Table S1. Study site characteristics.
Species
Coordinates
Study site
Forest size
(ha)
Forest type
Forest
Seasonal
disturbance rainfall (mm)
category
Primary
Rainy: 396.7
Dry: 83.7
Seasonal
temperature
(°C)
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 26.1
Alouatta pigra
17°29’N,
92°03’W
Palenque
National Park,
Mexico
CK
900
Evergreen tropical
forest
60
Evergreen tropical
forest
Evergreen tropical
forest
Evergreen tropical
forest
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 26.1
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 26.1
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 26.1
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 28.0
PC
120
CBTA
26
El Tormento,
Mexico
2,100
18°30’N,
90°50’W
PE
2.61
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
18°29’N,
90°48’W
FE
2.36
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
18°30’N,
90°48’W
CH
9.0
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
10º26’N,
83º47’W
La Suerte
Biological
Field Station
20
Evergreen tropical
forest
Primary
10º26’N,
83º47’W
La Suerte
250
Biological
Field Station II
Evergreen tropical
forest
Secondary
11°26' N,
85°31' W
Maderas
Volcano
National Park,
Nicaragua
COF
3,500
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Primary
3,500
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
11°24' N,
85°31' W
WTF
3,500
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
11°26' N,
85°32' W
MYS
3,500
Semi-deciduous
tropical forest
Secondary
17°29’N,
92°01’W
17°29’N,
92°01’W
17°31’N,
91°59’W
18°16’N,
90°43’W
Alouatta palliata
11°26' N,
85°32' W
Secondary
Secondary
Primary
Rainy: 396.7
Dry: 83.7
Rainy: 396.7
Dry: 83.7
Rainy: 396.7
Dry: 83.7
Rainy:
212.6 ± 49
Dry:
30.6 ± 29
Rainy:
212.6 ± 49
Dry:
30.6 ± 29
Rainy:
212.6 ± 49
Dry:
30.6 ± 29
Rainy:
212.6 ± 49
Dry:
30.6 ± 29
Rainy:
263.3 ± 113.7
Dry:
215.8 ± 219.8
Rainy:
263.3 ± 113.7
Dry:
215.8 ± 219.8
Rainy:
198.5 ± 145.5
Dry:
24.7 ± 17.5
Rainy:
198.5 ± 145.5
Dry:
24.7 ± 17.5
Rainy:
198.5 ± 145.5
Dry:
24.7 ± 17.5
Rainy:
198.5 ± 145.5
Dry:
24.7 ± 17.5
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 28.0
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 28.0
Rainy: 27.5
Dry: 28.0
Rainy: 30.6 ±
1.0
Dry: 28.5 ± 1.7
Rainy: 30.6 ±
1.0
Dry: 28.5 ± 1.7
Rainy:
26.6 ± 0.5
Dry: 26.1 ± 0.6
Rainy:
26.6 ± 0.5
Dry:
26.1 ± 0.6
Rainy:
26.6 ± 0.5
Dry:
26.1 ± 0.6
Rainy:
26.6 ± 0.5
Dry:
26.1 ± 0.6
Table S2. Average relative abundances (± standard deviation) of microbial taxa that
differed significantly (corrected p < 0.05) between A. pigra and A. palliata.
