Understanding,
and Improving,
How Children Use Maps
Kim A. Kastens
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
of Columbia University
Teachers College
19 September 2005
from Kastens, K. A., Bonatti, E., Caress, D., Carrara, G., Dauteuil, O., Frueh-Green, G., Ligi, M. and Tartarotti, P.,
2000. The Vema Transverse Ridge (Central Atlantic). Marine Geophysical Research.
Knowing how to use a map is important for many jobs and
careers.
Knowing how to use a map is
important for everyone who
wants to be able to travel to new
places.
But for many people,
including many adults,
using a map to figure out
where they are is very hard.
Why is this so hard?
And what can we do to help
people learn this skill?
Cartoon from: http://www.toothpastefordinner.com
Today’s talk:
• “Where are We?” software & curriculum
• Generalized case: translation from
reality to representation
• Curriculum analysis: what’s not being
taught
• Field-based map skills project: what
errors do children make with maps?
A Tool for Understanding and Improving how
Children Learn to Use Maps
Generalization:
a powerful use of
learning technology
Information
received with
senses
Translation
Representation
on paper
(or screen)
Map-using is one case of a broader class of skills
that involve translating from some perceived
aspect of reality to a paper representation.
Heard music
Musical notation
Perceived situation
Mathematical
representation
Information
received with
senses
Translation
Representation
on paper
(or screen)
Technology’s Roles:
• set up numerous occasions where translation is
required, numerous occasions to learn by trying.
• Monitor and evaluate learner’s tries.
• Provide feedback about quality of the learner’s
tries.
• Provide hints and suggestions when requested or
needed.
Curriculum Analysis:
What is and is not being taught
in elementary schools
with respect to map skills?
Frontispiece from
Geography for Life: The
National Geography
Standards
What’s wrong with
this picture?
Frontispiece from
Geography for Life: The
National Geography
Standards
What’s wrong with
this picture?
There is no school or
classroom or teacher in
this picture!
Method for studying children’s understanding of spatial representation of
place
(after Liben, 1997)
Production
Method
(after Frazee and Guardia, 1994)
Method for studying children’s understanding of spatial representation of
place
(after Liben, 1997)
Comprehension Method
Line
LineOrienteering
Orienteering
The student must follow a line drawn on her map. The
location of the markers is not shown on the map, but if the line
is followed correctly, the student will successfully intercept
them. The markers may be small collectible items which the
student can gather as she follows the line on the map, or the
markers can present pieces of information which must be
combined in a certain way to solve a puzzle or riddle.
(after Garrett, 1996)
(after Garrett, 1996)
Method for studying children’s understanding of spatial representation of
place
(after Liben, 1997)
Representational
Correspondence
method
(words-map)
Method for studying children’s understanding of spatial representation of
place
(after Liben, 1997)
Production
Comprehension
Representational Correspondence
Meta-Representational
Instant Map Skills (2004)
Instant map skills: US (2004)
Number of
student products
in each category:
Marvelous map activities (2002)
Neighborhoods and C ommunities (2002)
Reading Topographic Maps (2001)
Reading maps (2001)
C omic-Strip Map Skills (2001
Amazing Hands-on Map Activities (2001)
Maps,Globes,Graphs (2000)
The vast majority
of activities in
elementary
school map skills
materials are of
one type:
Representational
Correspondence
Great Map Games (2000)
Mega-fun map skills (1998)
Mapping Skills (1998)
Mapmaking with children (1998)
Great Map Mysteries (1997)
Orienteering and map games (1996)
Map Adventures (1995)
Teach with Topographic Maps (1994)
Maps and Navigation (1994)
Maps and Globes (1994)
Using maps in your community (1993)
Around and about (1993)
Mapworks (1992)
Map C oloring Book (1992)
Finding your way (1992)
Exploring maps (1992)
Beginning Map Skills (1990)
Geography Skills (1988)
Exploring our world (1988)
Map Skills for Today (1986)
Learning About Maps (1985)
0
10
20
30
40
Number of student products in category
50
60
70
Representational correspondence exercises are
necessary but not sufficient to learn to use a
map…
….. because they lack the crucial connection with
reality, the represented space.
Field-based investigations of
children’s map skills
The “Baseline” Group
The “Baseline” Group
SK
A
T
PLACE ("
CHILD
REPRESE
(ma
The “Baseline” Group
SK
A
T
PLACE ("
CHILD
REPRESE
(ma
The “Baseline” Group
“Put the blue sticker on the
map to show where you think
the blue flag is located….”
The “Baseline” Group
“Put the blue sticker on the
map to show where you think
the blue flag is located….”
