alone, being that many of the individuals in the gym are not overweight. In the research
article by Cossrow et al. (2001), it stated “women tend to report more negative experiences than
men.” It was reported that even in visiting their health care providers, “they felt as though their
health care providers focused on their weight rather than on the particular ailment that prompted
the visit” (p. 211). Many people do not realize it, but an individual’s weight can cause many
health complications, especially in women.
For many years, Black women have been hailed as strong, capable of enduring tough
times, while wearing a smile on their face simultaneously, and yet remaining spiritually and
emotionally strong. Beauboeuf-Lafontant (2003) quoted Mitchel and Herring (1998, 67) in
regards to a strong black woman and wrote, “if there’s one prevailing image we have of
ourselves, it is that we can survive anything. “We get that image from our mothers, who
frequently shield us from the truth of their feelings” (p. 113). In the black community, many
women are taught that they can withstand anything they are faced, because they have observed
their mothers get through the tough times. Many times, black mothers choose not to discuss
certain issues with their children and very seldom express their feelings of disappointment in
front of their children. Throughout the years, single women have endured hard times, especially
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as the sole bread winner in the home, and in-order to mask their disappointments, some women
become emotional eaters. Beauboeuf-Lafontant (2003) mentions “that overeating may be a form
of self-medication for women who are overburdened and burden themselves with too much
caring and responsibility for others” (p. 115). Comparing overeating as self-medication can be
dangerous, because it can be lead to severe health problems, such as diabetes, or hypertension.
Also mentioned in Beauboeuf-Lafontant’s (2003) research is that “food is a vehicle that is used
to comfort us when we may not have much else” (p. 116). Food comfort is common among
women of all ages, especially those who may be emotionally distraught; however this does not
exclude some men who are also emotional eaters as well.
Every individual desires to be in a relationship with a significant other, but sometimes an
individual’s weight can affect that relationship. Some men, depending on their preference,
would not consider dating an overweight or heavy size woman, whereas others would. Black
women have dealt with weight issues for many years and many have been taught to accept what
God gave them, and to make the most of their appearance. “Black women often explain and
adjust their body sizes to meet the approval of Black men in their lives. They also describe
beauty in psychological and attitudinal, rather than specific physical traits unlike Black men”
(Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2003, p. 113). In other words, this may mean that beauty can be
described as in how the individual may feel or the type of mood they may be in, rather than only
on appearance. Black women may sometimes feel the need of approval by others, especially
from Black men, in whom they may be interested in. However, in order to appeal to a Black
man, the woman may think that adjusting her appearance, usually physically, may bring about
the Black man taking a second look at her.
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It has been said that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, and each person has a standard
as to what he/she deems to be beautiful. The perception of beauty varies from one individual to
the next; however, some individuals may have a negative image about themselves. According to
Breitkopf, Littleton and Berenson (2007), negative body image is so prevalent among young
women that some have termed it “normative discontent” (p. 373). At different times in life, a
woman may become disappointed with her body and feel that there is always room for
improvement. African American women have been found to report less body dissatisfaction, to
be less likely to perceive themselves as overweight, or less likely to report being preoccupied
with their weight, relative to European American women (Breitkopf, Littleton, and Berenson,
2007, p. 373). Black women may not focus on their weight or even feel that they are overweight
because there are other things that require much more attention, such as taking care of the family
or managing the bills and finances. Satisfaction with appearance and the perception of oneself as
attractive is specifically tied to body weight, shape or size. An individual can be content with
him/herself regardless of their weight or size, but in the American society so much emphasis has
been placed on thinness. Even though being thin may be the desire of women, some cultures
have a different view on thinness. Take for example, the Latin American culture, many
traditional Latin American cultures accept women with larger figures and may even reject very
thin bodies as unattractive. “As with African American subcultures, there is an emphasis on
grooming and styles as a standard of attractiveness among Latinas” (Breitkopf, Littleton and
Berenson, 2007, p. 374). The Breitkopf, Littleton and Berenson research focused on the
relationship between the aspects of body image and body mass index (BMI) among women of
three ethnicities which included African Americans, Latinas and European Americans. It was
found that all the women in this research reported low income on average. The interactions
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between culture and weight status, as well as how long the women lived in the United States to
help shape the women’s body image were also examined. For the African American and Latina
women, they reported less anxiety and worry regarding whether their physical appearance was
acceptable to others (Breitkopf, Littleton and Berenson, 2007, p. 378). As mentioned before, in
many of the African-American and Latina cultures, a large woman, but not necessarily obese, is
preferred and accepted, rather than a woman who is thin or appear to be under-nourished. Many
of these women are taught to be proud of their bodies regardless of their size and never see
themselves as being overweight or fat, until it is brought to their attention by others.