Alouatta pigra
Microbial Taxon
AVG
STDEV
Alouatta palliata
AVG
STDEV
Euryarchaeota
0.12%
0.16%
0.37%
0.16%
Actinobacteria
0.32%
0.18%
0.11%
0.05%
Bacteroidetes
18.76%
4.63%
22.97%
4.76%
Elusimicrobia
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
0.02%
51.41%
7.86%
38.19%
5.47%
Synergistetes
0.02%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Actinobacteria
0.00%
0.01%
0.03%
0.02%
Firmicutes
Clostridia
47.80%
7.84%
35.36%
5.69%
Coriobacteriia
0.29%
0.17%
0.09%
0.03%
Deltaproteobacteria
0.18%
0.22%
0.08%
0.11%
Elusimicrobia
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
0.02%
Epsilonproteobacteria
0.14%
0.16%
0.61%
0.38%
Erysipelotrichi
2.40%
1.13%
0.76%
0.40%
Synergistia
0.02%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Thermoplasmata
0.08%
0.12%
0.36%
0.16%
Verrucomicrobiae
0.11%
0.19%
0.00%
0.00%
Bifidobacteriales
0.00%
0.00%
0.02%
0.01%
Campylobacterales
0.14%
0.16%
0.61%
0.38%
47.61%
7.85%
35.28%
5.67%
Coriobacteriales
0.29%
0.17%
0.09%
0.03%
Desulfovibrionales
0.18%
0.22%
0.08%
0.11%
E2
0.08%
0.12%
0.36%
0.16%
Elusimicrobiales
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
0.02%
Erysipelotrichales
2.40%
1.13%
0.76%
0.40%
Synergistales
0.02%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Verrucomicrobiales
0.11%
0.19%
0.00%
0.00%
Bifidobacteriaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.02%
0.01%
Campylobacteraceae
0.00%
0.01%
0.46%
0.34%
Coriobacteriaceae
0.29%
0.17%
0.09%
0.03%
Elusimicrobiaceae
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
0.02%
Erysipelotrichaceae
2.40%
1.13%
0.76%
0.40%
Lactobacillaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
Micrococcaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
21.68%
5.06%
11.08%
3.05%
S24-7
1.20%
1.51%
1.96%
0.49%
Staphylococcaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
Verrucomicrobiaceae
0.11%
0.19%
0.00%
0.00%
Victivallaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.19%
0.11%
YRC22
0.00%
0.00%
1.35%
1.45%
Clostridiales
Ruminococcaceae
Tannerella
0.04%
0.06%
0.11%
0.10%
Staphylococcus
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
Roseburia
0.56%
0.56%
3.17%
1.69%
p-75-a5
0.00%
0.01%
0.03%
0.03%
Oscillospira
3.06%
1.11%
1.45%
0.79%
Lactobacillus
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
Gardnerella
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
Faecalibacterium
4.56%
1.52%
1.00%
0.92%
Dialister
0.57%
0.42%
0.06%
0.05%
Coprococcus
2.66%
1.57%
1.07%
0.36%
Clostridium
0.89%
0.73%
0.12%
0.07%
Campylobacter
0.00%
0.01%
0.46%
0.34%
Bifidobacterium
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
Anaerostipes
0.00%
0.00%
0.09%
0.12%
Akkermansia
0.10%
0.19%
0.00%
0.00%
Table S3. Average relative abundances (± standard deviation) of microbial taxa that
differed significantly (corrected p < 0.05) between the rainforest and the semideciduous forest for both A. pigra and A. palliata. ns indicates no significant
difference detected.
Alouatta pigra
Rainforest
Alouatta palliata
Dry Forest
Rainforest
Dry Forest
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
Cyanobacteria
3.63%
3.11%
9.51%
5.60%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Firmicutes
51.41%
7.86%
45.78%
6.82%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Tenericutes
4.80%
2.90%
1.79%
1.66%
4.87%
1.46%
9.61%
2.40%
Verrucomicrobia
0.87%
1.84%
0.37%
0.85%
1.18%
1.79%
5.50%
1.49%
Euryarchaeota
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.37%
0.16%
0.04%
0.03%
Bacteroidetes
ns
ns
ns
ns
22.97%
4.76%
12.09%
5.00%
Lentisphaerae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.19%
0.11%
0.04%
0.07%
Actinobacteria
0.00%
0.01%
0.05%
0.03%
0.03%
0.02%
0.08%
0.04%
4C0d-2
3.53%
3.06%
9.15%
5.63%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Chloroplast
0.09%
0.10%
0.35%
0.27%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Clostridia
47.80%
7.84%
41.93%
6.99%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Alphaproteobacteria
1.54%
0.89%
0.13%
0.17%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Deltaproteobacteria
0.18%
0.22%
0.44%
0.32%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Epsilonproteobacteria
0.14%
0.16%
0.34%
0.23%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Mollicutes
4.80%
2.90%
1.79%
1.66%
4.87%
1.46%
9.61%
2.40%
Opitutae
0.76%
1.85%
0.00%
0.01%
1.18%
1.79%
5.49%
1.49%
Thermoplasmata
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.36%
0.16%
0.02%
0.02%
Bacteroidia
ns
ns
ns
ns
18.99%
3.41%
11.59%
5.24%
Betaproteobacteria
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.17%
0.15%
0.49%
0.26%
Bifidobacteriales
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.02%
0.02%
0.01%
0.05%
0.03%
YS2
3.53%
3.06%
9.15%
5.63%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Streptophyta
0.09%
0.10%
0.35%
0.27%
ns
ns
ns
ns
RF32
1.50%
0.89%
0.06%
0.17%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Rickettsiales
0.01%
0.02%
0.06%
0.05%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Neisseriales
0.01%
0.02%
0.00%
0.00%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Desulfovibrionales
