構音與聲學的對應: 理論及應用
Acoustic-Articulatory Relations:
Theory & Application
Emily Lin, PhD (林永芬)
Department of Communication Disorders
University of Canterbury
Christchurch, New Zealand
Taiwan Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Conference:
Current Intervention for Children with Developmental Delay
Taoyuan, Taiwan
December 2, 2006
構音與聲學的對應﹕ 理論及應用
大綱
•
•
•
•
介紹
語音的構音分析
語音的聲學分析
應用範例
(E. Lin)
介紹
什麼是構音?
什麼是構音異常?
為什麼要研究構音和聲學的對應?
(E. Lin)
介紹
口語表達三部曲 及其障礙
1
思想內蘊:
組織思想和相關
語言符號的表達
失語症
(Aphasia)
語言異常
(Language Disorders)
2
思想外化:
3
運動組合:
運動機能系統
安排用以結合字音
的運動機能次序
啟動並控制
吶吃
(Dysarthria)
言語失用症
(Apraxia)
運動性言語異常
(Motor Speech Disorders)
構音異常
(Articulation Disorders) 廣義與狹義
(E. Lin)
介紹
外化(externalize)語音的運動機能系統
構音器官
(Articulator)
共鳴器官
(Resonator)
(Source of graph: no. 1)
聲帶
(Larynx)
呼吸器官
(Respiratory system)
(E. Lin)
介紹
聲腔
(Vocal Tract)
咽腔
(pharyngeal cavity)
軟顎 (velum)
鼻腔 (nasal cavity)
口腔 (oral cavity)
聲帶上區
(supraglottal cavity)
會厭軟骨
(epiglottis)
鼻咽 (nasopharynx)
口咽 (oropharynx)
咽喉 (laryngopharynx)
聲帶
(vocal folds)
(Source of graph: no. 2)
(E. Lin)
介紹
音素
(Phoneme)
音素 = 每種語言的語音系統裡, 最小的單位
最小配對(Minimal pair): 只有一個語音不同的兩個字
Mandarin: /suo/ (縮), /tsuo/ (搓)
Holo: /so/ (酥), /ko/ (姑)
English: /soU/ (so), /noU/ (no)
音素(phoneme) vs. 語音 (phone)
(E. Lin)
介紹
語音的兩大類別:
子音和母音
(E. Lin)
介紹
音節
(Syllable)
C: consonant (子音)
V: vowel (母音)
開放式(open syllable): CV
關閉式: CVC
Syllable
C
V
(Onset)
Nucleus
C
(Coda)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音
(Articulation)
…is the
速度 (speed)
準確度 (precision): 如發音部位, 發音方式(如氣流方向)
時間長度 (timing)
協調度 (coordination)
…of articulators (構音器官)
(e.g., lips 唇, tongue 舌, velum 軟顎)
(Magnuson & Blomberg, 2000)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音
(Articulation)
發音部位
(Place of articulation)
發音方式
(Manner of articulation)
子音
母音
發聲
(Voicing)
(E. Lin)
介紹
聲學
(Acoustics)
時域圖
(Time waveform)
聲譜圖
(Spectrogram)
快速符立葉變換
(Fast Fourier Transform; FFT)
頻譜圖
(Spectrum)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音
聲學
(Articulation)
(Acoustics)
製造
知覺
(Production)
(Perception)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音
聲學
(Articulation)
(Acoustics)
研究構音和聲學關係的目的:
• 提昇語音評估的精確度和信度: 客觀﹑數字﹑自動化
• 幫助推論語音失準的原因和改善方法
• 有效率提供回饋應有助於語言治療
(E. Lin)
介紹
發音錯誤
省略 (Omission): 最常見
替代 (Substitution)
扭曲 (Distortion)
贅加 (Addition)
f
S
p
sh
f u
s th
(Bernthal and Bankson, 1988)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音不全 (Misarticulation)
不平常(Uncommon)
異常
(disorder)
無臨床意義
具臨床意義
(Nonclinical)
(Clinical)
正常發展錯誤
(normal
developmental
errors)
遲緩
(delay)
平常(Common)
(2-D concept borrowed from Shriberg, 1993)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音不全 發生率
在有語言問題的學童裡佔最高比例 (60%-80%)
在小學三年級之前隨年紀增長遞減﹐ 四年級驟減後不再變化
(Milisen, 1971)
(E. Lin)
介紹
九或十歲之後﹐發音錯誤通常需要治療才會消失
“..articulation is likely to improve until the age
of 9 or 10; but after that age, for the most
part, misarticulated sounds remain defective
unless therapy is provided.” (Milisen, 1971)
(E. Lin)
介紹
子音正確百分比:
九歲之前各年齡層的比較
男童
女童
NSA (Normal Speech Acquisition): 言語正常發展
NSA/SD (Intermediate): 言語中度發展