For some of the Latina women, it was found that their body image was influenced by
how long they had resided in the United States. For those who were born in the United States,
they had had “greater exposure to socio-cultural messages that emphasized a narrow standard of
attractiveness and had internalized such messages to a greater extent” (Breitkopf, Littleton,and
Berenson, 2007, p. 379). In other words, the United States born Latina women viewed thinness
as being a more accepting body image, in comparison to the Latina women who were not born in
the United States and viewed a larger body, grooming and self-presentation as a standard of
attractiveness. For the European American women, they were more concerned about their
appearance as well as their body size and weight, as their form of attractiveness. Every
individual has their standard of attractiveness and many of the European American women felt
the need to be concerned with how they looked, when in the presence of others, unlike the
Latinas and African American women.
The issue of weight and trying to either lose or maintain your weight can be frustrating at
times. Some women may choose to go on a diet, or join a gym but, for other women, they may
choose to join the military. That is not to say that these women join the military solely for the
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purpose to lose weight, but every individual (man or woman) choose to serve in the military for
many different reasons. Along with serving in the military, there is a weight standard that the
military sets for every individual according to their age, height, and gender. According to
Bathalon et al. (2006), “the Department of Defense requires the military services to use percent
body fat (%BF) to identify obese personnel; if the body fat standard is exceeded, soldiers are
placed in the Army Weight Control Program (AWCP) and must lose weight or face disciplinary
action that may include involuntary separation from the Army” (p. 800). The Army as well as
other military branches, maintain strict guidelines for both women and men, but it is expected
that women are able to adhere to the guidelines just as well in order to serve. The reason for
adhering to these specific guidelines for a low percent body fat and low weight to height ratio is
because the military feels that too much weight can weigh the individual down and he/she will
not be able to physically perform to the best of their ability.
At different times throughout life, certain events cause an individual to become stressed,
and due to stress it can cause the body to react in different ways in regards to how the individual
responds. According to Kim et al. (2009), “stress is the process of adaptation in response to a
physical or psychological challenge, and affects well-being through disrupting the equilibrium of
physical and psychological systems” (p. 131). Many times when individuals are stressed, he/she
may become emotional eaters to help ease their level of stress that he/she is encountering.
Individuals who eat in response to stress exhibit an increased preference for high fat and/or sweet
foods, which may lead to increased body weight (Kim et al., 2006, p. 131). Also, when
encountering stress, an individual may deter from engaging in any physical activity, which can
also lead to an increase in body weight. Kim et al. (2006) states that “stress may contribute to
racial/ethnic differences in obesity;” and that “African American women bear a disproportionate
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burden of the obesity epidemic and lose weight less than their White counterparts when in
obesity treatment programs” (p. 131). Many African Americans may have a hard time losing
weight because they may be stressed with other issues in their life that they may be encountering.
Some of those issues may include trying to maintain a relationship, trying to make sure that the
children are cared for, finding a way to make ends meet and maybe having to work more than
one job.
The relationship between stress, race, weight and weight change in the context of a
behavioral weight loss trial were examined in the research of Kim et al. (2006). In this study a
total of 561 African American and Caucasian overweight women volunteered to participate. The
results of this study indicated that there was a trend in the association between perceived stress
and race/ethnicity, with African American women having a higher level of stress compared to
White women (Kim et al., 2006, p. 134). With African American women having a higher level
of stress, this may be due to their active coping mechanisms to counter stress; however, this can
vary from one individual to the next.
Sometimes being overweight or obese can result in an individual emotionally eating
through his/her problems, rather dealing with it face to face. However, some individuals may
become depressed at the fact that he/she would like to change their appearance but are unsure as
to how or where to start. Even though obesity has been associated with an individual having
hypertension, diabetes or heart disease, there is also a possibility that obesity is also associated
with depression. According to Dong, Sanchez, and Price (2004), “it is commonly believed that
obese people experience psychological distress that may lead to depression” (p. 790).
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In the research by Dong, Sanchez and Price (2004), European Americans and African
Americans were examined to find if obesity and depression were influenced by genetics. It was
found that obesity was positively associated with depression but differed very little for men and
women of European American and African American individuals. Also, obesity increased the
risk for depression across race and gender, even after controlling for chronic physical disease,
familial depression and demographic risk factors (Dong, Sanchez and Price, 2004, p. 794).