0.18%
0.22%
0.44%
0.32%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Campylobacterales
0.14%
0.16%
0.34%
0.23%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Enterobacteriales
0.02%
0.04%
0.10%
0.09%
1.88%
4.99%
0.07%
0.03%
RF39
4.79%
2.90%
1.79%
1.65%
4.87%
1.46%
9.61%
2.40%
E2
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.36%
0.16%
0.02%
0.02%
Bacteroidales
ns
ns
ns
ns
18.99%
3.41%
11.59%
5.24%
Bacillales
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.01%
0.01%
0.00%
0.00%
Victivallales
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.19%
0.11%
0.04%
0.07%
Pseudomonadales
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.21%
0.48%
0.00%
0.00%
Rikenellaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.02%
0.02%
0.01%
0.05%
0.03%
Bacteroidaceae
0.00%
0.01%
0.06%
0.05%
0.00%
0.01%
0.24%
0.11%
Prevotellaceae
4.29%
1.79%
9.90%
5.49%
ns
ns
ns
ns
S24-7
1.20%
1.51%
0.52%
0.83%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Lactobacillaceae
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Rikenellaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.05%
0.03%
Staphylococcaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.01%
0.01%
0.00%
0.00%
Clostridiaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.20%
0.43%
1.00%
1.17%
Lachnospiraceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
15.13%
5.40%
8.98%
2.82%
Peptococcaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.02%
0.02%
Ruminococcaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
11.08%
3.05%
8.01%
2.43%
Veillonellaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.71%
0.42%
1.43%
0.55%
Victivallaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.19%
0.11%
0.04%
0.07%
Alcaligenaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
Pseudomonadaceae
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.03%
0.04%
0.00%
0.00%
mitochondria
0.01%
0.02%
0.05%
0.06%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Neisseriaceae
0.01%
0.02%
0.00%
0.00%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Helicobacteraceae
0.14%
0.16%
0.34%
0.24%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Enterobacteriaceae
0.02%
0.04%
0.10%
0.09%
1.88%
4.99%
0.07%
0.03%
Bifidobacterium
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.02%
0.01%
0.01%
0.05%
0.03%
Bacteroides
0.00%
0.01%
0.06%
0.05%
0.00%
0.01%
0.24%
0.11%
Clostridium
0.89%
0.73%
0.20%
0.20%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Coprococcus
2.66%
1.57%
0.70%
0.73%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Lachnospira
0.86%
0.70%
0.00%
0.01%
0.83%
0.75%
0.00%
0.01%
Megasphaera
0.00%
0.00%
0.02%
0.02%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Bulleidia
0.20%
0.18%
0.07%
0.09%
0.12%
0.08%
0.01%
0.02%
RFN20
0.54%
0.49%
0.00%
0.00%
ns
ns
ns
ns
Staphylococcus
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.01%
0.01%
0.00%
0.00%
Lactobacillus
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.01%
0.02%
0.00%
0.00%
Blautia
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.01%
0.01%
0.04%
0.04%
Roseburia
ns
ns
ns
ns
3.17%
1.69%
0.62%
0.27%
rc4-4
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.02%
0.02%
Dialister
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.06%
0.05%
0.84%
0.68%
Veillonella
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.01%
p-75-a5
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.03%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Sutterella
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
Escherichia
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.00%
0.00%
0.05%
0.03%
Pseudomonas
ns
ns
ns
ns
0.03%
0.04%
0.00%
0.00%
Table S4: Average relative abundances (± standard deviation) of microbial taxa that
differed significantly (corrected p < 0.05) across seasons and habitats for A. pigra in
the rainforest (Palenque National Park). (1) = differs by season in primary forest;
(2) = differs by habitat disturbance in high fruit season; (3) = differs by habitat
disturbance in low fruit season.
Primary
High Fruit
Secondary
Low Fruit
High Fruit
Low Fruit
Microbial Taxon
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
Euryarchaeota (2)
0.12%
0.16%
0.92%
1.84%
3.37%
4.49%
2.64%
4.03%
Verrucomicrobia (2)
0.87%
1.84%
2.24%
4.14%
4.64%
3.98%
6.77%
9.26%
Firmicutes (2)
51.41%
7.86%
44.29%
7.55%
40.66%
13.27%
45.65%
13.17%
Cyanobacteria (3)
3.63%
3.11%
5.36%
3.00%
4.71%
2.84%
2.88%
1.71%
Erysipelotrichaceae (1)
2.40%
1.13%
1.15%
0.96%
1.52%
1.32%
1.42%
0.75%
Ruminococcaceae (1, 2)
21.68%
5.06%
15.41%
4.03%
14.07%
6.75%
18.91%
9.35%
Helicobacteraceae (3)
0.14%
0.16%
0.14%
0.08%
0.28%
0.15%
0.40%
0.40%
Faecalibacterium (2)
4.56%
1.52%
4.17%
1.84%
2.21%
1.07%
2.61%
2.23%
Table S5. Average relative abundances (± standard deviation) of microbial taxa that
differed significantly (corrected p < 0.05) across seasons and habitats for A. pigra in
the semi-deciduous forest (El Tormento). (1) = differs by season in primary forest;
(3) = differs by habitat disturbance in low fruit season.
