Matakuliah
Tahun
: L0244 – Psikologi Kepemimpinan
: 2010
Leadership Traits
Pertemuan 13 & 14
Looking at Leadership Through
Several Lenses
• Studying only leaders provides just a partial view of the
leadership process.
• Leadership depends on several factors, including the
situation and the followers, not just the leader’s
qualities.
• Leadership is more than just the kind of person the
leader is or the things the leader does.
• The clearest picture of the leadership process occurs
only when you use all three lenses to understand it.
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The Interactional Framework for
Analyzing Leadership
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The Interactional Framework for
Analyzing Leadership (continued)
• Depicts leadership as a function of three elements:
– The leader
– The followers
– The situation
• A particular leadership situation scenario can be
examined using each level of analysis separately.
– Examining interactions in the area of overlaps can lead to better
understanding.
• Leadership is the result of complex interactions among
the leader, the followers, and the situation.
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The Interactional Framework for
Analyzing Leadership (continued)
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory describes two kinds of
relationships that occur among leaders and followers:
– In-group members
– Out-group members
• LMX theory has broadened to include entire continuum of
relationships that leaders may have with members.
• The theory looks at the nature of the relationship between
the leader and the followers.
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The Leader
• Individual aspects of the leadership equation:
• Unique personal history
– Interests
– Character traits
– Motivation
• Effective leaders differ from their followers, and from
ineffective leaders on elements such as:
– Personality traits, cognitive abilities
– Skills, values
• Another way personality can affect leadership is through
temperament.
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The Leader (continued)
• Leaders appointed by superiors may have less
credibility and may get less loyalty.
• Leaders elected or emerging by consensus from ranks
of followers are seen as more effective.
• A leader’s experience or history in a particular
organization is usually important to her or his
effectiveness.
• The extent of follower participation in leader’s
selection may affect a leader’s legitimacy.
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The Followers
• Certain aspects of followers affect the leadership
process:
–
–
–
–
–
Expectations
Personality traits
Maturity levels
Levels of competence
Motivation
• Workers who share a leader’s goals and values will
be more motivated to do their work.
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The Followers (continued)
• The number of followers reporting to a leader can
have significant implications.
• Other relevant variables include:
– Follower’s trust in the leader.
– Follower’s confidence or lack thereof in leader’s interest
in their well-being.
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Changing Roles for Followers
• The leader-follower relationship is in a period of dynamic
change.
– Increased pressure to function with reduced resources.
– Trend toward greater power sharing and decentralized
authority in organizations.
– Increase in complex problems and rapid changes.
• Followers can become much more proactive in their stance
toward organizational problems.
• Followers can become better skilled at “influencing
upward,” flexible and open to opportunities.
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The Situation
• Leadership often makes sense
only in the context of how the
leader and followers interact
in a given situation.
• The situation may be the most
ambiguous aspect of the
leadership framework.
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“You’ve got to give loyalty down,
if you want loyalty up.”
~ Donald T. Regan,
Former CEO and White House
chief of staff
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Are Good Women Leaders
Hard to Find?
• Women are taking on leadership roles in greater
numbers than ever before.
• Problems still exist that constrain the opportunity
for capable women to rise to the highest leadership
roles in organizations.
• Research shows that there are no statistically
significant differences between men’s and women’s
leadership styles.
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Are Good Women Leaders
Hard to Find? (continued)
• Differences that were found:
– Women had significantly lower well-being scores.
– Women’s commitment to the organizations they worked
for was more guarded than that of their male
counterparts.
– Women were more likely to be willing to take career risks
by going to new areas of the company where women had
not been before.
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Research on Second-Generation
Managerial Women
• Research suggests that many women appear to be
succeeding because of characteristics originally considered
too feminine for effective leadership.
• Tend to use interactive leadership, based on
– Enhancing others’ self-worth.
– The belief that the best performance results out of
satisfaction at work and higher sense of self-worth.
– Style developed due to women’s socialization experiences
and career paths.
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The Shift Toward More
Women Leaders
• Factors that explain the shift toward more women
leaders:
–
–
–
–
Women themselves have changed.
Leadership roles have changed.
Organizational practices have changed.
Culture has changed.
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Leadership and Management Revisited
Leaders
Managers
Innovate
Administer
Develop
Maintain
Inspire
Control
Long-term view
Short-term view
Ask what and why
Ask how and when
Originate
Initiate
Challenge the status quo
Accept the status quo
Do the right things
Do things right
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Leader-Follower-Situation
Interactions
• Leaders create environments where follower’s innovations and
creative contributions are welcome.
• Leaders encourage growth and development in their followers
beyond the scope of the job.
• Leaders are generally more interested in the big picture of
followers’ work than managers.
• Leaders motivate followers through more personal and intangible
factors.
• Leaders redefine the parameters of tasks and responsibilities.
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Manager-Follower-Situation
Interactions
• Managers are more likely to emphasize routinization and
control of follower’s behavior.
• Managers tend to assess followers’ performance in terms of
explicit, fairly specific job descriptions.
• Managers motivate followers more with extrinsic, even
contractual consequences.
• Managers tend to accept the definitions of situations
presented to them.
• Managers are likely to affect change officially, through
control tactics.
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Leadership and Management as Solutions
to Different Kinds of Problems
• Heifetz offers that we often face challenges for which the
problem-solving resources already exist.
– Technical problems – Though complex, there are expert
solutions or experts available to solve them.
– Adaptive problems – They can only be solved by changing the
system itself.
• Adaptive problems involve people’s values.
• Adaptive leadership: Finding solutions requires the active
engagement of people’s hearts and minds, not just the leader’s.
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Leadership and Management as Solutions to
Different Kinds of Problems (continued)
• A challenge is wholly or mostly adaptive in nature:
– When people’s hearts and minds need to change.
– By a process of elimination.
– If there is continuing conflict among people struggling with
the challenge.
– A crisis may be a reflection of an underlying or
unrecognized adaptive problem.
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What’s the work?
Who does the work?
Technical
Applying current knowhow
Authorities
Adaptive
Discovering new ways
The people facing the
challenge
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A Final Word
• Fairholm offers that an organization needs two
different kinds of people at the helm: good leaders
and good managers.
• Kotter suggests the development of leadermanagers.
– May be particularly important with regard to
developing the talents of younger leader–managers.
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There is no Simple Recipe for
Effective Leadership
• Leadership must always be assessed in the context of the
leader, the followers, and the situation:
– A leader may need to respond to various followers
differently in the same situation.
– A leader may need to respond to the same follower
differently in different situations.
– Followers may respond to various leaders quite differently.
– Followers may respond to each other differently with
different leaders.
– Two leaders may have different perceptions of the same
followers or situations.
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Drawing Lessons From Experience
• The right behavior in one situation is not necessarily the
right behavior in another situation.
• Though unable to agree on the one best behavior in a
given situation, agreement can exist on some clearly
inappropriate behaviors.
• Saying that the right behavior for a leader depends on
the situation differs from saying it does not matter what
the leader does.
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Summary
• Leadership involves dynamic interaction between leaders
and followers in a particular situation.
• Study of leadership must include the followers and the
situation.
• The interactive nature of leader-followers-situation can help
us better understand
– The changing nature of the leader-follower relationship.
– The increasingly greater complexity of situations leaders and
followers face.
• Good leadership can be enhanced by greater awareness of
factors influencing the leadership process.
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Reference
•
Hughes., Ginnett., & Curpy. (2009). Leadership: Enhancing
The Lesson of Experience. 6 eds. McGraw-Hill. Boston.
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