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Initial emphasis was on public speaking, particularly in deliberative discourse, wherein a
decision is to be made.
(First teacher to emphasize writing at least as much as speaking: Isocrates 436-338 BCE)
Classical def. -- art of persuasion by means of language or communication.
The latter term can include gesture, tone of voice, stature, facial expression, and so forth.
Question: How might the definition of communication be expanded in today’s world?
Modern/contemporary def. -- art of communication (less emphasis on winning people over, more
on using language cooperatively to solve problems, also motives thought of in a more complex
way).
Criticism of modern approach: Emphasis on the term “communication” may disguise persuasive
or coercive motives. When the prison warden says to Cool Hand Luke (in the film of that name),
“What we have here is a failure to communicate,” he is complaining about the prisoner’s failure
to obey him, not to communicate with him.
Socrates (469-399 B.C.) was an early critic of rhetoric as an academic discipline. He saw it as
amoral or immoral salesmanship for the purpose of attaining individual power and wealth. Some
Athenian rhetoricians (teachers or masters of rhetoric) even bragged that they could teach their
clients how to make the worse case appear the better. In the Phaedrus, though, Plato’s Socrates
advocates a reformed rhetoric, which would have as its purpose the pursuit of individual, and
social, betterment and enlightenment. That reformed rhetoric seems to have four basic
components:
1. One must first study the issue or topic at hand from all possible perspectives, using the tools of
systematic thought and discussion. Through such systematic thinking and talking, or dialectic,
one eliminates false ideas and arrives at true ones. Careful definition is especially important at
this stage.
2. One must study the nature of the soul (the psyche) in general and of different kinds of souls in
particular (e.g., the young, the old, different cultural groups, economic classes).
3. The arts of arrangement and style should be applied appropriately to the specific message and
audience in question.
4. Purpose of this approach is to move the soul of the audience toward the good, the true, and the
beautiful (which for Socrates and Plato were ultimately the same thing).
Organization or Arrangement – Socrates compares the organization of a written composition to
the human body. His point is that there should be the same kind of smooth, organic connection as
there is in the linkage between the head, the trunk, and the feet.
-The introduction gets the positive attention, the respect, of the reader and focuses that attention.
-The body develops the main ideas or points the writer wants to get across in a coherent and
well-developed way.
-The conclusion wraps up the discussion in a meaningful way. Here, it is important to avoid
abruptness or going off on a tangent. As in the introduction, you want to leave the reader with a
positive impression of you and the ideas you have presented.
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Modes of Persuasion--traditionally, there are three:
1. Logical--persuasion by means of reasoning, making connections with words. This involves
applying generally held principles to specific cases and building up to, or supporting,
generalizations with specific cases and examples. More broadly, the logical mode refers to
language as an organizing principle. Therefore clear definition, coherent organization, and
precise language are important aspects of logical appeal. Logical appeal is associated with a
plain style and is thought to have as its purpose to instruct or inform. (The ancient Greek word
logos carries a sense of “meaningful unity.” The presocratic philosophers wanted to discover the
logos, what the underlying nature of the universe was. In Christian thought, the logos takes on a
connotation of spiritual union.)
2. Ethical -- persuasion by means of the rhetor’s (the rhetor is the writer or speaker applying the
principles of rhetoric) character as it is projected in the text. A writer wishes to present an image
of him or herself (a persona) that is favorable to the reception of his or her ideas. These
characteristics (hate mongers such as Hitler notwithstanding) tend to include such qualities as the
following: good will, thoughtfulness, sincerity, intelligence, balanced judgment, warmth, and
expertise in the relevant field or fields. Ethical appeal is associated with a moderate style and
with the end of pleasing the audience. One is here, through one’s words, projecting a sense of
oneself as a human being with a personality. The writer or speaker is thus making a human
connection with his or her audience.
