Mata kuliah : A0012 – Manajemen Umum
Tahun
: 2010
Session 11
MANAGERIAL CONTROL
Learning Objectives
• After studying Chapter 16, you will know:
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why companies develop control systems for employees
how to design a basic bureaucratic control system
the purpose for using budgets as a control device
how to interpret financial ratios and other financial controls
the procedures for implementing effective control systems
the different ways that market control mechanisms are used by organizations
how clan control can be approached in an empowered organization
Outline Materi
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Bina Nusantara
Bureaucratic Control Systems
The Other Controls: Markets and Clans
Introduction
• Control
– process of measuring progress toward planned performance and applying corrective measures
to ensure that performance is in line with managers’ objectives
– planning and controlling are interdependent
• effective planning facilitates control
• control facilitates planning
– three broad strategies for organizational control
• bureaucratic - use of rules, regulations, and formal authority
• market - use of pricing mechanisms to regulate activities
• clan - employees share organizational values and act in accordance with
them
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• The control cycle
Bureaucratic Control Systems
– Step 1: Setting performance standards
• standard - expected performance for a given goal
– target that establishes a desired performance level, motivates performance, and serves as a benchmark
against which actual performance is assessed
– can be set for any activity
– typically is derived from job requirements
– set with respect to quantity, quality, time, and cost
– Step 2: Measuring performance
• performance data obtained from three sources
– written reports
– oral reports
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personal observation
Bureaucratic Control Systems (cont.)
• The control cycle (cont.)
– Step 3: Comparing performance with the standard
• evaluation of the performance
• for some activities, small deviations from the standard are acceptable
– for other activities, a slight deviation may be serious
– principle of exception - control is enhanced by concentrating on the significant deviations from the
standard
» only exceptional cases require corrective action
– Step 4: Taking corrective action
• ensures that operations are adjusted where necessary
• type of corrective action depends on the nature of the problem
– specialist control
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operator control
The Control Process
Set
performance
standards
Measure
performance
Take
corrective
action
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Compare
Determine
deviation
Standards
Within
limits
No
Yes
Continue
work
progress
Bureaucratic Control Systems (cont.)
• Approaches to bureaucratic control
– Feedforward (preliminary) control - control process used before operations begin
• future oriented
• prevent problems before they occur
• includes policies, procedures, and rules
– Concurrent control - control process used while plans are being carried out
• the heart of any control system
• includes directing, monitoring, and fine-tuning activities as they are
performed
• advances in information technology have created powerful concurrent
controls
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Bureaucratic Control Systems (cont.)
• Approaches to bureaucratic control (cont.)
– Feedback control - control that focuses on the use of information about previous results to
correct deviations from the acceptable standard
• implies that performance data were gathered and analyzed
• results used to make corrections
• timing is an important aspect of feedback control
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Bureaucratic Control Systems (cont.)
• Management audits
– evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of various systems within an organization
– External audit - evaluation conducted by one organization, such as a CPA firm, on another
• may conduct external audit of a competitor for strategic decision-making
purposes
• useful for feedback and feedforward control
– Internal audit - periodic assessment of a company’s own planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling processes
• assess what the company has done for itself and its customers
• reviews the company’s past, present, and future
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Budgetary control (cont.)
– Fundamental budgetary considerations (cont.)
• budgetary control proceeds through several stages
– establishing expectancies - starts with the broad company plan and sales estimates
» ends with budget approval and publication
– budgetary operations - find out what is being accomplished and compare the results with
expectancies
– taking corrective action (if necessary)
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Budgetary control
– most widely recognized and commonly used method of managerial control
– budgeting - process of investigating what is being done and comparing the results with the
corresponding budget data
• used to verify accomplishments or remedy differences
– Fundamental budgetary considerations - begin with an estimate of sales and expected
income
• budgeting information is supplied to the entire company or any of its
units
• not confined to financial matters
• budgets prepared for a definite time period
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Accounting audits
– procedures used to verify accounting reports and statements
– performed by an outside firm of public accountants
• Activity-based costing (ABC)
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cost accounting method that identifies streams of activity
employees break down what they do to define basic activities
total expenses computed by traditional accounting
total amounts spread over the activities according to time spent on each
provides an accurate picture of how costs should be charged
highlights where wasted activities are occurring
Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Financial controls
– Balance sheet - report that shows the financial picture of a company at a given time
• itemizes:
– assets - the values of various items the corporation owns
– liabilities - the amounts the corporation owes to various creditors
– stockholders’ equity - amount accruing the corporation’s owners
• shows trends over time
Assets
= Liabilities
+ Stockholders’ equity
• gives managers
insight
into overall performance
• identifies areas which require adjustments
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Financial controls (cont.)
– Profit and loss statement - itemized financial statement of the income and expenses of a
company’s operations
• comparisons of profits and losses can identify trouble areas
• a common control for the enterprise as a whole
– may be used at the division and department level
– Financial ratios - indicate possible strengths and weaknesses
• calculated from selected items on the profit and loss statement and the
balance sheet
• Liquidity ratios - indicate the ability to pay short-term debts
– current ratio - indicates the extent to which short-term assets can decline and still be adequate to pay
short-term liabilities
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Financial controls (cont.)
