Christian Gibson
END 498
Research Paper
1.1 Table of Contents
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Research Design
1.4 Literature Review
1.7 Bibliography
1.2 Introduction
Studies show that future global sea level rise will directly affect human
activities. Projections of sea level rise scenarios have been carried out and suggest
that in the future, hundreds of millions of humans residing in coastal communities
worldwide could be negatively affected. If unattended the impacts of sea level rise
could result in permanent, temporary, long and short-term implications on these
communities, some more devastating than others. This literature review focuses on
investigating the concept of sea level rise, its causes, and current and past trends.
Most importantly the research will seek to evaluate the potential impact of different
SLR scenarios on the Kerala region of southwest India. The major metropolitan area
surrounding the city of Kochi will be the focus area of the research. Questions that
will be explored include; what is Sea Level Rise? What are the general affects of SLR
on coastal communities/landforms? What are the historical and current cultural
factors at play in Kochi? How is the Kochi economy comprised? To what extent will
sea level rise affect the Kochi region if no action is taken? {Li, 2009 #25} {Nicholls,
2008 #19} {Dasgupta, 2009 #18}
1.3 Research Design
The research design of this report relied upon the analysis of qualitative and
quantitative reports related to the topic. Maps were used in a qualitative sense to
develop contextual knowledge of the Kerala region specifically focused on basic
physical relationships of human settlements to bodies of water. Quantitatively maps
offered visual representation of data pertaining to physical topography as well as
model projection of various sea level rise land cover scenarios. Reports offered
qualitative insight and background knowledge of sea level rise, its contributing
factors and potential effects, the regional settlement history of Kerala, as well as
historical and present day cultural attributes and land uses of the region. Overall a
combination of qualitative and quantitative research was instrumental in
developing the themes included in this report.
Significant amount of study has been devoted to the topic of SLR. Literature
supports the notion that regions around the world including Kochi who are
vulnerable to SLR have acknowledged the problem and are in the process of
formulating or implementing management strategies. The findings of this research
paper are expressed under the hypothetical assumption that Kochi does not
perform any activities towards managing the future impacts of sea level rise.
1.4 Literature Review
What is sea level rise (SLR)? In order to develop an understanding of possible
impacts of SLR on the Kerala region, it is necessary to explore the concept of SLR
and its related terms. As the name implies, SLR refers to any increase in global mean
sea level. Since 1998 global sea level has risen close to 80mm {NASA, #32}. In the
Kerala region studies of core soil samples have revealed evidence of multiple land
cover and land use scenarios of coastal areas since the onset of The Holocene. The
Holocene is a name that has been given to that past 11,700 years of the earth’s
history {Paleontology, #31.} Layers of sediment some containing organic terrestrial
matter and others dominated by marine settlement confirm fluctuating
environmental conditions. These discoveries confirm that SLR has affected human
settlements in the Kerala region before {D. Padmalal, 2014 #16}.
What effects does SLR have on coastal communities? In the event of SLR
coastal communities will be affected in relation to their elevation and specific
geographic features. Low lying coastal plains with gentle slopes allow for vast
horizontal displacement of the sea whereas a mountainous land-sea interface may
offer protection from slight increases in sea level {R. Mani Murali, #17}. In these
coastal regions, the most obvious inundation would occur in the form of permanent
and temporary water cover of current terrestrial environments. Other significant
impacts of SLR pertain to brackish water and saltwater intrusion. Brackish water
occurs when fresh water and seawater mix. It is less saline than seawater however
cannot adequately support freshwater organisms or act as a source of fresh drinking
water {Paulson, 2014 #28}. The process of non-saline water becoming saline is
often a result of salt-water intrusion at estuaries, where rivers meet the ocean
{Service, #29}. Many coastal communities including Kochi draw drinking water
from existing fresh groundwater sources. In the event of SLR, aquifers, the saturated
zones beneath the water table, could become susceptible to salt water intrusion and
have adverse effects on human settlements and surrounding ecological activity
{USGS, #30}. In general the implications of SLR on human activity could damage
social systems, economic activities and physical processes. One projection suggests
more than 108 million people living in coastal communities could be significantly
affected with a SLR of just 1m {Li, 2009 #25}.