3. Emotional -- persuasion by means of emotionally charged language and images. This mode is
associated with a high or ornate style (with which there is more colorful, figurative language,
elaborate sentence structure, and marked rhythms). Its purpose is thought, in the classical
paradigm, to be to move the audience to action. One must be especially careful with emotional
appeal not to overdo it or to seem to be insincerely using it.
Note well: These categories are by no means absolute. There is certainly some emotional suasion
going on with ethical appeal and if logical appeal works well there is a corresponding boost to
the sense you are trying to project of yourself as a reasonable person with some expertise.
Different situations will call for different ratios of the three appeals. A personal letter emphasizes
your humanity, an academic or professional report features logic, and a letter to your landlord
calling for better security and lighting to prevent crimes at your apartment complex probably will
have some elements of emotional appeal.
Dialogism -- This is one of the most significant features or values of twentieth century rhetoric.
It involves, first of all, the belief that one must seek to understand the point of view of the person
or people with whom one is communicating. After having fully grasped that view and keeping it
in mind, one then tries to fully and clearly explain one’s own thoughts and feelings on the subject
at hand. As a writer applying this principle, it is important to demonstrate that one respects and
understands opposing or different views and is offering one’s own in good faith and sincerity to
the end of furthering the common good. Significant modern advocates of dialogism include
Martin Buber (I and Thou), Carl Rogers (On Becoming a Person), and, recently, Deborah
Tannen (The Argument Culture: Moving from Debate to Dialogue).
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Three Ages, Three Styles in the Ongoing American Revolution
1. Age of “Enlightenment” or “Reason”: The scientific spirit is stressed, building conclusions
based on the careful observation of nature. Illustrative of that is the fact that Ben Franklin was a
scientist and inventor as well as a political thinker and revolutionary. Note the pyramid, on one
side of the dollar bill, which rises from the solid foundations of earth and stone, and culminates
in imagery of insight and knowledge. This contrasts with the idea of knowledge as “revealed”
from above.
The final draft of The Declaration of Independence (1776) stresses logical appeal. Please note
that it is considerably less emotional and personal in tone than the first draft by Jefferson.
See the first and final drafts in Norton 872-79.
2. The era of The Gettysburg Address (1863) is a “romantic” period, stressing the expression of
human emotion and the ideal of social equality. The great American poet of the mid-nineteenth
century is Walt Whitman, whose poem “Song of Myself” celebrates the various emotions of the
individual and a sense of democratic equality. The Gettysburg Address (Norton 605) stresses
emotional appeal, using a powerful rhythmic style and words that evoke emotion.
3. Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963) is a much more personal document, using the dialogic
first person “I” and “you” a good deal. While there is also much reasoning and emotional appeal,
the ethical appeal -- the appeal of the writer’s character, or personality, or ethos -- is a powerful
element of which we do not see much, if any, in the two previous documents. It reflects the late
twentieth century stress on the importance and significance of individual personality and
experience.
See Norton 892-905.
*It is important to note that one kind of appeal does not exclude the others. In fact, the strongest
writing blends logic, emotion, and personality (traditionally referred to as character or ethos)
together in a balanced way that often makes it difficult for the analyst to separate these elements
from one another. Letter from Birmingham Jail is a prime example of that blending. However, it
is interesting to note that these major “revolutionary” public documents differ in where the
emphasis lies.
(All three documents are in the Norton Reader)
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Style and Ethos in “Letter”
The classical formula for good communication is “a good person speaking well.” The positive
humanity (the ethos) of the writer attracts our favorable attention while effective style attracts
our interest and stimulates our emotions. Dr. King balances repetition and rhythm on the one
hand with variety of word choice, reference, and mood on the other. There is variety in sentence
and paragraph length as well. The issue of variety in words and sentences is discussed in Ch. 26
of Little, Brown Handbook, 11th ed. Here are some of the stylistic elements of which King
makes effective use.
1. Climax. This technique builds emotion or an idea through (usually three or more stages)
successive phrases or clauses from a low point to a high point or vice versa. Probably the most
dramatic example of this is in paragraph 14.