SD (Speech Delay): 言語發展遲緩
(Shriberg et al., 1997)
(E. Lin)
介紹
構音異常
(Articulation Disorders)
器質/生理性 (Organic/Physiological)




構造 (structural/anatomical)
生理 (physiological)
感覺 (sensory)
神經 (neural/neurological)
機能性 (Functional)



器質 (organic)
學習 (learning)
環境 (environmental)
(Magnuson & Blomberg, 2000)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
如何描述各個音素的構音?
如何達成正確構音?
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位
構音
(Articulation)
(place of articulation)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位
(Place of Articulation)
聲腔中製造(決定)聲音的主要區域
子音:
母音:
兩個發音器官最接近的
地方
舌最高點在聲腔中的
高低前後位置
(Source of graph: no. 3)
(Source of graph: no. 3)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位: 子音
喉音
(Glottal)
最
後
舌根音
(Velar)
顎舌面音/
齒齦舌尖音/
齒音
唇齒音
雙唇音
舌尖後音+
舌尖前音+ (Linguodental/ (Labiodental) (Bilabial)
Interdental)
舌面前音
舌尖音
(Linguopalatal/ (Linguoalveolar/
Alveopalatal/
Alveolar)
Palatal)
最
前
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
雙唇音
(Bilabial)
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
唇齒音
(Labio-dental)
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
齒音
(Linguo-dental/Interdental)
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
齒齦舌尖音/舌尖前音+舌尖音
(Linguo-alveolar/Alveolar)
舌尖前音
舌尖音
(Source of graph: no. 4)
語音的構音分析
顎舌面音/舌尖後音+舌面前音
(Linguo-palatal/
Alveo-palatal/Palatal)
舌尖後音
捲舌音
(Retroflex)
舌面前音
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
舌根音
(Velar)
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
喉音
(Glottal)
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
捲舌音
(Retroflex)
舌尖向齒齦後端往後捲
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位: 母音
舌最高點在聲腔中的
前後位置差異
最前
最後
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位: 母音
舌最高點在聲腔中的高低位置差異
(Source of graph: no. 4)
最高
最低
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
英語母音的發音部位比較(舌高低差異)
Seat
Sit
Suit
Soot
Pet
Pat
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
英語母音發音的舌高低前後位置圖
Front
Central
Back
Tense
High
Lax
Tense
Mid
Lax
Tense
Low
Lax
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
雙母音發音的舌位置圖
Front
Central
coat
Back
cake
Tense
High
Lax
Tense
Mid
Lax
Tense
Lax
kite
愛
Low
cow
冒
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
構音
(Articulation)
發音部位
(Place of articulation)
發音方式
(Manner of articulation)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音方式
(Manner of Articulation)
氣流在聲腔中被阻擋的方式
子音:
母音:
發音器官的關閉(closure)情形 • 可區分的母音數量:
• 完全關閉:
單母音﹐雙母音﹐三母音
爆(破)音﹐塞擦音﹐鼻音 • 軟顎位置: 非鼻音, 鼻音
• 關閉不全: 擦音﹐邊音
• 圓唇(lip rounding)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
爆(破)音
(Plosive/Stop)
軟顎上抬關閉氣流進入鼻腔的通道
氣流在口腔中的發音部位受完全阻塞,
然後被迅速釋放
Stage 1:
Stage 2:
(Source of graph: no. 5)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
塞擦音
(Affricate)
軟顎上抬關閉氣流進入鼻腔的通道
氣流在口腔中的發音部位受完全阻塞,
然後從狹縫中被緩緩釋放
Stage 1:
Stage 2:
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
擦音
(Fricative)
氣流在口腔中的發音部位
受部份阻塞﹐從狹縫中
被緩緩釋放
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
邊音
(Lateral)
氣流從口腔中被阻擋處的一側或兩側通過