2001-2002 and 2002-2003 classes (now 6th & 7th graders):
The “Baseline” Group
The “Baseline” Group
Category 1 Error: Sticker is centered on a map object that
resembles sticker in shape and size
Correct Answer
Type 1 Error
Category 2 Error: Sticker is placed on symbol for grass,
trees, or bushes; not on or adjacent to any built object
Type 2 Error
Correct Answer
Category 3b Error: Sticker should have been adjacent to a
road or path; placed instead on or adjacent to a structure
Correct
Answer
Type 3b
Error
Category 4a Error: Sticker should have been on structure;
placed on or adjacent to the wrong structure
Correct Answer
Type 4a Error
Type 4a Error
Category 5a Error: Sticker should be on structure; placed on
correct structure but outside of “correct” ring
Type 5a
Errors
Correct
Answers
Category 5b Error: Sticker should be adjacent to a road or
path; placed on correct path or road segment, but outside the
“correct” ring
Correct
Answer
5b Errors
2001-2002 and 2002-2003 classes (now 6th & 7th graders):
The “Baseline” Group
The “Baseline” Group
Correct location is on a wall.
Student stickers on the wrong building.
Student sticker on the grass.
Student sticker on trees or shrubs.
Good student stickers.
Percentage of stickers in each error category
Error Group
Error Number
Baselin e
1
1.3
Representational
2
14.7
Correspondence
3a & 3b
6.3
4a & 4b
11.3
Configur ational
Correspondence
5a & 5b
13.1
No Error
No Error
53.4
All Representational
Correspondence
All Configur ational
Correspondence
All Errors
1, 2, 3a, & 3b
20.9
4a, 4b, 5a, & 5b
22.9
1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4a,
4b, 5a, & 5b
46.6
2001-2002 and 2002-2003 classes (now 6th & 7th graders):
The “Baseline” Group
The “Baseline” Group
Result #1: Without
instruction, many 4th
graders (and some
adults) find it difficult to
accurately locate a realworld object onto a map.
The “Explaining” Group
Same as “Baseline”:
SK
A
T
PLACE ("reality")
CHILD
REPRESENTATION
(map)
Dependent
Variable
The “Explaining” Group
Same as “Baseline”:
Different:
“After you put one of the
stickers on the map, write
down what clues you used to
decide where to put the
sticker…”
SK
A
T
PLACE ("reality")
CHILD
REPRESENTATION
(map)
Dependent
Variable
The “Explaining” Group
The “Explaining” Group
Result #2:
Children who
explained their
reasoning did
better than
those who did
not.
Baseline
Explaining
Percentage of stickers in each error category
Error
Error Group
Baselin e
Reflecting
Number
No Error
No Error
53.4
67.1
All
1, 2, 3a, &
Representational
20.9
10.7
3b
Correspondence
All
4a, 4b, 5a,
Configur ational
22.9
22.1
& 5b
Correspondence
Result #3:
Among the “explaining”
students, we see:
• the explanation are
accurate descriptions of
reality,
• there are many
explanations that are
insufficient to pinpoint the
sticker,
• there are many sticker
placements that are
wrong, but wrong in a
way that is consistent with
the corresponding
explanation.
Working hypothesis: the hard part about using a map in
the real world lies in gathering the relevant information
from the environment.
Difficult
Not so difficult
The “Verbal Description” Group
Same as “Baseline” and “Explaining”:
The “Verbal Description” Group
Same as Baseline and Explaining:
Different:
Verbal description read aloud in
the classroom.
“ The orange sticker is on the mansion.
It’s on a corner of the mansion.
It’s on the corner closest to the path that
leads to the pond.”
2004-2005 class (now 4th graders):
The “Verbal Description” Group
Verbal description:
• The orange sticker is
on the mansion.
• It’s on a corner of the
mansion.
• It’s on the corner
closest to the path that
leads to the pond.
Exactly sufficient information,
No more, no less.
Result #4: The children who acquired information about the sticker
position from a verbal description placed the stickers very accurately onto
the map.
Baseline
Explaining
Verbal Description
Percentage of stickers in each error category
Error
Error Group
Baselin e
Reflecting
Number
No Error
No Error
53.4
67.1
All
1, 2, 3a, &
Representational
20.9
10.7
3b
Correspondence
All
4a, 4b, 5a,
Configur ational
22.9
22.1
& 5b
Correspondence
Verbal
Description
86.4
4.3
9.3
This supports our working hypothesis: the map itself is
not that hard for children to work with; the hard part is
identifying, gathering, and combining the relevant
information from the environment.
Difficult
Not so difficult
Representational
Correspondence
method
Being able to translate
from words to map
and vice versa doesn’t
mean a child can use
a map competently
within the represented
space.
Recap
• “Where are We?” curriculum & software are designed to help
children learn to “translate” from reality to map and vice
versa.
• Translating from perceived reality to a representation and
vice versa is a powerful application of instructional
technology.
• Most map-skills curriculum materials under-emphasize
making connections between maps and real world
• Many children have difficulty locating themselves or a real
world object on a realistically-complex map.
• Metacognition improves children’s performance on a real
world map-skills task.
• The difficulty in map use lies in gathering task-relevant
information from the represented space, not in positioning
information from one’s mental model onto the map.
• Ability to translate from a verbal representation to a map