– Financial ratios (cont.)
• Leverage ratios - show the relative amount of funds in the business
supplied by creditors and shareholders
– debt-equity ratio - indicates the company’s ability to meet its long-term financial obligations
• Profitability ratios - indicate management’s ability to generate a financial
return on sales or investment
– return on investment (ROI) - ratio of profit to capital used
» rate of return from capital
– Using financial ratios - can have negative consequences
• management myopia - focus on short-term earnings and profits at the
expense of longer-term strategic obligations
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Downside of bureaucratic control
– Rigid bureaucratic behavior - acting in ways that make one look good on the control system’s
measures
• may result in rigid, inflexible behavior geared toward doing only what the
system requires
– Tactical behavior - behavior aimed at “beating the system”
• manipulate or falsify performance data
• concern about individual rather than organizational performance
– Resistance to control - people don’t like being accountable
• control system can change expertise and power structures
• control system can change the social structure
• control system may be perceived as an invasion of privacy
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Designing effective control systems
– Establish valid performance standards - most effective standards expressed in quantitative
terms
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measures are not easily faked or sabotaged
system incorporates all important aspects of performance
too many measures create overcontrol and employee resistance
have stated tolerance ranges
– Provide adequate information - employees must understand the importance and nature of the
control system
• people need feedback about performance
– enables them to correct deviations from the standards
• information should be accessible
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Bureaucratic Control System (cont.)
• Designing effective control systems (cont.)
– Ensure acceptability to employees - more likely to accept systems that have useful
performance standards
• overcontrol is not an issue
• believe the standards are possible to achieve
• emphasize positive behavior rather than focusing on controlling negative
behavior alone
• standards are established participatively
– Use multiple approaches
• include both financial and nonfinancial performance goals
• incorporate aspects of feedforward, concurrent, and feedback control
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The Other Controls: Markets And Clans
• Market control
– involves the use of economic forces and the pricing mechanisms that accompany them
– where output from any organizational unit has value to others, a price can be negotiated for its
exchange
– as a market for these transactions becomes established:
• price becomes an indicator of the value of the product or service
• price competition effectively controls performance
– Market controls at the corporate level
• used to regulate independent business units
• business units treated as competing profit centers
• profit and loss data used to evaluate performance
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The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Market control
– Market controls at the business unit level
• regulates exchange among departments and functions
• transfer price - price charged by one unit in the organization for a product
or service that it supplies to another unit of the same organization
• provide natural incentives to keep costs down
– Market controls at the individual level
• market rate is a good indicator of an employee’s potential worth
• provide a natural incentive for employees to enhance their skills
• boards of directors use market controls to manage CEOs
– incentives on top of base salary
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The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control: the role of empowerment and culture
– bureaucratic and market controls are no longer sufficient because:
• employees’ jobs have changed
• the nature of management has changed
• the employment relationship has changed
– empowerment - has become a necessary aspect of a manager’s repertoire of control
• does not mean giving up control
– clan control - create relationships built on mutual respect
• encourage each individual to take responsibility for her/his job
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The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Understanding culture’s role in control
• organization culture - set of important assumptions about the
organization and its goals and practices that members of the company share
– strong culture - everyone understands and believes in the firms’ goals, priorities, and practices
– weak culture - different people hold different values
» confusion about corporate goals
– Diagnosing culture - clues about culture
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corporate mission statements and official goals
business practices
symbols, rites and ceremonies
the stories people tell
The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Diagnosing culture (cont.)
– general cultures can be categorized
• Group Culture
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Dominant Attribute: cohesiveness, participation, teamwork, sense of family
Leadership Style: mentor, facilitator, parent-figure
Bonding: loyalty, tradition, interpersonal cohesion
Strategic Emphasis: toward developing human resources, commitment, and morale
The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Diagnosing culture (cont.)
• Adhocracy
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Dominant Attribute: entrepreneurship, creativity, adaptability, dynamism
Leadership Style: innovator, entrepreneur, risk taker
Bonding: flexibility, risk, entrepreneur
Strategic Emphasis: toward innovation, growth, new resources
The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Diagnosing culture (cont.)
• Hierarchy
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Dominant Attribute: order, rules and regulations, uniformity, efficiency
Leadership Style: coordinator, organizer, administrator
Bonding: rules, policies and procedures, clear expectations
Strategic Emphasis: toward stability, predictability, smooth
The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Diagnosing culture (cont.)
• Rational
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Dominant Attribute: goal achievement, environment exchange, competitiveness
Leadership Style: production and achievement-oriented, decisive
Bonding: goal orientation, production, competition
Strategic Emphasis: toward competitive advantage and market superiority
The Other Controls: Markets And Clans (cont.)
• Clan control (cont.)
– Managing culture to reinforce clan control
• approaches to managing culture
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corporate leadership should espouse lofty ideals and visions for the company
executives must be attentive to the details of daily affairs
top management must behave appropriately during moments of truth when hard choices have to be made
top management must celebrate and reward those who exemplify the new values
• clan control is a “double edged sword”
– takes a long time to develop and even longer to change
– employees must unlearn old values and embrace the new
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