(Source of graph: no. 4)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
鼻音
(Nasal)
軟顎下垂開放氣流進入鼻腔的通道
(Source of graph: no. 5)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
無磨擦閉合音
(Approximant)
口腔中的有兩個發音器官趨近, 但其間間隔仍然
很大﹐氣流通過時, 並沒有造成磨擦噪音
半母音
(semivowel)
or
滑音
(glide)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
構音
發音部位
(Place of articulation)
(Articulation)
發音方式
(Manner of articulation)
發聲
(Voicing)
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發聲
(Voicing)
Voiced
(濁音; 有聲)
Voiceless
(清音; 無聲)
特徵
聲帶有振動
聲帶無振動
包括
某些子音
和所有的母音*
某些子音
*除了有些語言例外
(E. Lin)
語音的構音分析
發音部位
發音方式
子音表
清音以
粉紅色
表示
語音的構音分析
聲調 (Tone)
Tone language: 聲調具有音素意義 (Toneme)
Mandarin (4 tones)
1: 搭 (da) high level
2: 達 (da) rising
3: 打 (da) falling-rising
4: 大 (da) falling
Holo (7 tones)
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
(6):
7:
8:
花 (hue) high flat
火 (hue) falling
騙 (phen) low flat
壓 (ap) short low
端 (phang) rising
Same as 2
定 (tIng) middle
鹿 (lok) short high
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲波的三個基本圖表
語音的頻譜特徵
聲譜峰和聲腔變化的關係
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲學
(Acoustics)
時域圖
(Time waveform)
聲譜圖
(Spectrogram)
快速符立葉變換
(Fast Fourier Transform; FFT)
頻譜圖
(Spectrum)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
Three Types of Acoustic Display
• 時間 (Time)
• 幅度 (Amplitude)
• 頻率 (Frequency)
時域圖 (Time waveform)
幅度 (Amplitude)
時間 (Time)
聲譜圖 (Spectrogram)
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
頻譜圖 (Spectrum)
幅度 (Amplitude)
頻率 (Frequency)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
Source-Filter Theory
頻譜圖 (Spectrum)
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
頻譜峰
(Formant Frequency)
頻譜圖 (Spectrum)
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
F1
F2
F3
幅度 (Amplitude)
頻率 (Frequency)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
母音(vowel)
時域圖 (Time waveform)
聲譜圖 (Spectrogram)
(Titze, 1994)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
F1-F2 Plot: Vowel Space
(Titze, 1994)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): 雙母音(diphthong)
(Ferrand, 2007)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): 無磨擦閉合音(approximant)
滑音
(Ferrand, 2007)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖: Frication
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖 (spectrogram): s vs. sh
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): Aspiration
Release of
air stoppage
頻率 (Frequency)
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): Formant Transition
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): 鼻音
(Ferrand, 2007)
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): 有聲 vs. 無聲
Voice bar
(Ferrand, 2007)
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
聲譜圖(spectrogram): 字首子音比較
(Perkins & Kent, 1986)
N: noise segment
M: nasal murmur
T: formant transition
SS: steady state for a vowel
頻率 (Frequency)
時間 (Time)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
Frequency Bands for Speech Perception
• 125 Hz + ½ octave:
 fundamental voice pitch of male adults
• 250 Hz + ½ octave:
