Topic Six a: the Scientific Revolution
I. The Scientific Revolution
A. Science in the Middle Ages
1. Rediscovery of Aristotle
a. beginnings empiricism (experimentation)
b. transmission through the Moslem world
2. Not very widely accepted however
3. Culture not in place to accept new scientific thought
4. Adoption of Arabic numerals is an important step
B. Renaissance Science
1. Humanism, the discovery of the Americas, the Protestant
Reformation all provide a new world view that allows for scientific
advancement
2. New wealth created by mercantilism also helps
C. Astronomy
1. Early Astronomy
a. earth-centric view because the Mesopotamians and
Egyptians could not solve the problem of precession and
motion (the jump and stay in one place problem)
b. also develop the idea of a closed, intimate universe
2. Ptolemy’s Almagest
a. creates the model of the universe that is accepted until
Copernicus in the 15th century
b. closed, earth-centric universe with epicyclical orbits
c. Ptolemy didn’t accept his theory but others did
3. Enter Nicholaus Copernicus, 1473-1543, Polish astronomer
a. challenges the Ptolemaic idea of the universe
b. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) made
the sun the center of the universe
c. solves the problem of precession
d. to Copernicus the sun = God, God = center of the
universe
e. kept the Ptolemaic idea of a small, closed universe with
epicycles
f. the most innovative part of Copernicus’ theory is that it is
based on MATH, not on observation alone
g. not condemned by the Church because he is working in
Poland and he has the good sense to die right after his
work is published
IMPORTANT HISTORICAL FACT: In the Middle Ages, Europeans switched from
the Roman numeral system (which is a subtractive system) to the Arabic numeral
system (which is a place number system). This allows you to do complex
mathematical equations very quickly.
4. Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601, Danish astronomer
a. brilliant, moody and missing his nose
b. REALLY like mathematical calculations
c. wrote books and books of astronomical calculations and
charts
d. tries to use his calculations to prove Copernicus wrong,
but does the exact opposite
e. dies because he didn’t go to the bathroom
5. Johannes Kepler, 1571-1630, German astronomer
a. Brahe’s assistant, with him when he dies
b. uses Brahe’s calculations to prove that the earth revolves
around the sun
c. rejects the theory of circular orbits and epicycles
d. develops the Three Laws of Planetary Motion that says
that planetary orbits are elliptical
e. New Astronomy, published 1609, combines Copernicus
with Brahe to produce a perfect, predictable model of the
solar system
f. but, it is still a closed, intimate universe, we still have the
problem of motion and why the heck are the orbits of
planets elliptical? That would have to wait for Newton
6. Galileo Galilei, 1564-1642, Italian astronomer
a. familiar with Copernicus and Kepler
b. develops the Law of Falling Bodies (the rate of
acceleration is constant)
c. with a new Danish invention, the telescope, discovered
mountains on the moon (so not gaseous as widely
believed)
d. observed five moons around Jupiter, independent orbital
system
e. nixes idea of a closed, finite universe
f. neither the earth nor the sun is the center of the universe
g. publishes his theories in Dialogues on the Two Chief
Systems of the World
h. unlike Copernicus, Galileo doesn’t die and he lives in
Rome
i. Catholic Church forces him to recant in 1633 (it apologizes
in 1992)
j. Galileo’s theories and models are mathematically based
ANOTHER IMPORTANT FACT: All physical models of the universe will be
based on mathematics to the present day.
7. At the same time that Kepler and Galileo are looking at the
heavens, a curmudgeon in England is publishing a book. His
name is Francis Bacon, 1561-1626
a. wasn’t a scientist, just liked to criticize
b. Novum Organum published in 1620
c. stated that scientists should abandon traditional methods
of research because of our prejudices
-idols of the tribe, cave, market and theatre
d. instead research should be based on inductive reasoning
and empiricism (hey, isn’t that what Aristotle said?)
e. inductive thinking = make observations then formulate
principles based on your observations
f. this is the basis for the scientific method
observation + experiment = theory (which can be
verified through further experimentation)
Combine Bacon’s scientific method with Galileo’s idea that the universe operates
mathematically and you have paved the way for Newton, physics and the idea of
a mechanistic universe.
8. Issac Newton, 1642-1727, English astronomer, mathematician
and weirdo
a.
b. basis for all modern physics
c. Principia Mathematica, published 1687
-universe is mathematical
-universe is rational and predictable
-don’t need religion, just need math
-GRAVITY is the glue that holds it together
d. Newton’s Law of Gravity is mathematical
e. uses gravity to formulate his three Laws of Motion
-objects at rest stay that way
-equation of force
-equal and opposite reactions to force
f. uses his theory to prove the existence of God
g. because of Newton, absolutist states create science
academies
h. Newton’s view of a rational universe is the basis for the
Enlightenment
D. Other Scientific Breakthroughs
1. Biology
a. microscope
b. Robert Hooke and Antony von Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723
c. Carolus Linnaeus, 1707-1778, anal-retentive Swedish
biologist
2. Chemistry
a. originally an Islamic science
b. all living processes are chemical in nature
c. Otto von Guericke generates electricity in 1672
3. Medicine
a. science of pathology developed