What factors contribute to global SLR? Theories suggest plausible scenarios
of future SLR stemming from climate change and human activity. A primary suspect
of future SLR is global warming. Models indicate that global warming could
contribute to a global SLR of upwards of 1m by the end of the century {Dasgupta,
2009 #18}. More extreme estimates suggest that a breakup of the Antarctic and
Greenland ice sheets could cause a rapid SLR upwards of 5m {Dasgupta, 2009 #18}
{Nicholls, 2008 #19}. In this scenario more than 400 million people will be affected
in coastal communities. In addition to large scale SLR, small-scale sea level variation
occurs on a seasonal basis according to wind and ocean currents as well as
atmospheric pressures {K. Srinivas, 2006 #24}.
India.
Kochi also known as Cochin, is a coastal community located in southwest
1.7 Bibliography
A.S. Unnikrishnan, D. S. (2007). Are sea-level-rise trends along the coasts of the
north Indian Ocean consistent with global estimates? Global and
Planetary Change, 57(3-4).
Babbitt, H. E. (1922). Sewerage and Sewage Treatment.
C.M. Laluraj, G. G., P.K. Dineshkumar. (2005). GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY
OF SHALLOW AQUIFERS IN THE
D. Padmalal, K. P. N. K., Ruta B.Limaye, B. Baburaj, K. Maya, S. Vishnu Mohan.
(2014). Effect of Holocene climate and sea level changes on landform
evolution and human habitation: Central Kerala, India. Quaternary
International, 325(March 2014).
Dasgupta, S. (2009). The impact of sea level rise on developing countries: a
comparative analysis. Climatic Change, 93.
Jonathan Pycroft, J. A., Juan-Carlos Ciscar. (2015). The Global Impacts of
Extreme Sea-Level Rise: A Comprehensive Economic Assessment.
Environmental and Resource Economics.
K. Srinivas, P. K. D. K. (2006). Atmospheric forcing on the seasonal variability of
sea level at Cochin, southwest coast of India. Retrieved from
Li, X. R., Rex J. (2009). GIS Analysis of Global Impacts from Sea Level Rise.
Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 7(July).
NASA. Sea Level. Retrieved from http://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/
Nicholls, R. J. (2008). Global estimates of the impact of a collapse of the West
Antarctic ice sheet: an application of FUND. Climatic Change, 91.
Olkiewicz, M. (2016). Biodiesel production from sewage sludge lipids catalysed
by Brønsted acidic ionic liquids. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 181.
Paleontology, U. o. C. M. o. The Holocene Epoch. Retrieved from
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/holocene.php
Paulson, L. D. (2014). What Is Brackish Water? Retrieved from
http://www.rwlwater.com/brackish-water/
Planning, D. o. T. a. C. (Cartographer). (2001). Population Density variation in
the City Region (2001)
Planning, D. o. T. a. C. (Cartographer). (2006). Inland Water Transport Network
Planning, D. o. T. a. C. (Cartographer). (2009). Existing Landuse of Kochi City
Region. Retrieved from
http://www.corporationofcochin.net/files/DevelopmentPlan_KCR_2031/VO
LUM_1_Maps/Map_9_5_1_ExistingLanduse_KCR.pdf
R. Mani Murali, P. K. D. K. Implications of sea level rise scenarios on land use
/land cover classes of the coastal zones of Cochin, India. Journal of
Environmental Management, 148(January 2015).
Sagoe-Addy, K. (2013). Effect of predicted sea level rise on tourism facilities
along Ghana’s Accra coast. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 17(1).
Service, N. O. What is an estuary? Retrieved from
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/estuary.html
USGS. Aquifers and Groundwater. Retrieved from
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html