 fundamental voice pitch of female adults & children
 nasal murmur
 1st formants of high vowels
 prosody
• 500 Hz + ½ octave:
 manner of articulation
 prosody (harmonics)
 1st formant transitions of semi-vowels & liquids (l, r)
• 1000 Hz + ½ octave:
 manner of articulation
 2nd formants of nasals and back & central vowels
 noise bursts of plosives
 2nd formant transitions of semi-vowels
(Ling, 2002)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
Frequency Bands for Speech Perception
(continued)
• 2000 Hz + ½ octave:
 place of articulation
 manner of articulation
 2nd formant transitions of front vowels
 noise burst of most plosives and affricates (ch, dg)
 Turbulent noise of fricatives (th, sh)
 3rd formant transitions for l & r
• 4000 Hz + ½ octave:
 place of articulation
 3rd formants for most vowels
 noise bursts of plosives and affricates
 turbulent noise of all fricatives
• 8000 Hz + ½ octave:
 turbulent noise of all fricatives & affricates
(Ling, 2002)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
The Ling Six/Seven Sound Test
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K
8K
0
10
20
30
i
s
40
u
50
m
i
a
u
a
sh
60
• Six/seven sounds (i, a, u, sh, s, m, au) to test the listener’s ability to detect all speech sounds.
• Stand 2 meters (max) behind the listener & ask him to clap hands when he hears a sound.
• 4 levels of auditory reception: detection, discrimination, identification, comprehension
(Ling & Ling, 1978)
(E. Lin)
語音的聲學分析
頻譜峰(formant frequency)和聲腔(vocal tract)的關係
• Length: vocal tract lengthening
lowers all formants
• Lip rounding:
-lip rounding lowers all formants
• Anterior oral constriction:
-elevation of the front of the tongue
lowers F1 & raises F2
• Posterior oral constriction:
-elevation of the posterior part of
the tongue lowers F2
• Pharyngeal constriction:
-narrowing pharynx raises F1
(Baken, 1987)
• Tongue:
-more forward movement raises F2
(Ferrand, 2007)
(E. Lin)
應用範例
Speech/Articulation Rate
時域圖
(Time waveform)
聲譜圖
(Spectrogram)
(Walker & Lin, 2006)
(E. Lin)
應用範例
Pitch Trace
(Walker & Lin, 2006)
(E. Lin)
應用範例
Biofeedback
kL p
kL
(Reid & Lin, 2006)
(E. Lin)
應用範例
Vowel Space
3000
Correct productions
Incorrect Productions
2500
/i/
/i/
2000
/a/
F2
(Hz)
/a/
/u/
1500
/u/
1000
200
400
600
F1 (Hz)
800
1000
1200
(Reid & Lin, 2006)
(E. Lin)
應用範例
Spectral Moment
• Moment 1 (M1):
mean
• M2: variance
• M3: skewness
• M4: kurtosis
5000
/d/
4000
Correct Productions
Incorrect Productions
/g/
/dg/
/v/
3000
/t/
/th/
/thi/
/s/
M2
/g/
2000
/f/
/ch/
/k/
/v/
1000
0
/b/
/z/
/s/
/sh/
/k/
/t/ /p/ /b/
/dg/
/n/
/p/
/m/
/d/
/n//z/
0
(Reid & Lin, 2006)
1000
M1
2000
3000
4000
(E. Lin)
參考文獻
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
徐道昌﹐吳香梅﹐鍾玉梅(1990). 語言治療學。 台北﹕ 大學圖書出版社。
Ansel, B. M. & Kent, R. D. (1992). Acoustic-Phonetic Contrasts and Intelligibility
in the Dysarthria Associated with Mixed Cerebral Palsy. Journal of Speech and
Hearing Research, 35, 296-308.
Baken, R. J. (1987). Clinical Measurement of Speech and Voice. Austin, TX: Proed.