2. Parallelism. This clarifies and underlines ideas. This is the use of parallel grammatical forms
for parallel ideas. My favorite parallelism in “Letter”: “We are caught in an inescapable network
of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny.” See Ch. 25 of the Little, Brown Handbook for
a discussion of parallelism, which should be a part of every writer’s hoard of skills.
3. Antithesis. This involves the juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas. “Injustice anywhere is
a threat to justice everywhere.” Frequently parallel form is used.
4. Alliteration, the repetition of consonant sounds; and assonance, the repetition of vowel sounds.
These features add a musical, poetic quality that attracts our attention and often emphasizes the
emotions being stressed. See especially the first sentence of par. 8.
5. Use of personal pronouns I, you, and we. If used well and balanced with more objective
language, as is the case here, personal warmth, sincerity, dignity, and human connection are
accentuated. Even when Dr. King expresses anger, this works for him because it seems sincere,
authentic, and controlled.
6. Metaphors. Here imaginative, figurative language is used to make ideas more vivid and
picturesque. The comparison between two seemingly quite different kinds of things is made
implicitly, rather than explicitly, as is the case with similes: “We are tied in a single garment of
destiny.”
7. Similes. These involve figurative language, as with metaphors, but the comparison is made
explicit, via like or as: “Like a boil that can never be cured as long as it is covered up, injustice
must be exposed.” Look at patterns of imagery and reference as well -- contrasts between light
and dark, low and high, modern technology and understanding versus the antiquated and old
fashioned, medical and health related images, the use of authoritative figures of various religions
and schools of thought. I think that Dr. King has particularly in mind the literate, educated reader
who in principle agrees with the goals of the civil rights movement but holds back from actively
supporting it or becoming a part of it.
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PUBLIC STATEMENT BY EIGHT ALABAMA CLERGYMEN
April 12, 1963
1. We the undersigned clergymen are among those who, in January, issued "An Appeal for Law
and Order and Common Sense," in dealing with racial problems in Alabama. We expressed
understanding that honest convictions in racial matters could properly be pursued in the courts,
but urged that decisions of those courts should in the meantime be peacefully obeyed.
2. Since that time there had been some evidence of increased forbearance and a willingness to
face facts. Responsible citizens have undertaken to work on various problems which cause racial
friction and unrest. In Birmingham, recent public events have given indication that we all have
opportunity for a new constructive and realistic approach to racial problems.
3. However, we are now confronted by a series of demonstrations by some of our Negro citizens,
directed and led in part by outsiders. We recognize the natural impatience of people who feel that
their hopes are slow in being realized. But we are convinced that these demonstrations are
unwise and untimely.
4. We agree rather with certain local Negro leadership which has called for honest and open
negotiation of racial issues in our area. And we believe this kind of facing of issues can best be
accomplished by citizens of our own metropolitan area, white and Negro, meeting with their
knowledge and experience of the local situation. All of us need to face that responsibility and
find proper channels for its accomplishment.
5. Just as we formerly pointed out that "hatred and violence have no sanction in our religious and
political traditions," we also point out that such actions as incite to hatred and violence, however
technically peaceful those actions may be, have not contributed to the resolution of our local
problems. We do not believe that these days of new hope are days when extreme measures are
justified in Birmingham.
6. We commend the community as a whole, and the local news media and law enforcement in
particular, on the calm manner in which these demonstrations have been handled. We urge the
public to continue to show restraint should the demonstrations continue, and the law enforcement
officials to remain calm and continue to protect our city from violence.
7. We further strongly urge our own Negro community to withdraw support from these
demonstrations, and to unite locally in working peacefully for a better Birmingham. When rights
are consistently denied, a cause should be pressed in the courts and in negotiations among local
leaders, and not in the streets. We appeal to both our white and Negro citizenry to observe the
principles of law and order and common sense.
[Dr. King cites the specific names of the authors of this document in a footnote reproduced in
Norton 892. I have excluded their names here for the sake of saving paper. I have added
numbers for ease in discussion of text. -Doc]
6/20/2011