Primary
High Fruit
Secondary
Low Fruit
High Fruit
Low Fruit
Microbial Taxon
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
Actinobacteria (1)
0.37%
0.27%
0.63%
0.23%
0.34%
0.19%
0.58%
0.28%
Cyanobacteria (1, 3)
9.51%
5.60%
3.02%
2.54%
7.96%
3.84%
11.02%
5.06%
Porphyromonadaceae (3)
0.07%
0.06%
0.12%
0.10%
0.07%
0.09%
0.03%
0.02%
Tannerella (3)
0.07%
0.06%
0.12%
0.10%
0.07%
0.09%
0.02%
0.01%
Table S6: Average relative abundances (± standard deviation) of microbial taxa that
differed significantly (corrected p < 0.05) across seasons and habitats for A. palliata
in the semi-deciduous forest (Ometepe Island). (4) = differs by season in secondary
forest.
Primary
High Fruit
Microbial Taxon
Secondary
Low Fruit
High Fruit
Low Fruit
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
AVG
STDEV
Firmicutes (4)
31.72%
5.32%
43.46%
8.02%
38.81%
7.95%
49.45%
7.11%
Verrucomicrobia (4)
5.50%
1.49%
7.34%
6.04%
5.77%
2.59%
3.10%
2.27%
Bifidobacteriaceae (4)
0.05%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Lachnospiraceae (4)
8.98%
2.82%
14.49%
4.89%
10.30%
2.51%
15.32%
4.54%
Enterobacteriaceae (4)
0.07%
0.03%
0.02%
0.02%
0.06%
0.03%
0.03%
0.05%
Bifidobacterium (4)
0.05%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.03%
0.00%
0.00%
Table S7. Different physiological and anatomical traits of Alouatta palliata and A. pigra
Trait
Anatomical
Physiological
Socioecological
and reproductive
Alouatta pigra
Male body mass (kg)
Alouatta
palliata
5.80 ± 0.7
7.6 ± 1.1
Kelaita et al. 2011
Female body mass (kg)
4.39 ± 0.5
5.68 ± 0.6
Kelaita et al. 2011
Body mass
dimorphism
Canine height
dimorphism‡
Neonatal weight (g)
1.17 – 1.32*
1.33
Garber et al. 2015
1.72
1.60
Kelaita et al. 2011
320
480
Kappeler & Pereira 2003
Testicular volume
(cm3)
Endocranial volume
(cc)
PGLS res ECV†
22.66 ± 10.9
11.33 ± 3.8
49.88
51.13
Isler et al. 2008
-0.156
-0.276
Allen & Kay 2011
White blood cell count
(×103/μL)
Red blood cell count
(×106/μL)
Mean gut transit time
(h)
Mean retention time
(h)
12.49 ± 4.08
7.95 ± 2.45
3.73 ± 0.31
3.49 ± 0.64
20.4
22.7 ± 0.8
30.6 ± 3.8
36.9 ± 7.4
Group size
15.2 (4 - 59)
6.2 (2 - 10.7)
1.1 ± 0.2
2.5 ± 0.8
19.9 – 22.5
15.5
16
18.3
Adult sex ratio (F/M)
Interbirth interval (mo)
Ovarian cycle length
(d)
*Range across different subspecies
‡Mean male/mean female
†Phylogenetically corrected residuals of endocranial volume (ECV) on body mass
References
Kelaita et al. 2011
Canales-Espinosa et al.
2015
Canales-Espinosa et al.
2015
Milton 1984; EspinosaGomez et al. 2009
Edwards & Ullrey 1999;
Espinosa-Gomez et al.
2009
Dias & Rangel-Negrín
2015
Di Fiore et al. 2011
Fedigan & Rose 1995; Di
Fiore et al. 2011; Dias et
al. 2011
Fedigan & Rose 1995;
Van Belle et al. 2009
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