Although some factors can not be controlled in research; however in this research, there was a
high association between depression and obesity. Obese individuals may sometimes feel
helpless and alone, which may also result in an increase risk for depression.
An individual does not become overweight or obese over night. Becoming overweight
takes time and many times being an overweight adult stems from the possibility of being
overweight as a child. Individuals born into a higher childhood socioeconomic status (SES)
show lower rates of adult obesity (Chapman et al., 2009, p. 419), in comparison to those
individuals who were born into lower childhood socioeconomic status (SES). Children born into
higher SES may have had parents who were more health conscious and were able to provide a
healthy variety of food choices to their children.
In the United States, there has been concern about the health of overweight and obese
individuals, and many institutions along the help of physicians have been trying to many
attempts and techniques to encourage these particular individual to actively change their eating
habits and lifestyle, in order to become a healthy person. Maynard et al. (2006) claims that
according to “the 2001-2002 National Health and Examination Survey (NHANES), the
prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults in the United States reached approximately
65.7%, and that of obesity alone reached 30.6%” (p. 1375). Along with the concern for health
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issues in overweight and obese individuals, there is also a price to pay, which “estimated to be 78
billion dollars in 1998 for direct health care” (Maynard et al., 2006, p. 1375).
With the pressures in society, not only are some overweight and obese individuals trying
to lose weight, but normal weight individuals are also trying to do the same. In the Maynard et
al., (2006) research, it states that “in the United States, the prevalence of attempting weight loss
was 38% among women and 24% among men.” “These rates not only implied that only 50-58%
of overweight and obese men and women are attempting to lose weight, but as much as 24% of
normal weight women were also attempting weight loss” (p. 1376). The participants in this
research were younger than 50 years, non-Hispanic white with a least a high school education
and were considered either overweight or obese. The results indicated that men desired a weight
that was lower than their reported body weight while women had a greater to attain their desired
body weight. Most individuals desire to be a certain body weight, but weight loss does not come
with out much determination and dedication to keep the weight loss goal in mind. According to
Truong and Sturm (2005), “a larger proportion of individuals are overweight or obese among
lower-educated groups, Blacks and Mexican Americans than among other socio-demographic
groups and socioeconomic differences in obesity rates tends to be larger for women than for
men” (p. 1602).
Many lower educated individuals may be unable to exercise frequently due to their work
schedule along with not having the energy to do anything once they are home, other than sit
down and eat. Also for the lower educated individuals, trying to “make health improving
behavior changes in response to new knowledge” (Truong and Sturm, 2005, p. 1602), may not be
of concern for these particular individuals. In the research conducted in 2005, by Truong and
Sturm, they examined trends in weight gain by focusing on changes in body mass index (BMI)
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20
among different socio-demographic groups to determine whether population differences were
primarily related to education, race/ethnicity, relative income or gender (p. 1602).
In measuring the body mass index trend across educational groups, lower educational
achievement was associated with higher body mass index, in comparison to the college
graduation. In comparison to the relative income, it was also noticed that body mass indexes
were higher for the lowest income group than for the highest income group. For racial/ethnic
and gender groups, it was found that body mass index trends for non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics
and individuals of “other” race/ethnicity were parallel, but non-Hispanic Blacks gained weight
faster. On average, women have a lower body mass index than men, but they gained more
weight faster (Truong and Sturm, 2005, p. 1605).
In conclusion, the issue of weight in the American society affects both men and women,
and each individual may have a desire to be a specific weight. It does not require much effort to
gain weight, however it does require a tremendous amount of effort to lose the weight that has
been gained over a period of years. People in general can be rude toward overweight and obese
individuals, but that should not deter the particular individual from reaching his/her goal.
Applying intrinsic or extrinsic motivation can play a part, depending on how the individual
views his/her weight gain or loss. With intrinsic motivation, the individual may feel that he/she
is capable of losing weight by starting slow and finding people to support them in their effort.
On the other hand, with extrinsic motivation, the individual may feel that his/her weight gain is
due to them being “big boned,” being fat as a child and having never lost the weight, or blaming
others for their weight. As an adult, every individual has to take responsibility for his/her
actions, and if an individual desires to lose weight, the goal is certainly attainable, given the time.
The perception of how others view an overweight or obese individual varies, but many times the
Perceptions and Attitudes
21
perceptions are negative which can cause the individual have low self-esteem or become even
more conscious about their appearance in the presence of others. Being overweight or obese
brings about health complications which can decrease the individual’s lifespan and according to
the research, lower educated individuals are more likely to be overweight or obese.
Perceptions and Attitudes
22
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