Bernthal, J. E. & Bankson, N. W. (1988). Articulation and Phonological
Disorders, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ferrand, C. T. (2007). Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and
Clinical Practice, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Gustus, C. H., Perigoe, C., Harper, J., & Moriarty, K. L. (2006). Speech Therapy
for the Hearing Impaired: Yesterday, Today, & Tomorrow. Presentation (short
course) at the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association's 2006 Annual
Convention, Miami, Florida, USA, November 16-18, 2006.
Jeng, J.-Y. (2006). The Acoustic Spectral Characteristics of Retroflexed Fricatives
and Affricates in Taiwan Mandarin. 國立臺南大學人文研究學報 40(1), 27-48.
Jeng, J.-Y., Weismer, G., & Kent, R. D. (2006). Production and perception of
mandarin tone in adults with cerebral palsy. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 20
(1), 67-87.
Ling, D. (1989). Foundations of Spoken Language for Hearing-Impaired
Children. Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.
Ling, D. (2002). Speech and the Hearing-Impaired Child: Theory and Practice
(2nd edition). Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.
(E. Lin)
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Ling, D. & Ling, A. H. (1978). Aural Habilitation: The Foundations of Verbal
Learning in Hearing-Impaired Children. Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell
Association for the Deaf.
Liu, H.-M., Tsao F-M., & Kuhl P. K. (2005). The effect of reduced vowel working
space on speech intelligibility in Mandarin-speaking young adults with cerebral
palsy. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 117, 3879-3889.
Lyu, R.-Y., Liang, M.-S., & Chiang, Y.-C. (2004). Toward Constructing a
Multilingual Speech Corpus for Taiwanese (Min-nan), Hakka, and Mandarin.
Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing, 9 (2), 1-12.
Magnuson, T. & Blomberg, M. (2000). Acoustic Analysis of Dysarthric Speech with
Some Implications for Automatic Speech Recognition. TMH-QPSR, 1, 19-29.
Milisen, R. (1971). The Incidence of Speech Disorders. In L. E. Travis (Ed.),
Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, chap. 24.
Perkins, W. H. & Kent, R. D. (1986). Functional Anatomy of Speech, Language,
and Hearing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Reid, E. & Lin, E. (2006) Effect of Visual Feedback on Speech Training in HearingImpaired Children. Presentation (poster) at the American Speech-Language and
Hearing Association's 2006 Annual Convention, Miami, Florida, USA, November
16-18, 2006.
Shriberg, L. D. (1993). Four New Speech and Prosody-Voice Measures for Genetics
Research and Other Studies in Developmental Phonological Disorders. Journal of
Speech-Language and Hearing Research, 36, 105-140.
Shriberg, L. D., Austin, D., Lewis, B. A., McSweeny, J. L., & Wilson, D. L. (1997).
The Speech Disorders Classification System (SDCS): Extensions and Lifespan
Reference Data. Journal of Speech-Language and Hearing Research, 40, 723-740.
(E. Lin)
20.
21.
22.
Titze, I. R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Walker, J. and Lin, E. (2006). Acoustic Analysis in Foreign Accent Syndrome: A
Case Study. Presentation (poster) at the American Speech-Language and Hearing
Association's 2006 Annual Convention, Miami, Florida, USA, November 16-18,
2006.
Zemlin, W. R. (1988). Speech and Hearing Science: Anatomy & Physiology, 3rd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
(E. Lin)
Source of Graph
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dickson, D. R. & Maue-Dickson, W. (1996). Anatomical and
Physiological Bases of Speech. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Perkins, W. H. & Kent, R. D. (1986). Functional Anatomy of
Speech, Language, and Hearing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Casper, J. K. & Colton, R. H. (1998). Clinical Manual for
Laryngectomy and Head/Neck Cancer Rehabilitation. San Diego:
Singular Publishing Group.
Eyespeak version 2.1. Visual Pronunciation Software Ltd.
www.eyespeak.info
Wolfram, W. & Johnson, R. (1982). Phonological Analysis: Focus
on American English. Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
(E. Lin)